$5.00
ABOUT THE PAMPHLET

The increasing tensions and unrest we arc witnessing in America arc not due
to “hate-filled speech” against the government as is popularly proclaimed today,
but to a growing tyranny resulting from a government that is no longer account­
able to the individual people it governs. Unfunded mandates, expropriation of
private property because of wetlands or endangered species, punitive public inter­
est laws, the locking up of western federal lands, and others arc not only unneces­
sarily costing this nation up to $1.6 trillion annually, but are tyrannizing Amer­
icans. Filly-two percent of our American citizens now say they are afraid of our
federal government. While the strife and unrest appear to be the result of our
nation’s increasing complexity and need to protect the environment, they are, in
fact, the result of the violation of the protections our Founders built into the U.S.
Constitution.
Whether by design or ignorance, the very powerful environmental and public
interests lobbies have begun to reverse our Founder’s intent for the Constitution
back to a feudal/ruler structure from which they had fought the Revolutionary War
to gain freedom. Such a top-down form of governance, our Founders claimed,
always produces tyranny. Using the Founder’s own words, this pamphlet details
why the protections intended within the U.S. Constitution arc as important today
as they were when this incredible document written. It reviews Supreme Court
decisions that lead to the problems we have today, and the recent gradual return
by the Court to the original intent of our Founders. Finally, it lays out an approach
that will keep liberty alive as well as protect our environment.
If the trend back to a feudal/ruler government is not reversed, America is in
much greater danger of rolling back over 200 years of freedom than it is in rolling
back 25 years of environmental protection. We clearly arc choosing between free­
dom or feudalism.
A bout

the

A uthor

Dr. Michael S. Coffman received his B.S. in Forestry and M.S.

in Biology at Northern Arizona Univ­

ersity at Flagstaff, and his Ph.D. in Forest Science at the University of Idaho at Moscow in 1966,
1967, and 1970 respectively. Since then he has become a respected scientist and ecologist who has
been involved in ecosystem research for over twenty years in both academia and industry. During
his long career, Dr Coffman became intimately involved in such national and international issues as
acid rain, global climate change, wetlands, cumulative effects and biological diversity.
Dr. Coffman is currently President of Environmental Perspectives, Inc., where he provides pro­
fessional guidance and training in defining environmental problems and conflicts so that appropriate
solutions can be developed within the framework of the U.S. Constitution. He played a key role in
stopping the ratification of the United Nations Biodiversity Treaty in the U.S. Senate by revealing the
unbelievable agenda behind the treaty and the role of Non Governmental Organizations
environmental groups) in advancing this agenda. His latest book, Saviors of the Earth? The Politics
and Religion o f Environmentalism, exposes the incredible environmentalist agenda.____________

 T H E D E C L IN E O F

IN A M E R IC A
T he D estruction of O ur Founder ’s
Intent for the U.S. Constitution

hy

M ic h a e l S . C o ff m a n , P h .D .
E n v ir o n m e n ta l P e r sp e c tiv e s, In c.

©Copyright 1996

T he

In Cooperation with
S ustainable Freedom Coalition

(Formerly tlie Sustainable Development Coalition)

  

In 

 

THE DECLINE OF PROPERTY RIGHTS
AND FREEDOM IN AMERICA
T he D estruction of O ur Founder ’s I ntent
for the U.S. Constitution

M ic h a e l S . C o ffm a n , P h .D .
E n v ir o n m e n t a l P e r s p e c t iv e s I n c o r p o r a te d
1 2 2 9 B r o a d w a y S u it e 3 1 3
B a n g o r , M a in e 0 4 4 0 1
(2 0 7 ) 9 4 5 - 9 8 7 8

P u b lis h e d b y
M a in e C o n s e r v a t io n R ig h t s I n s t it u t e
B ox 2 2 0
L u b e c , M a in e 0 4 6 5 2
(2 0 7 ) 7 3 3 - 5 5 9 3

E n v ir o n m e n t a l P e r s p e c t iv e s , I n c o r p o r a te d
C opyright, 1996
No part o f this publication may be reproduced or sold without written
permission fromEnvironmcntal Perspectives, Inc.

 CONTENTS

Constitutional Intent of Property R ig h ts....................................................2
The Importance o f Natural L a w ............................................................ 2
Our Founder’s Fear of Feudalism ...................................................... 4
Feudalism and F ederalism .....................................................................6
The Inevitability of Tyranny ................................................................ 9
Protection Against T y ran n y ................................................................. 11
Benefits o f the People’s Law and Private P roperty.......................... 12
Property Rights and Environmental Degradation ...................
16
Limits of Property Rights and the Public Good ..................................... 17
S la v ery .................................................................................................... 17
Common Law and N u isa n c e ...............................................................18
The Public Good .................................................................................. 20
Federal Land O w n e rsh ip ........................................................■........... 24
Development and Cumulative Effects ................................................... 27
Creating a Healthy E conom y.............................................................. 27
Who P a y s ? .............................................................................................28
Supreme Court Case History ...................................................................29
The Drift Towards a Fcudal/Rulcr Police S ta le ................................ 30
Return to Constitutional Intent...............................................
31
Summary o f A New feudalism in A m erica........................................... ...

 uby Ridge. Waco, right w ing m ilitias, property rights, wise use. con­
servatives and even Christian "fundamentalists" — A ll o f these en­
gender images o f activists, civil unrest, and people, frustrated with the
federal government in one form or another. The Clinton Adm inistration and
media often characterize these events or movements as involving right wing
extremists that hate their government and foment tragedies like the bombing o f
the federal building in Oklahoma City. Nothing could be further from the truth.
W hile many Americans may not agree w ith the beliefs o f some o f these
groups and people, why are so many mainstream Americans creating and jo in ­
ing groups affiliated with the property rights, wise use and conservative move­
ments? And why do so many more people feel that somehow they are disen­
franchised and no longer have control o f their own destiny? Most important
why do recent polls show that 52 percent o f us now fear our federal govern­
ment? There is a growing awareness that something is terribly wrong in Am er­
ica, hut most Americans are unsure o f what or why.
To the majority in suburban America what is happening in rural, natural re­
source based communities is at best baffling. M any suburbanites view the
complaints by. farmers, ranchers, and other rural citizens that depend on their
land for a livin g as nothing more than a bunch o f backwoods hicks lighting
any zoning or regulations they don't like. A fte r all, suburbanites are a people
who are used to liv in g w ith strong self-imposed zoning ordinances. They un­
derstand the necessity o f zoning to protect their properly values and quality o f
life and don't understand why their rural cousins are so upset. Little sympathy
is extended to landowners who lose value and use o f their property in order to
protect wetlands, bald eagles and aesthetics. These same suburbanites, on the
other hand, arc fed up w ith unfunded mandates and an avalanche o f expensive
federal regulations. Both groups o f citizens increasingly complain that federal
mandates and regulations are wasteful, substantively increase their taxes, re­
duce their freedoms, and are often ludicrous in their application. A ll this while
doing little to protect the environment or people.
Ironically, the division o f Americans into urban, suburban and rural classes
has little to do w ith the problem. Contrary to common perception, a l l Am er­
icans want to protect the environment. So why are these Americans so outrag­
ed? And why has that outrage only deepened w ith the passage o f lime? Over
and over again a grow ing number o f us assert the problem lies not w ith any
need for self-imposed zoning, comprehensive planning or other regulations to
protect the environment or workplace, but w ith a burcaucracy assuming pow<■ that >u r i icc* i a in < f i l l ocopl i< r > il i t *

R

  

(2

Pi'.rLlNir.OKPkOPl'KYYRIGHTSAND FK KK.noM IN A.MEUIOA

There is a growing awareness among Americans that they have become the
first unwitting victims of a neo-feudalism that is now spreading like wildfire
across America. These Americans are quick to remind us that the Revolution­
ary War we fought was to throw off the suffocating yoke of British feudal rule
of the Colonics. These Americans make the incredible claim that two hundred
years later a similar feudal oppression is being imposed — wrapped in the nob­
le cause of protecting the environment, workplace and lives for the benefit of
all! If they are correct, it portends enormous consequences for every American
regardless of where they live. Instead o f “rolling back 25 years o f environ­
mental progress” as asserted by President Clinton and other environmental
leaders, we are “rolling back 200 years of freedom.” We may be choosing bet­
ween freedom and feudalism.
To properly determine if these accusations have merit we must first under­
stand what is known as “natural law,” the nature of feudalism, and the critical
importance of property rights in avoiding the tragedy that feudal rule can im­
pose.

C onstitutional I ntent ok P uokeuty R ights
The Importance o f Natural Law
Approximately four hundred years ago, a philosophy called “enlighten­
ment” began to form in Europe and later spread to the British colonies in
America. Enlightenment was a term used to describe a trend ol lhought which
eventually formed the modern principles of democracy. Isaac Newton, Sir
William Blackstone, Thomas Locke and Thomas Jefferson were all part o f this
rational approach to social, political, economic and scicntilic questions.
The underlying principle of enlightenment was simple. Civilization is gov­
erned by certain natural laws. Violating these laws docs not break natures’s
physical laws, but only results in man breaking himself. To protect ourselves
from the evil consequences of many of these natural laws, God endowed man­
kind with certain unalienable natural rights. Sir William Blackstone was repeatedly quoted by our Founding Fathers on this subject:
“Man, considered as a creature, must necessarily be subject to the laws
of his Creator, for he is entirely a dependent being.... And, consequent­
ly, as man depends absolutely upon his Maker for everything, it is
necessaiy that he should in all points conform to his Maker’s will. This
will o f his Maker is called the law o f Nature. For as God, when he cre­
ated matter, and endued it with a principle of mobility, established cer­
tain rules for perpetual direction of that motion; so, when he created
man, and endued with free-will to conduct himself in all parts of life, he
laid down certain immutable laws of human nature.... These are the
I r 1 in Ti*t—
1 1 la” - '
J •I .
i > ‘ t r
. .-

1
;

 T his De d u n e

oe

P rurekty

rights and

Freedom

in

A merica

3

course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the glo­
be, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are o f any validity
i f contrary to this, and such of them as are valid derive all their force
and all of their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original.” 1
(Italics original)
“Those rights, then, which God and nature have established, and are
therefore called natural rights, such as are life and liberty, need not the
aid o f human laws to be more effectually invested in every man than
they arc; neither do they receive any additional strength when declared
by the municipal laws to be inviolate. On the contrary, no human legis­
lature has power to abridge or destroy them, unless the owner shall
him self commit some act that amounts to a forfeiture. (Italics added)
While these precepts are Christian in derivation, they have been proven
correct time and time again throughout history. Thomas Jefferson, in fact, is
noted as one of the foremost scholars o f cultures, civilizations and forms of
government. Jefferson, a deist not a Christian, called these natural laws “the
laws o f nature and of nature’s God” in the Declaration of Independence. For
any human legislature to violate these laws is to invite tyranny upon its citi­
zens.
By understanding these natural laws through education, science and tech­
nology, man can learn and exercise his own “unalienable rights” as a human
being. Only by understanding these laws and applying them correctly can man
experience health, life, liberty, possessions and happiness. Conversely, tyranny
is only able to rule by ignorance or force. Of these two mechanisms, ignorance
is by far the most efficient tool to empower tyranny and place people into
bondage.
Americans no longer receive a solid education in these natural laws and
their importance in providing the foundation and framework o f our Constitut­
ion. It should therefore be no surprise that citizens can no longer identify the
safe paths through the minefield of these natural laws. Increasing tyranny is the
result. Ignorance completes its task by allowing the perception that the Con­
stitution is an outdated document rather than a living instrument designed
to protect our fundam ental freedoms.
These natural laws are as inviolate as the law o f gravity. Just because we
cannot “sec” gravity doesn’t mean we will not plunge to our death if we step
off the edge o f a 1,000 foot cliff. Likewise, these natural laws can protect or
doom our freedoms, economic well-being, and happiness depending on how
they are used. O f the many natural laws and rights, property rights surfaces as
one o f the most important. It was from this perspective that both the Declar­
ation of Independence and the U.S. Constitution was framed.

 4

D e c l in e

of

P ro perty R ights

and

F reedom

in

A m erica

O u r F o u n d e r ’s F e a r o f F e u d a lis m
A s i f lo e m p h a s iz e f e u d a l e v il, th e D e c la r a t io n o f In d e p e n d e n c e s ta n d s in
re s o lu te d e fia n c e o f fe u d a l re p r e s s io n ; d e c la r in g th a t its f o r m o f t y r a n n y s h o u ld
n e v e r a g a in g a in a f o o t h o ld in t h is n a t io n o f fr e e m e n e n d o w e d w it h c e r t a in
u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s :

YVLi h o ld th e s e T r u th s lo b e s e lf-e v id e n t, t h a t u l l M e n o r e c r e a t e d e q u a l,
t h a t th e y a r e

e n d o w e d b y t h e i r C r e a t o r w it h

c e r t a in

u n a lie n a b le

R ig h t s , t h a t a m o n g th e s e a r e L if e , L ib e r t y , a n d th e P u r s u it o f H a p p i ­
n e s s . T h a t t o s e c u r e th e s e R ig h ts , G o v e r n m e n t s a r e i n s t it u t e d a m o n g
M e n , d e r iv in g t h e ir ju s t P o w e rs f r o m

th e C o n s e n t o f th e G o v e rn e d ,

t h a t w h e n e v e r a n y F o r m o f G o v e r n m e n t b e c o m e s d e s t r u c t iv e o f th e s e
E n d s , i t is t h e R i g h t o f t h e P e o p le t o a l t e r o r to a b o lis h it , a n d t o i n s t i ­
tu te n e w G o v e r n m e n t , la y i n g its F o u n d a t io n o n s u c h P r in c ip le s , a n d
o r g a n i z i n g it s P o w e r s in s u c h F o r m , a s t o th e m s h a ll s e e m m o s t l i k e l y
t o e ffe c t t h e i r S a fe ty a n d H a p p in e s s . ( B o l d a d d e d )

I t is s ig n if ic a n t th a t th e p h ra s e “ L if e , L ib e r t y , a n d th e P u r s u it o f H a p p in e s s ”
in th e D e c la r a t io n o f In d e p e n d e n c e o r i g i n a l l y w a s “ L i f e , L i b e r t y , a n d P r o p ­
e r t y . ” P r o p e r t y lo th e F o u n d e r s w a s th e f o u n d a t io n o f h a p p in e s s . T h e p h ra s e
w a s c h a n g e d o n ly b e c a u s e h a p p in e s s c o u ld a ls o c o m e f r o m a b u s in e s s v e n t u r e
th a t u s e d a n in t a n g ib le f o r m o f p r o p e r t y — c o n tr a c ts . A lt h o u g h p r o p e r t y w a s
s t ill a t th e h e a rt o f th is p h ra s e it w a s c h a n g e d to p e r m it it lo m e a n “ th e r i g h t lo
p u rs u e w h a t e v e r c o u rs e o f l i f e a p e rs o n m a y d e s ire in s e a rc h o f h a p p in e s s , as
lo n g as it d o e s n o t in v a d e th e in h e r e n t r ig h t s o f o t h e r s . " ' I n t e r e s t in g ly , th e o r i ­
g in a l p h ra s e i n c lu d in g th e w o r d p r o p e r ly is fo u n d in th e F i f t h a n d F o u r t e e n t h
A m e n d m e n t s lo th e U .S . C o n s t it u t io n .
S tr ip p e d to its b a re e s s e n c e , J a m e s M a d is o n d e f in e d th is t y p e o f t y r a n n y as
s im p ly th e a c c u m u la t io n o f a ll p o w e r s ,

" T h e a c c u m u la t io n o f a l l p o w e r s —
—

le g is la t iv e , e x e c u tiv e , a n d j u d i c i a r y

in th e s a m e h a n d s , w h e t h e r o f o n e , a f e w , o r m a n y , a n d w h e t h e r

h e r e d it a r y , s e lf - a p p o in t e d , o r e le c t iv e , m a y j u s t l y b e p r o n o u n c e d th e
v e r y d e f in it io n o f t y r a n n y . ” *

I f le f t to t h e ir o w n d e s ire s , m o s t p e o p le w i l l “ n a t u r a lly ” a c c u m u la t e p o w e r
to th e m s e lv e s to th e d e t r im e n t o f o th e rs . I f le f t u n c h e c k e d th is “ n a tu r a l” h u m a n
f a i l i n g in e v it a b ly le a d s t o w h a t T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n d e f in e d as th e f c u d a l / r u le r
fo r m o f g o v e r n m e n t. O u r F o u n d in g F a th e r s h a d f ir s t h a n d k n o w le d g e o f w h a t
th e y s p o k e . F e u d a lis m w o u ld n o t e n d in E u r o p e f o r a n o th e r s ix t y y e a rs f o l l o w ­
in g th e s ig n in g o f th e D e c la r a t io n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e in A m e r ic a . O u r F o u n d e r s
b o re p e rs o n a l w it n e s s to th e o p p r e s s io n r e s u lt in g f r o m a m ille n n iu m o f d a r k
f n J 1 ir .

 T

hk

P i - . r t.iN K i>k P k o p k k t v K u t h t . s a n d 3 ']< i;k d o m i n A ,M i-.K tr.\

5

A le x a n d e r H a m ilt o n n o te d th a t in f e u d a li s in ' c o m m o n p e o p le ( s e r f s ) a rc a t
th e m e r c y o f f e u d a t o r ie s ( S o v e r e ig n s a n d L o r d s w h o h a v e c o n t r o l o f th e la n d
—

th e r u l i n g e lit e ) , a n d v a s s a ls ( in t e r m e d ia r ie s w h o c a r r ie d o u t th e e d ic t s o f

th e r u l i n g f e u d a t o r ie s ) . T h e s e e lit e n o b i l i t y r e p r e s e n te d a v e r y s m a ll m i n o r i t y
w h o c o n t r o lle d th e s e r fs th a t m a d e u p th e v a s t m a j o r it y o f th e p o p u l a t io n . 5
T h e i r e l i t i s t p o w e r o v e r th e s e r f s w a s d e r iv e d t h r o u g h la n d c o n t r o l —

th e y

a lo n e c o u ld d ic t a t e w h o c o u ld u s e th e
la n d a n d h o w t h e y u s e d it. W it h o u t la n d

T IIK E E llD A iy K U L E R G O V E R N M E N T

lo g r o w c r o p s , c o n d u c t b u s in e s s o r h a v e
a h o m e th e se rf's c o u ld n o t s u r v iv e . T h e y
h a d lo d o th e b id d in g o f th o s e in a u t h o r ­
it y . S u c h g o d - l i k e p o w e r in e v it a b ly r e ­
s u lt e d

in

abuses o f a n y

“ g u a ra n te e d ”

p e rs o n a l r ig h t s . I t a lw a y s c r e a te d s e v e re
o p p r e s s io n .
O u r F o u n d e r s f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d th a t
any

fo rm

o f g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h

has a

p o w e r s t r u c t u r e r e s u lts in

Figure 1. In the generalized Feudal/Ruler

t h is f c u d a l / r u le r t y r a n n y . 6 I t is n o a c c i­

form of government, Jefferson and Madison

“ to p -d o w n ”

d e n t th a t b y s i m p ly c h a n g in g th e n a m e s
o f th e v a r io u s a d m in is t r a t iv e u n it s u s e d
in H a m ilt o n ’ s d e f i n i t i o n o f f e u d a lis m , it

note the majority ol the power resides with
the ruling elite and is passed through several
administrative levels to rule over the people.

is p o s s ib le lo id e n t i f y th e a p p lie d f o r m s

The people only have those freedoms grant­
ed by the elite and administrators. Regard­

o f c o m m u n is m ,

fa s c is m ,

less of their theoretical definitions, commu­

t o t a lit a r ia n is m —

e v e n th e p u r e f o r m o f

im p e r ia lis m ,

f e d e r a lis m . T h e y m a y d i f f e r in f o r m , b u t
n o t in s u b s ta n c e . T h e “ t o p - d o w n ” s t r u c t ­
u r e o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r it y is th e c o m ­
m o n d e n o m in a t o r . T h e y a ll h a v e c e r t a in

nism, fascism, monarchies, and totalitarian­
ism are merely variants of this model. Jeffer­
son and Madison note that tyranny is the
inevitable result of this form of government.
(From tv. Cleon Skousen. The Making ol America.
National Center lor Constitutional Studies, Washington,
DC. 1985. Pp 45.1

c h a r a c t e r is t ic s in c o m m o n :

1.

P o w e r is b y c o m p u ls io n , f o r c e , c o n q u e s t, o r le g is la t io n u s u r p a t io n .

2.

P o w e r is c o n c e n t r a t e d in th e o n e o r th e f e w .

3.

T h e p e o p le a re tr e a te d as “ s u b je c t s ” o f th e o n e o r f e w .

'The strictest definition of feudalism is a system of contractual relationships among the
members of the upper class in medieval Europe, in which lords made grants of fiefs (usually
property) to vassals in return for pledges of military and political service. In contrast, seignorialism.
(or manorialism, as it is called in Britain) was the system of relationships between lords and their
subjects, chiefly peasants or serfs, who were socially as well as politically their inferiors. The
incorporation of seignorialism into the definition of feudalism was done by Voltaire, who wanted to
illustrate the tyrannical results of feudalism during the French Revolution. Voltaire's use of the term
it

1

thi

r i

11 ’ r

T

t

t r

* u ' li

m l'

*■*

d

f

" is

 D e c l in e

6

of

P kopf .ktt K hjhts

an d

F khkdom

4.

T h e la n d is tr e a te d as th e “ r e a lm ” o f th e o n e o r fe w .

5.

T h e p e o p le lo s e t h e ir u n a lie n a b le r ig h ts .

in

A mekk ' a

6.

F re e d o m is n o t c o n s id e r e d th e a n s w e r to a n y t h in g .

7.

G o v e r n m e n t is b y th e r u le o f m e n r a th e r th a n th e r u le o f la w . ( i.e . a r b it r a r y

8.

T h e p e o p le a re s t r u c t u r e d in t o s o c ia l a n d /o r e c o n o m ic c la s s e s .

9.

T h e th ru s t o f g o v e r n m e n t is a lw a y s f r o m th e lo p d o w n , n o t f r o m th e p e o ­

a n d c a p r ic io u s )

p le u p w a rd .
10. P ro b le m s a re a lw a y s s o lv e d b y is s u in g n e w e d ic ts , c r e a t in g m o r e b u re a u s ,
a p p o in t in g m o r e a d m in is t r a t o r s .
11. T h o s e in p o w e r l iv e in c o m f o r t a n d lu x u r y w h ile th e lo t o f th e c o m m o n
p e o p le is o n e o f p e r p e t u a l p o v e r t y , e x c e s s iv e t a x a t io n , s t r in g e n t r e g u l­
a tio n s a n d a c o n t in u o u s e x is t e n c e o f m is e r y . 7

T r a g ic a lly , e v e r y o n e o f th e s e c h a r a c te r is tic s is e v id e n t a n d in c r e a s in g
a c ro s s A m e r ic a . M a n y la w s p a s s e d a n d p r e s id e n t ia l e x e c u t iv e o r d e r s is s u e d
s in c e th e 1 9 6 0 s h a v e u s u r p e d p o w e r s f r o m lo c a l ju r i s d i c t i o n s a n d d e n ie d c i t i ­
z e n s c e rta in “ u n a lie n a b le ” p r o p e r t y r ig h ts . V a s t b u r e a u c r a tic e m p ir e s a re b e in g
c r e a te d th a t in c r e a s in g ly tr e a t c it iz e n s as “ s u b je c ts .” P r o b le m s a re s o lv e d b y
m o r e la w s a n d r e g u la t io n s r a t h e r th a n fre e m a r k e t a p p ro a c h e s . T h e a p p lic a t io n
o f th e s e lo o s e ly d e f in e d la w s a n d e x e c u tiv e o r d e r s h a v e in e v it a b ly b e g u n to
b e c o m e a r b it r a r y in t h e ir a p p lic a t io n .

W e a rc e v e n s e e in g th e b e g in n in g o f a

t w o c la s s s o c ie ty .
C o n s ta n t a n il in c r e a s in g te n s io n a n d s t r if e c h a ra c te r iz e a s o c ie t y d o m in a t e d
b y t h is fo r m o f g o v e r n m e n t . T h is s t r if e in c re a s e s u n t il th e g o v e r n m e n t s t r a n ­
g le s its e lf, f a lls o f its o w n in c p ln c s s , o r is o v e r t h r o w n b y r e v o l u t i o n — ju s t lik e
o u r F o u n d in g F a th e r s d id w i t h E n g la n d o v e r 2 0 0 y e a rs a g o .

F e u d a lis m a m i F e d e r a lis m
I t is c le a r f r o m th e s e n a t u r a l la w s th a t fe u d a l t y r a n n y c a n ta k e f o r m s o t h e r
th a n th a t o f th e L o r d s , f e u d a t o r ie s a n d v a s s a ls th a t c h a r a c t e r iz e d E u r o p e a n
fe u d a lis m . It m a y s u r p r is e m a n y th a t fe u d a lis m a n d f e d e r a lis m a re b o t h r o o te d
in th e sam e L a t in r o o t w o r d f o e d u s w h ic h m e a n s a le a g u e o r c o m p a c t b e tw e e n
sta te s o r in d iv id u a ls . In its p r i m a r y f o r m f o e d u s m e a n s f o u l, F ilth y , h o r r ib le o r
a b o m in a b le .8 W h i l e f e u d a lis m d e s c rib e s c e n t r a liz e d a n d c o n s o lid a te d a g r e e ­
m e n t f o r la n d a n d m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l, f e d e r a lis m fo c u s e s o n a g r e e m e n ts f o r c e n t ­
r a liz e d and c o n s o lid a te d p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l. T h e n e t a f f e c t is b a s ic ­
a l l y th e s a m e . M a d is o n n o t e d in F e d e r a lis t P a p e rs N o . 1 9 .3 t h a t o n e c a n a n d
w i l l le a d to th e o t h e r .
S o fe a rfu l w e r e o u r F o u n d e r s o f th e d a n g e rs o f h a v in g a s tr o n g fe d e r a l g o v ­
e rn m e n t a n d its p r o p e n s it y to a s s u m e ty r a n n ic a l fe u d a l p o w e r s th a t th e A r t ic le s
f “

i'

' r ti r
1

"1 r h

‘ —< e J e ' t 'i ; C o n s t il i»i i i " a v
r

i i

r

t h r fe d e r a l g r v e r n i

I

'

 T hu D h c u n i; o r P hopukt

v

K ig h t s

and

F kkkdom

in

7

A mkkk' a

a p a r t b y s e lf - in t e r e s t a n d th e in s t it u t io n o f p e t t y r e g u la t io n s d e s ig n e d t o p r o ­
m o t e lo c a l p r o s p e r it y w i t h i n

th e i n d iv id u a l s ta le s . I t w a s r e c o g n iz e d th a t a

fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t h a v in g s o m e p o w e r o v e r th e s la te s w a s e s s e n tia l to m a in ­
t a in u n it y '' — a lb e it o n e w h e r e fe d e r a l p o w e r w a s s e v e r e ly r e s t r ic t e d ,

" T h e p o w e r s d e le g a te d b y (h e p r o p o s e d c o n s t it u t io n to th e fe d e r a l g o v ­
e r n m e n t a re J e w a n d d e f in e d . T h o s e w h ic h a rc to r e m a in in th e s ta te
g o v e r n m e n ts a re n u m e r o u s a n d in d e f in it e . T h e f o r m e r w i l l b e e x e r c is e d
p r i n c i p a l l y o n e x t e r n a l o b je c t s , a s w a r , p e a c e , n e g o t ia t io n , a n d f o r e ig n
c o m m e r c e . T h e p o w e r s r e s e r v e d to th e s e v e r a l s ta te s w i l l e x te n d to a ll
o b je c t s w h ic h . . . c o n c e r n th e liv e s , lib e r t ie s , a n d p r o p e r t ie s o f th e p e o ­
p le , a n d th e in t e r n a l o r d e r , im p r o v e m e n t , a n d p r o s p e r it y o f th e s ta te .” 10

I t w a s c le a r to th e F o u n d e rs th a t th e p o w e r s o f th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t w e r e
to b e r e s t r ic t e d to is s u e s d e a lin g w i t h f o r e ig n r e la t io n s , w a r a n d c o m m e r c e .
T h e p u rp o s e o f th e c o m m e r c e c la u s e in A r t i c l e 1, S e c t io n 8 .3 w a s to e n h a n c e
c o m m e r c e w it h o th e r n a tio n s a n d a m o n g th e s e v e r a l s ta te s . In th e ca se o f in t e r ­
s ta te c o m m e r c e th e fo c u s w a s o n r e d u c in g r e g u la t o r y b a rr ie r s , r a t h e r th a n c o n ­
tr o llin g

c o m m e rc e

th ro u g h

a m y r ia d

o f i n t e r lo c k in g a n d o f t e n

r e p r e s s iv e

r e g u la t io n s as is th e c a s e t o d a y . " T h o s e p o w e r s d e a lin g w i t h in t e r n a l m a tte r s
w e r e s p e c if ic a lly g iv e n to th e s ta le s a n d lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t s w h e r e t h e y c o u ld
m o r e d ir e c t ly b e c o n t r o lle d b y th e c it iz e n s w h o w o u ld b e a f f e c te d .
E v e n s o . o u r F o u n d e rs w a r n e d th e s ta le s a n d t h e ir c it iz e n s to b e e v e r v i g i l ­
a n t to l i m i t th e g r o w t h o f fe d e r a l p o w e r , le s t it in e v it a b ly a m a s s f o r i t s e l f th e
a c c u m u la t io n o f a ll p o w e rs , f l i c N in t h a n d T e n t h A m e n d m e n t s to th e U S C o n ­
s t i t u t i o n w e r e s p e c if ic a lly in c lu d e d t o p r e v e n t f e d e r a l e x p a n s io n o f p o w e r s ,
e s p e c ia lly in t o th e a f f a ir s a n d liv e s o f th e p e o p le ;

IX .

“ T h e e n u m e r a tio n in th e C o n s t it u t i o n , o f c e r t a in r ig h t s , s h a ll n o t b e
c o n s tr u e d to d e n y o r d is p a r a g e o th e r s r e t a in e d b y th e p e o p le . ”

X.

“ T h e p o w e r s n o t d e le g a te d to th e U n it e d S ta te s b y th e C o n s t it u t io n ,
n o r p r o h ib it e d b y it to th e S ta le s , a rc r e s e r v e d t o th e S ta te s r e s p e c t­
iv e ly , o r to th e p e o p le . ”

I n s h o rt. C o n g re s s a n d th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t h a v e n o p o w e r s w h a t s o e v e r
o t h e r th a n th o s e c le a r l y s p e lle d o u t in th e U .S . C o n s t it u t io n . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f
th e re w a s e v e r a n y d o u b t w h e t h e r fe d e r a l r ig h t s e x c e e d e d s ta te a n d lo c a l r i g h t s , .
th e la t t e r r ig h ts w i l l p r e v a il. T h e s e r ig h t s , w a r n e d P a t r ic k H e n r y , m u s t b e j e a l ­
o u s ly g u a r d e d le s t t h e y b e s t r ip p e d f r o m th e p e o p le ,

“ G u a r d w it h je a lo u s a t t e n t io n th e p u b lic lib e r t y . S u s p e c t e v e r y o n e w h o
p r

i

I a t -•-» I

i

‘

t r in e ''-

'

iie u ,l

rv

i

’

J w

-

 8

Dlit'UNI:. I >]•' I’KDPHKTY KllSHTS AND 3;'Ji 1CJil>C>iM IN AMKKK'A
r i g h t f o r c e . W h e n e v e r y o u g iv e u p th a t fo r c e , y o u a r e in e v it a b ly r u ­
i n e d ” 12 ( I t a lic s a d d e d )

T h e e n v ir o n m e n ta l a n d p u b lic in te re s t lo b b ie s h a v e m a d e a m o c k e r y o f th e
c r i t i c a l l y im p o r t a n t a m e n d m e n t s th a t r e ig n in fe d e r a l p o w e r . E s p o u s in g th e
n o b le c a u s e to k e e p us f r o m d e s t r o y in g th e e n v ir o n m e n t a n d o u r s e lv e s , e n v i r ­
o n m e n t a l a n d p u b lic in t e r e s t le a d e r s h ip a re tr u s te d b y m o s t A m e r ic a n s . T h e i r
f e a r g e n e r a t in g a n d o f t - t im e s u n f o u n d e d a c c u s a tio n s a re r a r e ly c h a lle n g e d .
A le x a n d e r H a m ilt o n w a r n e d th a t is th e t im e o f g re a te s t d a n g e r ,

“ I t is a t r u t h , w h ic h th e e x p e r ie n c e o f a g e s h a s a tte s te d , th a t th e p e o p le
a r e a lw a y s m o s t in d a n g e r w h e n th e m e a n s o f i n j u r i n g t h e i r r ig h t s a r e
in th e p o s s e s s io n o f th o s e o f w h o m t h e y e n t e r t a in th e le a s t s u s p ic io n . ” 12
“ S a fe ty f r o m e x t e r n a l d a n g e r is th e m o s t p o w e r f u l d ir e c t o r o f n a t io n a l
c o n d u c t. E v e n th e a rd e n t lo v e o f lib e r t y w i l l a f t e r a t im e , g iv e w a y to its
d ic t a t e s . . . . [ T ] h e c o n t in u a l e f f o r t a n d a la r m a t t e n d a n t o n a s t a le o f c o n ­
t in u a l d a n g e r , w i l l c o m p e l n a t io n s th e m o s t a tta c h e d to l ib e r t y to r e s o r t
f o r re p o s e a n d s e c u r it y to in s t it u t io n s w h ic h h a v e a te n d e n c y to d e s tr o y
t h e ir c i v i l a n d p o l i t i c a l r ig h t s . T o b e m u r e s a fe , t h e y a t le n g t h b e c o m e
w i l l i n g t o r u n t h e r i s k o f b e in g le s s f r e e . ” ' 1' ( I t a lic s a n d b o ld a d d e d )

T o b e s a le A m e r ic a n s a rc y i e ld in g m o r e a n d m o r e o f o u r f r e e d o m s to a n u n a c ­
c o u n ta b le a n d e v e r e x p a n d in g f e d e r a l b u r e a u c r a c y .. T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n w a s so
c e r t a in th a t c r e e p in g fe d e r a l p o w e r w o u ld in e v it a b ly le a d to t y r a n n y th a t h e
g a v e fu tu r e g e n e r a t io n s a c h i l l i n g w a r n in g ,

“ W h e n a l l g o v e r n m e n t , d o m e s t ic a n d f o r e ig n , in l it t le as in g re a t t h in g s ,
s h a l l b e d r a w n t o W a s h in g t o n a s th e c e n t e r o f a l l p o w e r , it w i l l r e n d e r
p o w e rle s s th e c h e c k s p r o v id e d o f o n e g o v e r n m e n t o n a n o th e r a n d w i l l b e ­
c o m e a s v e n a l a n d o p p r e s s iv e a s th e g o v e r n m e n t f r o m

w h ic h w e s e p a r ­

a t e d . ” ' 2 ( I t a lic s a d d e d )

T h e s e F o u n d e r s h a d re a s o n to w a r n f u t u r e g e n e r a tio n s th a t a n y f o r m o f
fe u d a lis m , b e it a n a r is t o c r a t ic e lit e o r f e d e r a lis m , w o u ld a lw a y s b e c o m e p r o ­
g r e s s iv e ly m o r e s u f f o c a t in g a n d c a u s e in c r e a s in g a lie n a t io n a m o n g th o s e w h o
w e r e u n d e r its o p p r e s s io n . 16 I t w a s f o r th is re a s o n J e ffe r s o n w a s c o m m it t e d to
c r e a t in g a “ s y s te m b y w h ic h e v e r y f ib e r w o u ld be e r a d ic a te d o f a n c ie n t o r f u t ­
u re a r is to c r a c y , a n d a f o u n d a t io n la id f o r a g o v e r n m e n t t r u l y r e p u b lic a n . ” 17
I n w h a t h a s o f t e n b e e n a s c r ib e d as a m ir a c le , J e ffe r s o n a n d M a d is o n c o n ­
v in c e d th e b u r g e o n in g n e o - a r is t o c r a c y o f t h e ir d a y t o g iv e u p t h e ir s p e c ia l
p r iv ile g e s a n d y ie ld to th e s e tr u th s . A s a r e s u lt, th e C o n s t it u tio n w a s d e v is e d to
p r e e n t a fe u d a l e lit e a n d a r is to c r a c y f r o m e v e r c o n t r o llin g th e la n d a n d th c r e f

r

T

* '

i-

r

tb

n

a n 18,19 5 " ‘

p

' - n n i n : ‘ lim e in th e

 'i*H1:1 D l- .r i .INI-: 1)!■• P X OPI'.KTV KlC.HT.S

and

9

l'KlvIi'-DOM IN A M I vKU'A

h is t o r y o f m a n k in d h a s s u c h s e lf - s a c r if ic in g a c t io n b e e n ta k e n . A s th e e m e r g ­
in g g e n tr y in A m e r i c a , o u r F o u n d in g F a th e r s c h o s e t o d e n y t h e ir f a m il ie s a n d
t h e ir d e s c e n d a n ts th e p r o p e r ly , w e a lt h a n d p r iv ile g e th a t c a m e w it h a r is to c r a c y .
T r a g ic a lly , J e f f e r s o n ’ s w a r n in g h a s b e e n b ru s h e d a s id e a n d a n e w e lit e is
c r e a t in g th e c o n d it io n s f o r t y r a n n y . J u s t as J e f f e r s o n w a r n e d , t h is t y r a n n y is
g r a d u a lly b e c o m in g “ a s v e n a l a n d o p p r e s s iv e as th e g o v e r n m e n t f r o m w h ic h
w e s e p a ra te d .”

I t is m o r e th a n ir o n i c th a t it w a s A le x a n d e r H a m ilt o n w h o

p la n te d th e s e e d s o f th e v e r y t y r a n n y h e d e s p is e d . W h ile s e r v in g as S e c r e ta r y
o f th e T r e a s u r y , H a m ilt o n “ w a n te d t o in t e r p r e t th e w e lf a r e c la u s e [ A r t i c l e I ,
S e c tio n 8 .1 ] as a g e n e r a l g r a n t o f p o w e r to th e C o n g r e s s to d o a n y t h i n g w h ic h
it f e lt w a s f o r th e w e lf a r e o f a n y o n e o r a n y p a rt o f th e c o u n t r y . ” 20 J e ffe r s o n a n d
M a d is o n , h o w e v e r , a s s e rte d th a t th e “ fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n g r a n te d th e
a u t h o r it y b y th e s ta te s to d o o n ly t w e n t y t h in g s , a n d t h a t e a c h o f th e s e m u s t b e
c a r r ie d o u t f o r th e G E N E R A L w e lf a r e o f th e w h o le n a t io n . T h e y s a id t h is
m e a n t t h a t th e w e lf a r e c la u s e w a s d e s ig n e d as a r e s t r i c t i o n o f p o w e r , n o t a
g r a n t o f p o w e r . ” 21 ( I t a lic s a d d e d ) In o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t is d o n e f o r o n e i n d i v i d ­
u a l o r g r o u p , m u s t b e d o n e f o r a ll.
I t is b y th e s e t im e le s s s ta n d a r d s a g a in s t w h i c h th e a c c u s a tio n s o f d is e m p o w e r e d A m e r ic a n s m u s t be w e ig h e d . A r e th e s e A m e r ic a n s m e r e ly b e in g s tu b ­
b o r n tr o u b le m a k e r s ? O r a re th e y f o l l o w i n g in th e f o o ts te p s o f T h o m a s J e f f e r ­
s o n w h o b e c a m e a n e n e m y o f th e K i n g in 1 7 7 4 a t a g e 31 b y w r i t i n g , “ S in g le
a c ts o f t y r a n n y m a y b e a s c rib e d to th e a c c id e n ta l o p in io n o f a d a y ; b u t a s e rie s
o f o p p r e s s io n s . . . p u r s u e d u n a lt e r a b ly t h r o u g h e v e r y c h a n g e o f m in is t e r s , to o
p l a i n l y p r o v e a d e lib e r a t e , s y s t e m a t ic a l p la n o f r e d u c in g us to s la v e r y . ” 22

T h e I n e v it a b ilit y o f T y ra n n y
T he f a c t th a t c o r p o r a t io n s a re u s u a lly s t r u c t u r e d

u p o n th e f e u d a l/ r u le r

m o d e l g o e s a lo n g w a y in e x p la in in g m a n a g e m e n t / la b o r s t r if e th a t h a s h is t o r i­
c a lly p la g u e d c o m p a n ie s o r g a n iz e d in th is m a n n e r . W h ile it is th e u n a v o id a b le
n a tu r e o f c o r p o r a t io n s to b e o r g a n iz e d w i t h t h is f e u d a l/ r u le r s t r u c t u r e , k n o w l ­
e d g e o f its c o n s e q u e n c e s c a n h e lp e x p la in w h y t h e y c a n r a p i d l y b e c o m e c o r ­
r u p t w it h o u t s t r o n g o v e r s ig h t . I t is n o t th a t th e p e o p le r u n n in g th e s e c o r p o r a ­
tio n s a re in h e r e n t ly c o r r u p t o r ty r a n ts , th e s y s te m i t s e l f le a d s to c o r r u p t io n a n d
t y r a n n y . E v e n t h o u g h c o r p o r a t io n s m u s t o f n e c e s s it y h a v e a t o p - d o w n s t r u c ­
tu re , th o s e th a t h a v e m a d e t h e ir o r g a n iz a t io n a l s t r u c t u r e as f la t as p o s s ib le a n d
fo c u s e d o n te a m m a n a g e m e n t h a v e o f t e n r e a p e d b ig r e w a r d s b y m i n i m i z i n g
in t e r n a l s t r if e a n d m a x i m iz in g p r o d u c t iv it y .
I t is i r o n i c th a t w h i l e e n v ir o n m e n t a l a n d p u b lic in t e r e s t le a d e rs a n d o th e r s
a re q u ic k to p o in t o u t th e fe u d a l f a ilin g s in c o r p o r a t io n s , t h e y s o m e h o w b e lie v e
th e s a m e a b u s e s w i l l n o t o c c u r w it h u n a c c o u n t a b le b u r e a u c r a ts h a v in g f e u d a ll i k e p o w e r s . T h e y s o m e h o w b e lie v e g o v e r n m e n t b u r e a u c r a ts a re in h e r e n t ly
“ g o o d ” m e n a n d w o m e n w h o s e lf le s s ly lo o k o u t f o r th e p u b lic g o o d , w h i l e
r

rs

r

i t i• I

r~

y

-

■ •" r f

n

■' P 'r

1 -

rr '

I—

'

 DlilM-lNi; <)!•■ P roimjktv K iohth

10

and

F kkkddm IN AMEUK'A

d e f in e d ll i c f a lla c y o f th is ly p c o f t h in k in g ,

“ S h o w m e th a t a g e a n d c o u n t r y w h e r e th e r ig h t s a n d lib e r t ie s o f th e
p e o p le w e r e p la c e d o n th e s o le c h a n c e o f t h e ir r u le r s b e in g g o o d m e n ,
w it h o u t a c o n s e q u e n t lo s s o f lib e r t y ! I s a y th a t th e lo s s o f th a t d e a re s t
p r iv ile g e has e v e r f o llo w e d , w it h a b s o lu te c e r t a in t y , e v e r y s u c h m a d
a tte m p t.” 23

C o r r u p tio n a n d g re e d a re th e in e v it a b le r e s u lts o f a n u n a c c o u n ta b le f e u d a l/
r u l e r s tr u c tu r e w h e t h e r it is a c o r p o r a t io n o r a g o v e r n m e n t . M o s t A m e r ic a n s
u n d e rs ta n d h o w u n a c c o u n t a b ilit y c a n le a d to c o r r u p t io n . G r e e d a n d d e s ir e f o r
c o n tr o l ( p o w e r ) is a “ n a t u r a l” h u m a n f a ilin g , a n d m a n y p e o p le w h o w o u ld o t h ­
e r w is e n o t be g r e e d y o r p o w e r s e e k e rs , c a n s u c c u m b to th e s e f a ilin g s i f th e re
is n o a c c o u n t a b ilit y . T y r a n n y is th e n a tu r a l b y - p r o d u c t o f t h is p ro c e s s a n d h a s
lit t le to n o t h in g t o d o w i t h h o w m e a n a p e rs o n is . Y e t it is th e “ n a t u r a l” r e s u lt
o f th e f e u d a l/ r u le r s t r u c t u r e a s c e r t a in ly as th e la w o f g r a v it y .
H o w c a n o n e p e r s o n k n o w i n g l y i n f l i c t h a r m a n d a b u s e o n s o m e o n e e ls e ?
A s tu d y d o n e b y Y a le re s e a rc h p s y c h o lo g is t D r . S ta n le y M ilg r a m p r o v id e s th e
s t u n n in g a n s w e r in re s e a r c h h e c o n d u c t e d in h u m a n b e h a v io r ,

“ a m a j o r it y o f p e o p le w o u ld g o to g re a t le n g th s to c o m p ly w i t h e x p e r t
a u t h o r it y , d e s p ite th e s tre s s in d u c e d b y th e c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n w h a t th e y
knew

w a s r ig h t a n d w h a t t h e y w e r e a s k e d to d o . M a n y o b e y e d th e

e x p e r im e n t e r b y i n f l i c t i n g g r e a t p a in , r e g a r d le s s o f th e v i c t i m ’ s a g o n y
a n d p le a s f o r r e le a s e f r o m th e e x p e r im e n t . T h o s e w h o v o lu n t e e r e d f o r
th e e x p e r im e n t w e r e n o t s a d is ts o r c r u e l m o n s te r s r e c r u it e d f r o m th e
f r in g e s o f s o c ie ty . T h e y w e r e o r d in a r y p e o p le d r a w n f r o m th e w o r k in g ,
m a n a g e r ia l, a n d p r o f e s s io n a l c la s s e s .” 24

M ilg r a m a n d th e p s y c h o lo g y w o r ld w e r e s h o c k e d b y th e se r e s u lts . M ilg r a m
c o n c lu d e d th a t “ . . . o r d i n a r y p e o p le , s im p ly d o in g t h e ir jo b s , a n d w it h o u t a n y
p a r t i c u l a r h o s t i l i t y o n t h e i r p a r t , c a n b e c o m e a g e n ts in a t e r r i b l e d e s t r u c t iv e
p r o c e s s . ” 25 ( I t a lic s a d d e d ) S o c io lo g is t D r . R o b e r t L e e n o te s th a t “ a ll o f u s , in
a lm o s t a n y d a ily s o c ia l r e la t io n s h ip , h a v e th e c a p a c it y to d o c r u e l t h in g s to
o t h e r s i f w e a re p u t in a h ie r a r c h ia l r e la t io n s h ip w h e r e w e lo o k t o a u t h o r it ie s
o r e x p e r t s f o r g u id a n c e o n w h a t t o d o . W h a t is m o s t t r o u b lin g a re th o s e s it u ­
a t io n s w h e r e w e c o m p ly w i t h a u t h o r it ie s w it h o u t r e a liz in g th e s u f f e r in g w e
h a v e in f lic t e d o n o th e r s . Y e t th a t is e x a c t ly th e s it u a t io n in w h ic h w e f in d o u r ­
s e lv e s w it h r e g a r d t o m a n y e n v ir o n m e n t a l p r o b le m s . ” 26 ( I t a lic s a d d e d )

S im p ly s ta t e d , b u r e a u c r a t s c a n in f lic t e n o r m o u s p a in o n o th e r s w h ile
s l e e p i n g w e ll a t n i g h t a n d n e v e r s e e in g th e m s e lv e s a s ty r a n ts . I t is n o t th a t
th e s e a g e n ts a r e ty r a n t s a s th e y a r e o fte n a c c u s e d ,
r le r *tru

r ' v 'll' I

ti ' i ' b ’ n r i u e

i,r m '/•’

it is the system. A

n Iw"

fe u d a l/

k I - v > ” > ft e " •

/-

 T hu Du c m n u

of

P k o u u k ty K ig hts

and

Fkuudom

in

A m u k ic a

11

a n t ic s t r u c t u r e o f a n a t i o n — e s p e c ia lly w h e n th o s e in u n a c c o u n t a b le a u t h o r it y
b e lie v e th e y a re d o in g s o m e t h in g g o o d a n d a re d ir e c t e d b y a h ig h e r a u t h o r it y !

P r o te c tio n A g a i n s t T y r a n n y
O u r F o u n d in g F a th e r s c le a r l y u n d e r s t o o d th e t y r a n n y th a t r e s u lts w i t h th e
f e u d a l/ r u le r s y s te m o f g o v e r n a n c e . T h e y f r a m e d th e C o n s t it u t i o n to 1) e s ta b ­
lis h u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s in th e B i l l o f R ig h t s to p r o t e c t a ll c it iz e n s f r o m f e u d a l/
r u l e r t y r a n n y , 2 ) g iv e th e u lt im a t e p o w e r to th e p e o p le th e m s e lv e s s o th e
b u re a u c ra ts a re a c c o u n ta b le to th e p e o p le t h e y g o v e r n , a n d 3 ) d iv i d e a n d r e d i­
v id e g o v e r n m e n t s o th a t it w o u ld a lw a y s h a v e th e c h e c k s a n d b a la n c e s n e c ­
e s s a ry t o p r e v e n t p o w e r f r o m e v e r c o n s o lid a t i n g in t o th e h a n d s o f a f e w , u n ­
a c c o u n t a b le p e o p le .
T h e n e e d f o r u n a lie n a b le p r o p e r t y r ig h t s is d is c u s s e d in d e t a il b e lo w . I n h e r ­
e n t in th e s e c o n d p r o t e c t io n , o u r F o u n d e r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t fr e e d o m c o u ld o n ly
be g u a ra n te e d b y a g o v e r n m e n t “ o f th e p e o p le , ” in w h ic h a ll la w s w e r e t o b e
c r e a te d b y c o m m o n c o n s e n t o f th e s a m e p e o p le w h o w o u ld b e a f f e c t e d b y
th o s e l a w s P In t h is c o n t e x t la w m a k in g b e lo n g s e x c lu s iv e ly in th e h a n d s o f th e
le g is la t u r e o r c o n g r e s s , w h o a re a c c o u n t a b le t o th o s e w h o e le c te d th e m ,

“ T h e le g is l a t u r e ] c a n n o t tr a n s fe r th e p o w e r o f m a k in g la w s to a n y o t h e r
h a n d s , f o r it b e in g b u t a d e le g a te d p o w e r f r o m th e p e o p l e . . . . A n d w h e n
th e p e o p le h a v e s a id , ’ W e w i l l s u b m it , a n d b e g o v e r n e d b y la w s m a d e
b y s u c h m e n , a n d in s u c h f o r m s ’ n o b o d y e ls e c a n s a y o t h e r m e n s h a ll
m a k e la w s f o r th e m ; n o r c a n t h e y b e b o u n d b y a n y la w s b u t s u c h as a rc

.

e n a c te d b y th o s e w h o m th e y h a v e c h o s e n a n d a u t h o r iz e d to m a k e la w s
f o r t h e m . ” 2'1

O n ly w h e n w o u ld - b e r u le r s a n d t y r a n t s a re a c c o u n t a b le to th e p e o p le w i l l
th e y a c t in th e b e s t in te re s ts o f th o s e p e o p le . I f t h e y d o n ’ t t h e y w i l l b e o u t o f a
jo b .
L ik e w is e , w h e n th e c o n g re s s a n d le g is la t u r e e n a c t la w s , t h e y m u s t b e s im ­
p ly w r i t t e n f o r th e c o m m o n m a n s o t h a t t h e y c a n n o t b e m is c o n s t r u e d in t o
s o m e th in g th e le g is la tu r e n e v e r in te n d e d . T h o m a s J e ffe r s o n a s s e rte d th a t “ la w s
a re m a d e f o r m e n o f o r d in a r y u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d s h o u ld th e r e fo r e b e c o n s tru e d
b y th e o r d in a r y r u le s o f c o m m o n s e n s e . T h e ir m e a n in g is n o t t o b e s o u g h t f o r
in m e t a p h y s ic a l s u b t le tie s w h ic h m a k e a n y t h i n g m e a n e v e r y t h in g o r n o t h in g ,
a t p le a s u r e . " 2'1 ( I t a lic s a d d e d ) Y e t , m o s t e n v ir o n m e n t a l a n d p u b lic in te re s t la w s
e n a c te d d u r in g th e la t t e r h a l f o f th e t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r y a re s o lo o s e ly w r it t e n t h e y c a n m e a n a n y t h in g . B y d o in g s o , c o n g r e s s a n d m a n y s ta te le g is la tu r e s
h a v e in f a c t d e le g a te d th e s e p o w e r s t o u n a c c o u n t a b le r e g u la t o r s in th e e x e c ­
u t iv e b r a n c h . I n t u r n , th e s e r e g u la t o r s a re o f t e n s y m p a t h e t ic to , o r h e a v ily i n ­
f lu e n c e d b y , th e e n v ir o n m e n t a l a n d p u b lic . in t e r e s t g r o u p s . T y r a n n y is th e r e ­
s u lt.

,

.

.

 DliCLINIJ (»•' I’KOl'liKTT RIGHTS AND FlrtilrtN >M IN AMliRICA

12

T h e c la s s ic e x a m p le o f th is a b u s e is o u r n u m e r o u s a n d o f t e n a r b it r a r y f e d ­
e ra l w e t la n d s r e g u la t io n s . A l l fe d e r a l w e t la n d s r e g u la t io n s a re b a s e d o n S e c ­
t io n 4 0 4 o f th e C le a n W a t e r A c t w h ic h w a s in te n d e d b y c o n g r e s s to p r e v e n t
t o x ic p o llu t io n o f th e “ n a v ig a b le w a te r s o f th e U n it e d S la te s .” Y e t n o w h e r e
d o c s th is la w m e n t io n th e w o r d w e tla n d s o r im p l y th a t th e la w e x te n d s to w e t ­
la n d s . Y e t la n d o w n e r s a n d h o m e o w n e r s a re p a y in g h e a v y p e n a ltie s a n d ;u e
b e in g s e n t to p r is o n f o r a lle g e d ly d e s t r o y in g w e t la n d s th a t a re o f t e n d o z e n s o f
m ile s f r o m th e n e a re s t “ n a v ig a b le w a t e r ” a n d w h ic h n e v e r h a v e s t a n d in g w a t e r
o n th e s u rfa c e .
F i n a l l y , th e f o r c e o f la w m u s t b e a p p lie d e q u a lly to th e g o v e r n o r s as w e ll
as th e g o v e r n e d . F e u d a l t y r a n n y b e g in s , as M a d is o n n o te s a b o v e , th e in s ta n t
th e la w m a k e r s h a v e th e a u t o n o m y to c r e a te la w s f o r t h e ir o w n p le a s u re o r
c o n v e n ie n c e ( c a lle d “ m a n ’ s la w ” ) a n d a rc n o t a c c o u n ta b le to th o s e th e y g o v e r n
T h e fe d e r a l r e g is te r n o w p u b lis h e s o v e r 7 0 , 0 0 0 p a g e s o f n e w fe d e r a l la w s a n d
r e g u la t io n s a n n u a lly . N o o n e c a n k e e p u p w i t h th e s e a m b ig u o u s a n d o f t c o n ­
f l i c t i n g m a n d a te s . W o r s e , t h e ir v e r y a m b ig u it y a llo w s g o v e r n m e n t a g e n ts to
a p p ly th e m a r b i t r a r i l y a n d s e le c t iv e ly a g a in s t a n y c it iz e n t h e y d o n o t lik e .
A r b i t r a r i l y a p p lie d la w s a re n o t o n ly p u n it iv e to th o s e b e in g r e g u la te d , b u t
e x t r a c t a n e n o r m o u s t o l l o n th e o v e r a ll e c o n o m y o f th e a f f e c te d a re a . T h e
H e r ita g e F o u n d a t io n r e p o r t s th a t u n n e e d e d r e g u la t io n s a re c o s t in g th is n a tio n
b e tw e e n $ 8 0 0 b i l l i o n a n d $ 1.0 t r i l l i o n a y e a r .

T h is tr a n s la te s in t o a p p r o x i­

m a te ly $ 8 , 0 0 0 t o 1 6 ,0 0 0 a n n u a lly f o r e a c h A m e r i c a n f a m i l y . ’ 0

B e n e fits o j t h e P e o p l e

’.v L o w

a n d P r iv a te P r o p e r ty

M o s t A m e r ic a n s t h in k o f p r o p e r ly as la n d a n d p e rh a p s t h e ir h o m e . In d e f in ­
in g th e m e a n in g a n d in t e n t o f p r o p e r ly as u s e d in th e C o n s t it u t io n , h o w e v e r ,
J a m e s M a d is o n w a s b o t h b r o a d in in c lu s io n a n d a b s o lu te in p r o t e c t io n . " P r o ­
p e r t y , " w r o t e M a d is o n , “ in its p a r t ic u la r a p p lic a t io n , m e a n s ‘ th a t d o m in io n
w h ic h o n e m a n c la im s a n d e x e r c is e s o v e r th e e x t e r n a l t h in g s o f th e w o r ld , in
e x c lu s io n o f e v e r y o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l . ’ I n its la r g e r a n d j u s l c r m e a n in g , it e m ­
b ra c e s e v e r y t h in g to w h ic h a m a n m a y a tta c h a v a lu e a n d h a v e a r ig h t ; a n d
w h ic h le a v e s to e v e r y o n e e ls e th e lik e a d v a n ta g e . In th e f o r m e r s e n s e , a m a n ’ s
la n d , o r m e r c h a n d is e , o r m o n e y , is c a lle d h is p r o p e r t y . I n th e la t t e r s e n s e , a
m a n h a s p r o p e r t y in h is o p in io n s a n d th e f r e e c o m m u n ic a t io n o f t h e m . ” 31 ( I t a l ­
ic s a d d e d ) H u n d r e d s o f la w s r a n g in g f r o m o w n e r s h ip o f la n d , h o m e s , c r o p ,
liv e s to c k , a n d o t h e r p o s s e s s io n s to c o p y r ig h t p r o t e c t io n re s ts u p o n th is d e f i n i ­
t io n .

.

N o t e th a t t h is c o n c e p t is s o im p o r t a n t th a t M a d is o n tr e a te d b o th la n d a n d
m o n e y as e q u a l e x a m p le s o f p r o p e r t y . In d e e d , m a n y in v e s to r s c o n v e r t m o n e y
in to la n d as a lo n g - t e r m in v e s t m e n t r a th e r th a n k e e p in g it in a lo w y ie ld b a n k
a c c o u n t o r C D . I n th is r e g a r d la n d is m e r e ly a n o th e r , a lb e it , le s s l iq u id s p e c ie s
o f m o n e y . T o d e v a lu e l a n d b y a n y p e r c e n ta g e th r o u g h r e g u la tio n is th e s a m e

a

"

■ "■h ' i n

'c

• » m " - i ‘ ' n r e e n ' ’e f r v i ' " b ' t ' k u m n ’s a c c o u n t in

 T h e DI'.im .ini -: of P koi 'Ivutt .'Rights

and

F reedom

jn

A m erica

13

o r d e r to a c h ie v e o d e s ir e d g o a l — s u c h as p a y in g c lo w n th e n a tio n a l d e b t. T h a t
ty p e o f a c t io n w o u ld b e m e t w i t h o u t r a g e b y v o t e r s , a n d th o s e in p u b lic o f f ic e
w h o v o t e d f o r th e a c t io n w o u ld s o o n b e v o t e d o u t o f o f f ic e . Y e t , s o m e h o w it
is p e r m is s ib le to e x p lo it la n d o w n e r s b y e x p r o p r ia t in g a p o r t io n o f th e v a lu e o f
t h e ir la n d to p r o v id e s o m e a lt r u is t ic b e n e f it f o r o t h e r s . I t is l it tle w o n d e r th a t

la n d o w n e r s a r e g r o w in g in c r e a s in g ly f e a r f u l a n d o u tr a g e d a t lo o s e ly w r itte n ,
a m b ig u o u s la w s th a t p e r m i t a r b itr a r y r e g u la tio n s th a t d e n y th e m , in e s s e n c e ,
th e ir s a v in g s a n d th e r e f o r e t h e i r f u t u r e . T h e U .S . C o n g r e s s m u s t v ie w p r o p ­
e r l y r ig h t s as h a v in g th e h ig h e s t p r i o r it y as it c o n s id e r s a n y la w o r r e v ie w s a n y
r e g u la t o r y e f f e c ts .
O n ly u n d e r tr u e s e lf - g o v e r n a n c e w h e r e e v e r y c it iz e n has th e r ig h t , as l i m i t ­
e d b y th e c o m m o n la w p r i n c i p l e o f h a r m a n d n u is a n c e , to o w n u n e n c u m b e r e d
p r o p e r ly in t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e p u r s u it o f h a p p in e s s c a n fr e e d o m b e a tr u e r e a li t y .
S e lf - g o v e r n a n c e a n d th e s a c re d r ig h t t o o w n p r o p e r ly a re e s s e n tia l to a ll th e
o th e r fr e e d o m s g u a ra n te e d in th e B i l l o f R ig h ts . A lt h o u g h J o h n A d a m s s h a r p ly
d is a g re e d w it h o t h e r fo u n d e r s o n th e n e e d f o r a n e lit e r u l i n g c la s s , h e n o n e t h e ­
le s s a s s e rte d a f u n d a m e n t a l t r u t h ,

" ' f l i c m o m e n t th a t th e id e a is a d m it t e d in t o s o c ie t y th a t p r o p e r t y is n o t
as s a c r e d as th e L a w s o f G o d , a n d th a t th e r e is n o t a f o r c e o f la w a n d
p u b l i c ju s t ic e to p r o t e c t it, a n a r c h y a n d t y r a n n y c o m m e n c e . P r o p e r t y
m u s t b e s a c r e d o r l i b e r t y c a n n o t e x is t. 1,32 ( I t a l i c s a d d e d )

T h is fu n d a m e n ta l tr u t h h a s b e e n r e a f f ir m e d t h r o u g h o u t h is t o r y as a n o th e r n a t­
u r a l r ig h t , l i a r l y in t h is c e n t u r y T h e o d o r e R o o s e v e lt a ls o n o te d ,

“ In

e v e ry

c iv iliz e d

s o c ie t y , p r o p e r t y

r ig h t s

m u s t be c a r e f u lly s a fe ­

g u a r d e d ; o r d in a r ily a n d in th e g re a t m a j o r it y o f c a s e s , h u m a n r ig h t s a n d
p r o p e r ly r ig h t s a re f u n d a m e n t a lly a n d in th e lo n g r u n , id e n t ic a l. ”

T h e f o u n d a t io n f o r t h is f u n d a m e n t a l n a t u r a l la w is s im p le . O n c e c it iz e n s
c a n b e a r b i t r a r i l y d e p r iv e d o f p o li t i c a l e q u a lit y , s h e lt e r , th e a b i l i t y t o f r e e ly
g r o w fo o d a n d o b ta in w a te r, th o s e c it iz e n s w i l l b e c o m e s la v e s to th o s e w h o d o
c o n t r o l th e m —

o r fa c e r e t r ib u t io n . S in c e i t is f o o lis h to s p e a k o u t a g a in s t

s o m e o n e w h o c a n d e s t r o y y o u r li f e , a ll o t h e r f r e e d o m s a re m e a n in g le s s . O f
w h a t v a lu e is th e fr e e d o m o f s p e e c h , f o r in s ta n c e , i f th e p e rs o n o r r u l i n g e lit e
w h o m y o u w o u ld s p e a k a g a in s t h a s th e p o w e r to d e n y y o u t h r o u g h c o n f is c a t ­
io n , t a x a t io n o r r e g u la t io n th e u se o f y o u r la n d , b u s in e s s , o r d w e l l i n g u p o n
w h ic h y o u r l i f e d e p e n d s ? W it h o u t s t r o n g p r o p e r t y r ig h t s p r o v id in g th e a b i l i t y
o f e v e r y c it iz e n to “ p u r s u e h a p p in e s s ,” t y r a n n y w i l l r e s u lt.
T h e d e e p c o n v ic t io n s o f fr e e d o m h e ld b y M a d is o n , J e f f e r s o n a n d o th e r s
o r ig in a t e d f r o m a t h o r o u g h s t u d y o f h is t o r y . I n h is r e le n tle s s q u e s t t o i d e n t if y

If

rfe c

' 'n

■

v c ri

1 it

c f'

r

r f nr A

M

<

• »» r «

r

I

 14

Dlil'UNJC (>)•' PKOl’liHTT iUK'.HTS AND FKliJil)()M IN AMCKK'A

th a t p ro te c te d th e fr e e d o m o f th e p e o p le . H e c a lle d it th e P e o p le 'a L a w . T h is
m o d e l re s ts u p o n th e p r e m is e th a t a ll p o w e r r e s id e s w it h th e p e o p le w h o s e
b a s ic fre e d o m s a re p ro te c te d b y u n a lie n a b le r ig h ts . T h e p o w e r to m a k e a n d im ­
p le m e n t la w s m u s t b e c o n t r o lle d b y th e p e o p le th e y e f f e c t o r t y r a n n y w o u ld
r e s u lt . J e ffe r s o n w a s s o a d a m a n t a b o u t th is p r i n c i p l e th a t h e a s s e rte d th a t
p o w e r m u s t n e v e r b e ta k e n f r o m th e p e o p le ,

“ 1 k n o w n o s a fe d e p o s ito r y o f th e u lt im a t e p o w e r s o f th e s o c ie t y b u t th e
p e o p le th e m s e lv e s ; a n d i f w e t h in k th e m

n o t e n lig h t e n e d e n o u g h to

e x e rc is e t h e ir c o n t r o l w it h a w h o le s o m e d is c r e t io n , th e r e m e d y is n o t to
ta k e i t f r o m th e m , b u t to i n f o r m
PEO PLE’S LA W

d is c r e t io n

by

e d u c a tio n . T h is

t h e ir
is

th e

t r u e c o r r e c t iv e o f a b u s e s o f c o n s t it u ­
t io n a l p o w e r . ” 33

S im i l a r l y , th e re m u s t b e c it iz e n a u to n
o m y t o p r o v id e s h e lte r a n d o t h e r n e e d s ,
g ro w

f o o d c r o p s , h a v e a c c e s s to w a te r ,

a n d s e lf- g o v e r n a n c e w it h in th e f r a m e w o r k
o f com m on

la w

and

h ig h

s ta n d a r d s

of

m o r a lit y . A s n o te d e a r lie r , a l l o ili e r f r e e -

Figure 2. Jefferson found that the Peoples
Law reversed Ihe power structure of the
Feudal/Rulcr Government.

(/olllx llrc r o o te d j„ rfi c a b ility to o w n a n d

„
p r o p e r ty a s a n n n a l,e n a b le n Kl,l.

By protecting

God-given unalienable rights and placing all

J e lle is o n fo u n d o n ly t w o s o c ie tie s in

the power in the hands of the people them- a ll o l h is t o r y th a t in s t it u t e d th is f r e e d o m selves, those lhat administer are always b a se d m o d e l o f g o v e r n m e n t. T h e lu s t w a s
accountable to the people they govern. Jeffer- c r e a te d

by

M o s e s d u r in g

th e

I s r a e lit e ’s

son repeatedly asserted that this generalized e x o c j us f r o m E g y p t . I s r a e lit e s c lf - g o v e r n torm of government is the only form that guar, . .. .
.
r
.
,
.
,
. .
...
a n c e w a s c s ta b h s h e d w i t h i n th e ir a m e antees freedom of the people in which a
society can flourish.

ik a * .

vm w o r k o f w h a t 15 n o w k n o w n as c o m m o n
b a se d O il l l i g l l IllO i'a l S ta n d a rd s a ild

Making ol America. National Center lor Constitutional Studies, la w
Washington, DC. 1985. Pp 46.)

.

.

.

a b s o lu te p r o p e r t y r ig h t s lim it e d o n ly b y

th e p r in c ip le o f h a r m a n d n u is a n c e . 3,1 T h e s e c o n d w a s b y th e A n g lo - S a x o n 's ,
w h ic h w a s a lm o s t a n e x a c t c o p y o f th a t la id o u t b y M o s e s . F r e e d o m s c r u m ­
b le d , ty r a n n y c o m m e n c e d a n d v ib r a n t s o c io - e c o n o m ic s o c ie tie s w e r e d e s tro y e d
w h e n e ith e r s o c ie t y d r i f t e d f r o m t h is m o d e l. 35
T h e A n g lo - S a x o n f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t la s te d u n t il 8 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 A D w h e n it
b e g a n to be c o - o p t e d b y f e u d a lis m . T h e r ig h t o f s e lf - g o v e r n a n c e w a s lo s t as
th e p e o p le a llo w e d p r o p e r t y r ig h t s to s h if t f r o m th e c it iz e n r y to n o b i l i t y u n d e r
fe u d a l ru le . T h e N o r m a n C o n q u e s t in 1 0 6 6 d e s tr o y e d th e la s t v e s tig e s o f fr e e ­
d o m in E n g la n d a n d th e f u l l e f f e c t s o f f e u d a lis m d e g ra d e d th e c it iz e n r y to th e
s ta tu s o f s e rfs t o t a lly d e p e n d e n t o n th e e lit e a r is to c r a c y f o r t h e ir v e r y s u r v i v a l .

I

v

-

—

-

•

< ■■■

i

f

Hn

*'

 

m t

T~ c~l

 T h e D e c l in e

oe

F koi ’er ty

r u ; h ts and

F reedom

in

A m erica

15

p e n n e d th e D e c la r a t io n o l'I n d e p e n d e n c e . I n c o n t r a s t in g f e u d a l la w a n d A n g l o
S a x o n la w , J e f f e r s o n e x t o lle d ,

" A r e w e n o t b e t t e r f o r w h a t w e h a v e h it h e r t o a b o lis h e d o f th e fe u d a l
s y s te m ? I la s n o t e v e r y r e s t it u t io n o f th e a n c ie n t S a x o n la w s h a d h a p p y
e f f e c t? Is it n o t b e lt e r n o w th a t w e r e t u r n a t o n c e in t o th a t h a p p y s y s te m
o f o u r a n c e s to rs , th e w is e s t a n d m o s t p e r f e c t e v e r y e t d e v is e d b y th e w it
o f m a n , a s i t s t o o d b e f o r e th e e ig h t h c e n tu r y ? " ™ ( I t a lic s a d d e d )

A lt h o u g h o u r F o u n d e r s c a m e f r o m d iv e r g e n t b a c k g r o u n d s a n d o f t e n h a d
s h a r p d if f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n , J a m e s M a d is o n , T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , B e n ja m in
F r a n k lin as w e ll as o th e r s r e p e a te d ly r e in f o r c e d th e fu n d a m e n t a l b e l i e f th a t th e
fr e e d o m to o w n p r o p e r ly w a s a G o d - g iv e n u n a lie n a b le r ig h t u p o n w h ic h a l l
o t h e r c i v i l r ig h t s re s te d . J e f f e r s o n a s s e rte d th a t as lo n g as th e c o m m o n c it iz e n
d id n o t h a v e a n u n a lie n a b le r i g h t t o o w n a n d f r e e ly u s e p r o p e r t y lim it e d o n ly
b y c o m m o n la w a n d m o r a lit y , f r e e d o m c o u ld n e v e r b e a r e a lit y . E v e n th o u g h
th e s ta te m u s t r e ta in th e r ig h t o f e m in e n t d o m a in , i t c o u ld o n ly b e a p p lie d w i t h
j u s t c o m p e n s a t io n as p r o v id e d f o r in th e F i f t h A m e n d m e n t t o th e U .S . C o n ­
s t i t u t i o n , “ n o r s h a ll p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y b e ta k e n f o r p u b lic u se , w i t h o u t j u s t
c o m p e n s a t io n . ”
S o im p o r t a n t w a s th e r o le o f p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y r ig h t s in p r o t e c t in g a l l b a s ic
fr e e d o m s , th a t o u r F o u n d in g F a th e r s o f th e C o n s t it u t i o n in c lu d e d m o r e th a n
t w e n t y p r o v is io n s th a t s a f e g u a r d p r o p e r t y r ig h t s f r o m th e t y r a n n y o f th e s ta te .
A l t e r th e C o n s t it u t i o n w a s r a t if ie d , J a m e s M a d is o n r e a f f ir m e d th a t o n e o f th e
p r i m a r y p u rp o s e s o f a ju s t g o v e r n m e n t w a s to p r o t e c t p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y r ig h t s ,

“ G o v e r n m e n t is in s t it u t e d t o p r o t e c t p r o p e r t y o f e v e r y s o r t ; as w e l l as
t h a t w h ic h lie s in th e v a r io u s r ig h t s o f in d iv id u a ls , as th a t w h ic h th e
te rm

p a r t ic u la r ly e x p re s s e s . T h is b e in g th e e n d o f g o v e r n m e n t , t h a t

a lo n e is a j u s t g o v e r n m e n t , w h ic h i m p a r t i a l l y s e c u re s , to e v e r y m a n ,
w h a t e v e r is h is o w n . T h a t [ w h i c h ] is n o t [ a ] j u s t g o v e r n m e n t , n o r is
p r o p e r t y s e c u re u n d e r it , [ is o n e ] w h e r e a r b i t r a r y r e s t r ic t io n s , e x e m p ­
t io n s , a n d m o n o p o lie s d e n y t o p a r t o f it s c it iz e n s t h a t f r e e u s e o f t h e ir
f a c u lt ie s , a n d fr e e c h o ic e o f t h e ir o c c u p a t io n s , w h ic h n o t o n ly c o n s t i­
tu te s t h e ir p r o p e r ly in th e g e n e r a l s e n s e o f th e w o r d ; b u t a re th e m e a n s
o f a c q u ir in g p r o p e r t y s t r i c t l y s o c a lle d . ” 37 ( I t a lic s a d d e d )

M a d is o n in c lu d e d th e c o n c e p t th a t g o v e r n m e n t c o u ld n o t d o in d ir e c t ly w h a t
it c o u ld n o t d o d ir e c t ly . I n h is v ie w ,

“ A g o v e r n m e n t . . . w h ic h p r id e s i t s e l f in m a in t a in in g th e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f
p r o p e r t y ; w h ic h p r o v id e s th a t n o n e s h a ll b e ta k e n d i r e c t l y e v e n f o r p u b ­
l i c u s e w it h o u t i n d e m n if ic a t io n t o th e o w n e r : a r d '>et d i r e c t ' > v I 1 t *

-

 16

OliVUNE ()!• PUOI’EKTY RIGHTS AND J'KliliUDM IN AMUUK'A
l l i c p r o p e r t y . . . , n a y m o r e , w h ic h i n d i r e c t l y v io la t e s t h e ir p r o p e r t y in
t h e ir a c tu a l p o s s e s s io n s , in th e l a b o r t h a t a c q u ir e s th e m

th e ir d a ily

s u b s is te n c e , a n d in th e h a llo w e d r e m n a n t o f lim e w h ic h o u g h t t o r e lie v e
t h e ir f a t ig u e s a n d s o o th e t h e ir c a re s , th e in llu e n c e w i l l h a v e b e e n a n t ic i­
p a te d , th a t s u c h a g o v e r n m e n t is n o p a tte r n lo r th e U n it e d S ta te s .” '"
( I t a lic s a d d e d )

T h e r e ca n b e l i t t l e d o u b t th a t M a d is o n b e lie v e d th e U .S . C o n s t it u t i o n p r o ­
te c te d A m e r ic a n c it iz e n s f r o m a n y g o v e r n m e n t u s u r p a t io n o f a p r o p e r t y o w n ­
e rs r ig h ts . T h is n a t u r a l r ig h t w a s d e lib e r a t e ly d e s ig n e d to p r o t e c t th e p r o p e r t y
o w n e r fr o m u s u r p a t io n o f th e s ta te o r c o m m u n it y in n a m e o f th e “ p u b lic g o o d ”
—

i f th a t u s u r p a t io n n e g a t iv e ly e f f e c ts th e a b i l i t y o f th e c it iz e n to m a k e a l i v ­

in g o r re d u c e d t h e ir lo n g - t e r m p la n s f o r th e p r o p e r t y . T h e o n ly w a y p r o p e r t y
c o u ld b e ta k e n f o r th e p u b lic g o o d is t h r o u g h c o n d e m n a t io n a n d j u s t c o m p e n ­
s a t io n , o r w h e n th e u s e c r e a te d a c o m m o n la w h a rm o r n u is a n c e .

P r o p e r t y R ig h t s a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l D e g r a d a t io n
E n v ir o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t io n o f o u r w a te r w a y s a n d a ir a re o f t e n c it e d as e v i ­
d e n c e th a t p r o p e r t y o w n e r s c a n n o t b e tr u s te d to p r o t e c t th e e n v ir o n m e n t . Y e t ,
j u s t th e o p p o s ite is tr u e . It is b e c a u s e o u r w a te r w a y s a n d a ir a re h e ld in t r u s t b y
th e s ta te th a t w e h a v e h a d e n v ir o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t io n o f th o s e e n t it ie s . T h is
d a m a g e is th e d ir e c t r e s u lt o f th e la w o f th e c o m m o n s , a n o th e r n a t u r a l la w .
P e o p le w i l l n a t u r a lly d o t h in g s a t th e le a s t c o s t a n d e f f o r t to th e m s e lv e s . S in c e
n o o n e “ o w n e d ” th e a i r a n d w a t e r w a y s a n d th e s ta te ’ s fo c u s w a s o n d e v e lo p ­
m e n t ra th e r th a n p r o t e c t io n , th e c h e a p e s t w a y to d is p o s e o f w a s te w a s to d u m p
it in o u r r iv e r s a n d a ir . I la d th e s ta le s in v o k e d th e c o m m o n l a w p r i n c i p l e o f
h a r m a n d n u is a n c e ( s e c b e lo w ) in th e 1 9 6 0 s th is t y p e o f d a m a g e c o u ld h a v e
b e e n p r e v e n te d

w it h o u t th e c r e a t io n o f m a s s iv e fe d e r a l a g e n c ie s lik e

th e

E n v ir o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t io n A g e n c y !
T h e la w o f th e c o m m o n s is n o t lim it e d to ju s t w a te r a n d a ir , h o w e v e r . M a n ­
a g e m e n t o f p u b lic la n d s a re o f t e n c o n t r o lle d b y s p e c ia l in t e r e s t g r o u p s o r b y
u n p ro v e n th e o r ie s t h a t c a n h a v e d e v a s ta tin g im p a c ts o n th e la n d . T h e e n v ir o n ­
m e n t a l d e v a s ta tio n o f th e c o m m u n is t b lo c k n a tio n s p r o v id e s s u c h e v id e n c e .
B u t th is ty p e o f d a m a g e is n o t lim it e d to c o m m u n is t c o u n tr ie s . T h e b o o k P la y ­
in g G o d in Y e llo w s to n e , th e D e s t r u c t io n o f A m e r i c a 's F i r s t N a t i o n a l P a r k b y
A ls t o n C h a s e p r o v id e s a c le a r e x a m p le o f th e e c o lo g ic a l d a m a g e th a t c a n r e s u lt
w hen

an id e o lo g y

o f p r e s e r v a t io n

and

n a t u r a lis m

d o m in a t e s

p u b lic

la n d

p o l i c y . 39
I n c o n tr a s t to p u b lic la n d a n d w a t e r , c o m m o n la w h a s n o t p e r m it t e d th e
s a m e m a g n itu d e o f d a m a g e t o p r iv a t e la n d s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , th o s e th a t d e c r y
p r iv a te p r o p e r ty r ig h t s c o n s is t e n t ly f a il to r e c o g n iz e th a t it is a lw a y s in th e b e s t
lo n g - t e r m in te r e s ts o f th e la n d o w n e r to m a n a g e t h e ir la n d u s in g a c c e p ta b le
n a r

n

t

-"ti

■

" i r

rf a >

-

i i

-

u i ' e r u l e a n d b e lte r w a ^ s

 T his P is o -ini;

ok

P r o per ty R igh ts

and

F reedom

in

A m erica

17

o f m a n a g e m e n t, b i l l r a r e ly c a n th e y b e s u c c e s s f u lly a c c o m p lis lic d u t i l i z i n g th e
c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h t y p ic a l o f I 'c u d a l/ r u lc r t y p e r e g u la t io n s .
In th e f in a l a n a ly s is , it is p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y r ig h t s as c o n s t r a in e d b y c o m m o n
la w a n d s ig n ilic a n l h a rm th a t is th e u lt im a t e a n s w e r to e n v ir o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t ­
io n . A

c o n t in u e d r e lia n c e o n h e a v y - h a n d e d la w s a n d r e g u la t io n s w i l l o n ly

s e rv e lo d e v a s ta te la n d o w n e r s a n d d e n y th e m th e a b i l i t y a n d d e s ir e to d e v e lo p
c r e a t iv e s o lu t io n s to o u r e n v ir o n m e n t a l p r o b le m s . I t w i l l a ls o d e n y th e m th e
in c e n t iv e lo c r e a t iv e ly p r o v id e th e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s t h is n a t io n m u s t h a v e to
p r o v id e th e s e c u r it y a n d s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g w e a il e n jo y .

L im it s

A

ok

P r o p e r t y R ig h t s

and t h e

P u b l ic G o o d

s im p o r t a n t as p r o p e r t y r ig h t s a re t o a c h ie v in g a " p e r f e c t " g o v e r n ­
m e n t,

th e C o n s t it u t i o n d o e s im p o s e li m i t s to p r o p e r t y r ig h t s . T h e r e

a rc t w o n a t u r a l r ig h t s th a t a re s u p e r io r t o p r o p e r t y r ig h t s ; 1) a ll m e n
a re c r e a te d e q u a l a n d 2 ) th e u s e o f p r o p e r t y c a n n o t h a r m o r c r e a te a s e r io u s

n u is a n c e lo a n o th e r p e rs o n o r h is p r o p e r t y .

S la v e r y
O n e g la r i n g c o n f l i c t r ip p e d a t th e v e r y h e a r t o f th e F o u n d e r s e f f o r t s lo
m a k e u n a lie n a b le p r o p e r t y r ig h t s th e f o u n d a t io n o f th e U .S . C o n s t it u t i o n —
s la v e r y . S la v e s a n d b o n d s e r v a n ts u n d e r c o n t r a c t w e r e c o n s id e r e d a p r o p e r t y
r ig h t b y “ r ig h t o f c o n t r a c t ” u n d e r th e B r it is h la w s . O b v io u s ly , t h is v io la t e d th e
fu n d a m e n ta l p r in c ip le s th a t “ a ll m e n a re c r e a te d e q u a l ly ” a n d h a d u n a lie n a b le
l ig h t s lo “ lif e , lib e r t y a n d p u r s u it o f h a p p in e s s . " T h e r ig h t t o f r e e ly o w n a n d
u s e p r o p e r t y h a d to e x te n d to a ll m e n i f th e c o n c e p t o f u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s w a s
lo s ta n d as a k e y p a r t o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n ’ s f o u n d a t io n . I n t h is th e F o u n d e r s
w e r e n e a r ly u n it e d . S la v e r y h a d lo b e a b o lis h e d i f th e c o n s t it u t io n w e r e t o b e
a p p lie d e q u it a b ly . T h o m a s J e ffe r s o n , in p a r t ic u la r , a d a m a n t ly o p p o s e d s la v e r y
a n d h a d f o u g h t in e v e r y p u b lic o f f i c e h e h e ld t o e lim in a t e i t . 40 H o w e v e r , th e
p a t h w a y to a n e c o n o m ic t r a n s it io n o u t o f s la v e r y w a s n o t s o c le a r , n o t e v e n f o r
th e s la v e s w h o w e r e w o e f u l l y u n p r e p a r e d f o r f r e e d o m .
C o n t r a r y to th e a s s e rtio n s o f s o m e e n v ir o n m e n t a l a n d p u b lic in te r e s t le a d ­
e rs , m o s t F o u n d e r s s t r o n g ly o p p o s e d s la v e r y , e v e n th o s e o f th e d e e p s o u t h . 41
N o n e t h e le s s , th e e c o n o m ie s o f G e o r g ia , S o u t h a n d N o r t h C a r o lin a w e r e s o
d e p e n d e n t o n s la v e s th a t it w a s u n l i k e l y t h e y w o u l d r a t i f y th e C o n s t it u t i o n i f
it o u t r ig h t p r o h ib it e d s la v e r y . T o p r o v id e a n o r d e r ly t r a n s it io n f r o m s la v e r y ,
th e F o u n d e r s w e r e w i l l i n g lo a l l o w

t w e n t y y e a r s f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f. a

s la v e - fr e e e c o n o m y in th e s e s o u t h e r n s ta te s . A r t i c l e 1, S e c t io n 9 .1 o f th e U .S .
C o n s t it u t io n p r o h ib it s a ll s la v e im p o r t a t io n a n d m ig r a t io n a f t e r th e y e a r 1 8 0 8 ,
“ ' f l i c m ig r a t io n o r im p o r t a t io n o f s u c h p e rs o n s as a n y o f th e S ta te s n o w e x is t ­
in g s h a ll t h in k p r o p e r to a d m it, s h a ll n o t be p r o h ib it e d b y th e C o n g r e s s p r i o r to
ne

•

r

f<

i

i V ir  -

-i n i T ;T a r d n i F t.

T h e in t e n t o f A r t i c l e 1.9.1

 f

i

N i_______

D iii'U N Ji (>]• PK oiM iirrv K k '.h t :;

and

I ' k js k w >m

in

A m isk ic a

w a s c le a r ly to a b o lis h s la v e r y . M a d is o n o p in e d ,

“ . . . I t o u g h t to be c o n s id e r e d as a g re a t p o in t g a in e d in f a v o r o f h u m a n ­
it y th a t a p e r io d o f t w e n t y y e a rs m a y t e r m in a t e f o r e v e r , w i t h i n th e s e
S la te s , a t r u f f le w h ic h h a s s o lo n g a n d so lo u d ly u p b ra id e d th e b a r b a r is m
o f m o d e r n p o lic y ; th a t w i t h i n th a t p e r io d it w i l l r e c e iv e a c o n s id e r a b le
d is c o u r a g e m e n t , a n d m a y b e t o t a lly a b o lis h e d . ” "

I n th e m e a n t im e th e F o u n d e r s p la c e d a p r o v is i o n in th e N o r t h w e s t O r d i ­
n a n c e (p a s s e d th e s a m e y e a r th e C o n s t it u t i o n w a s s ig n e d —

1 7 8 7 ) th a t in th e

n e w s ta te s th e re w o u ld b e n o s la v e r y . " 3
T r a g ic a lly , in s p ite o f t h e ir e f f o r t s g re e d p r e v a ile d . T h e 18 0 8 d e a d lin e c a m e
a n d w e n t a n d s la v e r y s t i l l c o n t in u e d . I f e v e r a c a s e w e r e to b e m a d e to p r o v e
th e a b s o lu te n a tu r e o f n a t u r a l la w a n d u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s , th e s la v e r y is s u e
m a k e s th a t c a s e . T e n s io n s c o n t in u e d to m o u n t f o r th e n e x t 5 6 y e a rs u n t il it
h e lp e d p r e c ip it a t e th e C i v i l W a r in 1 8 6 4 . A m e r ic a has p a y e d a t e r r ib le p r ic e b y
v i o l a t i n g th e s e n a t u r a l r ig h t s .
T o d a y w e a re o n c e a g a in v i o l a t i n g th e s e u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s . B y s t r ip p in g
A m e r i c a n s o f th e r ig h t to o w n a n d u se p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y in th e “ p u r s u it o f
h a p p in e s s ,” vve a re c r e a t in g a n e w ty p e o f s la v e . T h is t im e a l l A m e r ic a n s a re
b e c o m in g s la v e s to a n u n a c c o u n t a b le c e n t r a l b u r e a u c r a c y .

C o m m o n L o w a n d N u is a n c e
U n t o u c h a b le p r o p e r ly r ig h t s a re c a lle d a l l o d i a l r ig h t s . * * In s te a d w e h a v e
w h a t is c u lle d y e t* s im p le p r o p e r t y r iy h t s . F e e s im p le e n t it le s Ih c o w n e r to th e
e n t ir e p r o p e r t y w it h u n c o n d it io n a l p o w e r o f d is p o s it io n d u r in g h is l i f e , o r
d e s c e n d in g to h is h e irs a n d le g a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s u p o n h is d e a th . W h ile th e t it le
is u n c o n d it io n a l, th e u se o f l h c p r o p e r t y c a n h a v e c e r t a in c o n d it io n s in v o k e d ,
a lb e it e x t r e m e ly lim it e d c o n d it io n s . ’ T h e F if t h A m e n d m e n t to C o n s t it u t i o n
p e r m it s th e use o f e m in e n t d o m a in to ta k e p r o p e r t y f o r th e p u b lic g o o d as lo n g
as th e p r o p e r ty o w n e r r e c e iv e s j u s t c o m p e n s a t io n . C o m m o n la w p r o v is io n s o f
n u is a n c e a n d h a r m a ls o p r e v e n t p r o p e r t y o w n e r s f r o m u s in g t h e ir p r o p e r t y to
th e d e t r im e n t o f o th e r s . E v e n s o , th e F if t h A m e n d m e n t s e v e r e ly l im it s th e
s c o p e o f c o m m o n la w n u is a n c e a n d h a rm b y s a y in g a c it iz e n c a n n o t b e d e -

’ Fee simple is defined as "a freehold estate [without end)...absolute and unqualified, the
highest and most ample estate known to the law- (Cochran Law Lexicon). "Absolute fee simple is
‘ an estate limited absolutely to a man and his heirs and assigns forever without limitation or
condition’ (Black's Law Dictionary). The word ‘ fee- is derived from fhe concepts of feoda, feuds,
fiefs during the feudal era and describes the inclusion of certain conditions by the king or lord. The
Magna Carta introduced the basic concepts of due process and just compensation to protect
personal liberty. These principles provide the evolutionary foundation for American common law
•' i *•
I <I i ‘ L
■ * f
> ------ t i I* e • ith t e * e ■
- n -i i

 T h e D e c l in e

oe

P ro perty K u '.h t s

and

F reedom

in

A m erica

19

p r i v c d o f l i f e , lib e r t y , o r p r o p e r t y , w it h o u t d u e p ro c e s s o f la w .
T h e h is t o r ic a l l i m i t s to p r o p e r ly r ig h t s a rc b a s e d in c o m m o n la w w h ic h
s e r v e s to p r e v e n t a d e f in a b le h a r m to a n e ig h b o r o r th e la r g e r c o m m u n it y .
S in c e c o m m o n la w is m e r e ly th e a p p lic a t io n o f c u s t o m a n d c a s e la w o f a d e lin a b le c o m m u n it y o r c u lt u r e , n u is a n c e la w s a n d r e g u la t io n s a f f e c t i n g p r iv a t e
p r o p e r ly w e r e , u n t il th e 1 9 6 0 s, d e s ig n e d b y a l o c a l c o m m u n it y to d e f in e w h e n
th e u s e o f p r o p e r t y c a u s e s h a rm to a n o th e r a n d p r e v e n t th a t u s c .°
L ik e w is e , z o n in g la w s w e r e h is t o r ic a lly d e s ig n e d b y t o w n , c i t y a n d c o u n ty
fa t h e r s to o r g a n iz e th e u se o f p r o p e r ly th e r e b y r e d u c in g th e u s e o f th e c o u r t
s y s t e m in s e t t lin g n u is a n c e d is p u te s . T h is is w h e r e it g e ts s t ic k y . T h e d i f f e r ­
e n c e b e tw e e n n u is a n c e a n d th e a lt r u is t ic w a n ts o r d e s ire s o f n e ig h b o r s is f u z z y
a n d c a n le a d to a r b it r a r y a n d c a p r ic io u s z o n in g p la n s . I n L u c a s v. S o u th C a r o ­
l i n a C o a s t a l C o u n c il th e S u p r e m e C o u r t n o te d th a t " t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n
'h a r m - p r e v e n t in g *1 a n d 'b e n e f it - c o n f e r r i n g ' r e g u la t io n is o f t e n in th e e y e o f th e
b e h o l d e r . . . . ” T h e r e w i l l n e v e r b e a c le a r d e f i n i t i o n th a t c a n s e p a ra te n u is a n c e
a n d a lt r u is t ic v a lu e s . L ik e w is e , z o n in g r e g u la t io n s c a n h u r t s o m e la n d o w n e r s
w h i l e h e lp in g o th e r s . G r e e d c a n a n d h a s c o r r u p t e d th e p ro c e s s o n n u m e r o u s
o c c a s io n s . N o n e th e le s s , t h e k e y t o s u c c e s s f u l z o n in g a n d l a n d u s e r e g u la t io n
w h ile m i n i m i z i n g a b u s e s is to 1 ) u s e z o n in g a n d r e g u la t io n s s p a r in g ly a n d 2 )
in s u r e th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o d e v e lo p a n d a d m i n i s t e r t h e z o n in g r e g u la t io n s
a r e e le c te d , o r a r e d i r e c t l y e m p lo y e d b y , t h o s e t h a t a r c e le c t e d b y t h e p e o p le
t h e y r e g u la t e . T h e y a re th e r e fo r e d i r e c t l y a c c o u n t a b le t o th e c it iz e n s t h a t t h e y
a r e r e g u la t in g . I f th e e le c to r a te d id n o t a g re e w i t h th e z o n in g r e g u la t io n s , th e
r a s c a ls r e s p o n s ib le c a n be v o te d o u t o f o f f ic e .
T o t r u s t u n e le c t e d o f f i c i a l s a n d r e g u l a t o r s w it h t h e a w e s o m e p o w e r o f
z o n in g o r l a n d u s e r e g u l a t i o n w i t h o u t s t r o n g c h e c k s a n d b a la n c e s a n d a c ­
c o u n t a b ili t y t o th o s e u n d e r t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n w i l l u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n t y r a n n y
a n d d e s t r o y t r u s t i n g o v e r n m e n t . A s J e f f e r s o n n o te s , “ E v e r y g o v e r n m e n t
d e g e n e r a te s w h e n t r u s te d to th e r u le r s o f th e p e o p le a lo n e . T h e p e o p le t h e m ­
s e lv e s , t h e r e f o r e , a rc its o n ly s a fe d e p o s it o r ie s . ” 45
T h is n a tu r a l la w h a s b e e n ig n o r e d in r e c e n t y e a rs . I n r e s p o n d in g to th e p u b ­
lic in te r e s t a n d e n v ir o n m e n ta l lo b b ie s ’ r h e t o r ic o f d o o m a n d g lo o m , th e fe d e r a l
g o v e r n m e n t a n d to a le s s e r d e g re e th e v a r io u s s ta te s , h a v e u s u rp e d p o w e r o f
d e c is io n m a k in g f r o m th e lo c a l c it iz e n s . I n t u r n , th e u s u r p a t io n o f s ta te a n d
lo c a l a u t h o r it y b y th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t h a s le d t o a lit a n y o f “ u n fu n d e d m a n ­
d a te s ” th a t o f t e n le a d to lu d ic r o u s p o lic ie s w h e n im p le m e n t e d b y u n a c c o u n t­
a b le fe d e r a l a g e n ts a t th e lo c a l le v e l. T h e s a m e c a n o c c u r w h e n s la te u s u rp s
p o w e r s m o r e a p p r o p r ia te ly b e lo n g in g a t th e t o w n , c it y , o r c o u n t y le v e l. T h e s e

' In 1962, with the ruling on Goldblatt v. Hempstead, the concept of nuisance and harm
merged with that of police powers granted to states. Since essentially any action can be justified as
being for the public health, safety, or welfare, governing officials have been free lo expropriate
prrate property through regulations for the public good. (See Mark Pollot, Grand Theft and Petit
i

1

 20

]>j-:n..]NG <>]•' P roperty R ights

and

F reedom

in

A m erica

r e g u la t io n s d o l i t t l e to p r o t e c t p e o p le o r th e e n v ir o n m e n t. S im p ly s ta te d , t h e
h i g h e r t h e le v e l o f g o v e r n m e n t i n w h ic h a r e g u la t o r y h n v is m a d e , t h e le s s
a c c o u n t a b le it s r e g u la t o r y a g e n c ie s w i l l b e t o t h e p e o p le t h e y r e g u la t e a n d
th e g r a d e r t h e c h a n c e f o r a r b i t r a r y a p p lic a t io n o f th o s e r e g u la t io n s .
A n o t h e r v io la t io n o f C o n s t it u t io n a l in te n t a re r e g io n a l c o m m is s io n s a n d
c o u n c ils . T h e y o f t e n h a v e a w e s o m e p o w e r s to im p o s e d r a c o n ia n z o n in g r e g ­
u la tio n s , y e t a re u n a c c o u n ta b le to th o s e th e y r e g u la te s in c e th e s e c o m m is s io n s
a n d c o u n c ils a re u s u a lly a p p o in t e d r a t h e r th a n e le c te d b y t h e ir c o n s t it u e n t s .
T h is d o e s n 't m e a n th a t s i m i l a r la w s a r e n 't n e c e s s a r y a t th e lo w e r g o v e r n ­
m e n ta l le v e ls to a v o id tr u e n u is a n c e a n d h a rm . R a th e r , t h e p r o b l e m o c c u r s
w h e n r e g u la t io n s a r e c r a f t e d a n d e n f o r c e d b y a f e d e r a l o r s ta te b u r e a u c r a c y
w h o s e n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n is t o a c c u m u la t e p o w e r a n d g r o w in c r e a s i n g l y
u n a c c o u n t a b le t o t h e p e o p l e t h e y r e g u la t e .
A lt h o u g h th e s ta te a n d lo c a l g o v e r n in g j u r is d ic t io n s h a v e a n o b lig a t io n to
m a k e la w s t o p r o t e c t its c it iz e n s f r o m d e f in a b le a n d s ig n if ic a n t n u is a n c e a n d
h a rm , it is o f t e n d o n e a t th e w r o n g le v e l o f g o v e r n m e n t . W e m u s t b e g in to r e ­
t u r n p o w e r to th e p e o p le b y a s s is t in g lo c a l c o m m u n it ie s a n d ju r i s d i c t i o n s
t h r o u g h e d u c a t io n a n d o t h e r m e a n s . T h is w i l l n o t be e a s y , b u t C o n g r e s s a n d
s ta te le g is la t u r e s m u s t ta k e a h a r d lo o k a t t h is is s u e to d a y .

T h e P u b lic G o o d
M o s t b u s in e s s e s a n d p r o p e r t y r ig h t s a d v o c a te s h a v e r e p e a te d ly s ta le d th e y
d o n o t o b je c t to r e g u la tio n s o r r e g u la t in g b o d ie s , m e r e ly r e g u la t io n w i t h o u t r e ­
p r e s e n t a t io n . L a n d u se r e g u la t io n b y fe d e r a l a m i e v e n s ta te a g e n c ie s th a t a re
n o t a c c o u n t a b le to th e c o m m u n it y b e in g r e g u la te d a re m e r e ly a v a r ia n t o f
f e u d a lis m u n d e r th e g u is e o f (h e " p u b l i c g o o d . "
I t is e a s y f o r a m a jo r it y to tr a m p le th e r ig h t s o f a m in o r it y to a c h ie v e , in th e
m a jo r it y 's e s t im a t e , a " p u b l i c g o o d . " S o e a s y is it to f a ll in t o th is tr a p th a t th e
m a jo r it y f a ils to r e c o g n iz e th a t th e d o c t r in e o f th e " p u b lic g o o d " is a t w o - e d g e d
s w o r d th a t c a n e a s ily s la y t h e ir o w n f r e e d o m . T h e s o - c a lle d p u b lic g o o d is
b o th d y n a m ic a n d r e la t iv e , q u ic k ly c h a n g in g w it h th e w h im s o f s o c ie t y . C i i i e f
J u s tic e o f th e S u p r e m e C o u r t W a r r e n B u r g e r e m p h a s iz e d t h is p o in t in U n it e d
S te e lw o r k e r s v. W e b e r, “ [ B je w a r e th e ‘ g o o d r e s u lt , ’ a c h ie v e d b y j u d i c i a l l y u n ­
a u t h o r iz e d o r i n t e l l e c t u a l l y d is h o n e s t m e a n s o n th e a p p e a lin g n o t io n t h a t th e
d e s ir a b le e n d s j u s t i f y th e im p r o p e r j u d i c i a l m e a n s . F o r th e re is a lw a y s th e
d a n g e r t h a t th e s e e d s o f p r e c e d e n t s o w n b y g o o d m e n f o r th e b e s t o f m o t iv e s
w i l l y i e l d a r i c h h a r v e s t o f u n p r in c i p l e d a c ts o f o th e r s a ls o a im in g a t " g o o d
ends.

( I t a lic s a d d e d ) U n le s s th e r ig h t s o f e v e r y c it iz e n a rc p r o t e c t e d a t a l l

tim e s , fr e e d o m is a n illu s io n . T o d a y 's m a j o r it y c o u ld b e c o m e t o m o r r o w ’ s m i ­
n o r it y .
U n f o r t u n a t e ly , th e m a j o r i t y h a s s h o w n i t s e l f to b e m o r e th a n w i l l i n g to
a p p r o p r ia t e a " p u b l i c v a lu e " i f th e b u r d e n o f p a y in g f o r it c a n be t h r u s t o n a
p o w e rle s s m in o r it y . T h a t is h u m a n n a tu r e a n d a n o th e r “ n a tu r a l la w . ” I n r e c e n t

 T hu D e c l in e

oe

P ro perty R ights

and

F reedom

in

A m erica

21

tim e s th is h u m a n f a i l i n g lia s p itte d p o li t i c a l l y p o w e r f u l u r b a n a n d s u b u r b a n it e s
a g a in s t r u r a l c it iz e n s . W h e n th e u r b a n / s u b u r b a n m a j o r i t y m u s t b e a r th e c o s t
it s e lf , th e r e s u lt c a n b e q u it e d if f e r e n t . O n ly w h e n th e m a j o r it y is f o r c e d t o p a y
c o m p e n s a t io n f o r th e s e b e n e fits w i l l th e y b e c o m p e lle d t o p r i o r i t i z e w h a t t h e y
r e a ll y w a n t a n d h o w m u c h ( h e y a re w i l l i n g to p a y f o r th e s e b e n e fits .
T h e o n l y d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a la r g e c i t y a n d th e r u r a l c o m m u n it y is th e
e n o r m o u s p o lit ic a l p o w e r o f a la r g e c it y . R u r a l la n d o w n e r s m u s t “ d o n a te ” t h e ir
la n d f o r th e h e a lth a n d w e lf a r e o f t h e ir u r b a n it e c o u s in s . I t is e x a c t ly th e s e
k in d s o f e d ic t s th a t d e s t r o y th e e c o n o m y a n d liv e s o f r u r a l c it iz e n s .
O f c o u r s e s u c h lu d ic r o u s m a n d a te s c o u ld n e v e r b e im p o s e d o n A m e r i c a ’ s
la r g e r c it ie s . O r c o u ld th e y ? F o r n e a r ly s i x t y y e a r s th e c it iz e n s o f th e G r e a t e r
D e n v e r a re a h a d p la n n e d to c o n s tr u c t a d a m a t th e c o n f lu e n c e o f th e S o u t h a n d
N o r t h F o r k s o f th e P la tte R iv e r —

le ss th a n a n h o u r ’ s d r iv e f r o m th e c it y . T h e y

h a d “ o w n e d ” th e p r o p e r t y r ig h t s to t h is d e s p e r a t e ly n e e d e d w a t e r f o r n in e t y
y e a rs . A f t e r s p e n d in g $ 4 2 m i l l i o n o n s tu d ie s m a n d a te d b y th e N a t io n a l E n v i r ­
o n m e n t a l P o lic y A c t , th e p r o je c t w a s a b o u t t o b e a p p r o v e d w h e n , u n d e r h e a v y
p r e s s u r e b y e n v ir o n m e n t a lis t s , E P A h e a d W i l l i a m

R e illy a n n o u n c e d he w a s

r e a s s ig n in g ju r i s d i c t i o n f o r th e p e r m it f r o m th e E P A r e g io n a l a d in in is t r a t o r f o r
th e D e n v e r a re a to th e r e g io n a l a d m in is t r a t o r f r o m A t la n t a , G e o r g ia . N o t s u r ­
p r i s i n g l y , th e A t la n t a a d m in is t e r a r b i t r a r i l y d e c id e d in

1 9 9 0 D e n v e r d id n o t

n e e d th e w a t e r . '17
The E P A u n d e r W illi a m R e illy u se d th e C le a n W a t e r A c t ( S e c t io n 4 0 4 c ) in
th e n a m e o f l h e “ p u b lic g o o d ” to j u s t i f y th e d e c is io n e v e n t h o u g h s u c h a c t io n
w a s f o r b id d e n b y th e A c t it s e lf , “ It is th e p o lic y o f C o n g r e s s th a t th e a u t h o r it y
o f e a c h S la te to a llo c a t e q u a n t it ie s o f w a t e r w i t h i n its j u r i s d i c t i o n s h a ll n o t be
s u p e r s e d e d , a b r o g a te d o r o t h e r w is e im p a ir e d b y t h is A c t . ”

C o n s t it u t i o n a l

a t t o r n e y P e r r y P e n d le y n o te s ,

“ R e i l l y ’ s u s u r p a t io n o f p o w e r w a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n a t t e m p t t o u s e
th e C le a n W a t e r A c t to e n g a g e in a n a c t iv it y C o n g re s s h a d r e je c te d c o n ­
s is t e n t ly : la n d - u s e p la n n in g . T h is w a s in c le a r v i o l a t i o n o f th e C le a n
W a t e r A c t ’ s p r o v is i o n “ p r e s e r v i n g ] a n d p r o t e c t i n g ] ” s ta te p r im a c y
o v e r W e s te r n w a t e r r ig h t s . ” '’ 9

T o u se th e d o c t r in e o f " p u b lic g o o d " o r “ p u b lic in t e r e s t ” as th e m e a s u r e o f
fa ir n e s s , le g it im a c y a n d l im it s to p r o p e r t y r ig h t s is t o d e s t r o y a ll p r e te n s e o f
f r e e d o m a n d lib e r t y f o r e v e ry o n e . S o o n e r o r la te r e v e r y b o d y b e c o m e s th e m in - .
o r ily .
I r o n i c a l l y , it is e x a c t ly th e a b o v e s it u a t io n th a t th e F o u n d e r s o f th e C o n ­
s t it u t io n o f th e U n it e d S ta te s f o r e s a w as th e m o s t s e r io u s th r e a t t o in d i v i d u a l
lib e r t y . W h ile

la y in g th e f o u n d a t io n f o r th e d i v i s i o n o f p o w e r s d u r in g th e

o p e n i n g d a y s o f th e o r i g i n a l U n it e d S ta te s C o n s t it u t i o n a l C o n v e n t io n in th e
s p r i n g o f 1 7 8 7 , J a m e s M a d is o n a s s e rte d ,

 D );n..iNij: m-~ PKontiKTY .Ru ; h t s

It

and

H;,]M:.i; d o ,m
r r .o n .F . s

“ In c ill c a se s w h e r e a m a j o r it y a re

in

A m e k k -a

ia w

u n ite d b y a c o m m o n in te re s t o r p a s ­
s io n , th e r ig h t s o f th e m i n o r i t y a rc
in

d a n g e r . " 50

[ e m p h a s is

addedj

M a d is o n c o n tin u e s , " [ A   p u r e d e m ­
o c r a c y . . . c a n a d m it o f n o c u re lo r
th e m is c h ie f s o f [t h e

m a jo r ity ]...

a n d th e re is n o t h i n g to c h e c k th e

TYRANNY OF THE
M A J O R IT Y

crtCJAl
IHItREBI*

in d u c e m e n ts to s a c r ific e th e w e a k e r
Figure 3. Jefferson framed the Conslilulion

p a r t y . H e n c e it is th a t s u c h d e m ­

within what he called the People's Law in

o c r a c ie s h a v e e v e r b e e n s p e c ta c le s
o f t u r b u le n c e a n d c o n t e n t io n ; h a v e

which ttie majority of power is with the peo­
ple, then the counties, stales, and finally the

e v e r b e e n f o u n d in c o m p a t ib le w it h

least is with the federal government. The very

p e rs o n a l s e c u r it ie s o r th e r ig h t o f

powerful environmental and safety special
interest lobbies have begun to reverse this

p r o p e r t y ; a n d h a v e in g e n e r a l b e e n

generalized structure back to the (eudal/ruler

as s h o r t in t h e ir liv e s as t h e y h a v e

form of government by persuading an un­

b e e n v io l e n t in t h e ir d e a th s .” 51

informed "majority" using exaggerated and

often false claims that the “public good" is
M a d is o n w a s n 't d e n y in g th e b e n e fits o f served in the passage of such laws. They can
a d e m o c r a c y , o n ly th e in e v it a b le a b u s e s o f then apply enoimous political pressure on
an

u n c o n s ln iiiw il

d e m o c ra c y .

A

p u r e c0, y,css and stale legislatures to pass laws

d e m o c r a c y is n o t h in g m o r e th a n m o b r u le ,
usurp local authority. IT.is approach was
,
.
.
despised by our Founders who called it the
c o n t r o lle d b y w h o m e v e r e x e r t s th e m o s t Tyrannyof th e Majority.
p o w e r o v e r th e m a jo r it y . M a d is o n c a lle d it

Federal and sometimes stale agents are

th e “ T y r a n n y o l th e M a j o r i t y . ” J u s t ilic a - becoming incieasingly unaccounlnblo to in t io n

o f a c t io n s

in

th e s o - c a lle d

“ p u b lic dividual citizens over whom they now have

in te re s t” o r “ g o o d ” f o r th e m a j o r it y , a t th e jurisdiction. Sucli unaccountability inevitably
e x p e n s e o f a m i n o r i t y , w i l l in e v it a b ly leads lo tyranny. As long as the federal gov,
,
. .
, ,
,
ernmenl continues to usurp slate, local and
c a u s e h a r m to th e m a j o n t y a n d d e s tro y th e property figh(s (he (ensions and cjvj  unres,
s t a b ilit y o f th a t s o c ie t y . H e n c e , th e U n it e d n,at js growing within the United States will
S ta le s

C o n s t it u t i o n

never

in te n d e d

f o r only get worse,

p u b lic p o l i c y t o b e b a s e d o n th e c o n c e p t
o f th e p u b lic g o o d w i t h o u t s e v e re c o n s t r a in t s . In s te a d , o u r C o n s t it u t i o n is n o t
b a s e d o n a p u r e d e m o c r a c y as m a n y b e lie v e , b u t o n a d e m o c r a c y w it h in a
C o n s t it u t io n a l R e p u b lic c o n s tr a in e d b y “ u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s ” .
A s d e f in e d b y th e U .S . C o n s t it u t io n , a R e p u b lic d iv id e s p o w e r b e tw e e n
c o u n tie s , s la te s a n d th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . P o w e r s h e ld b y e a c h o f th e s e
le v e ls is f u r t h e r d iv id e d b e tw e e n th e le g is la tiv e , e x e c u tiv e , a n d j u d i c i a l b r a n c h ­
es. T h e g r e a te s t p o w e r s o f g o v e r n m e n t w e r e to be d e le g a te d to th e lo c a l g o v ­
e r n m e n t s , n o t th e f e d e r a l o r e v e n s ta te le v e ls o f g o v e r n m e n t . J e f f e r s o n n o te d
th a t “ I t w a s b y d i v i d i n g a n d s u b d iv id in g th e s e r e p u b lic s f r o m th e g r e a t n a tio n a l
o n e d o w n t h r o u g h a ll its s u b o r d in a t io n s u n t il it e n d s in th e a d m in is t r a t io n o f
e v e r y m a n ’ s f a r m b y h im s e l f , b y p la c in g u n d e r e v e r y o n e w h a t h is o w n e y e

 T h e D e c l in e <>]•■P r o per ty

r ig h t s and f r e e d o m in

A m erica

23

m a y s u p e r in t e n d , th a t a ll w i l l b e d o n e f o r th e b e s t.” 52
C h a n g in g d e m o g r a p h ie s in A m e r i c a h a s le d t o in c r e a s in g p o lit ic a l p o w e r
in o u r u rb a n a n d s u b u r b a n c it ie s n e v e r e n v is io n e d b y J e ffe r s o n . C it iz e n s l i v i n g
in la r g e c it ie s u s u a lly a re d is c o n n e c t e d f r o m th e r e a litie s o f r u r a l lif e a n d r e ­
s o u rc e u t iliz a t io n . Y e t , th e ir in c r e a s in g p o w e r w i t h i n c o n g r e s s a n d th e v a r io u s
s ta te le g is la tu r e s h a s p e r m it t e d th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l a n d p u b lic in te re s t lo b b ie s to
e m p lo y th e t a c t ic o f th e “ t y r a n n y o f th e m a j o r i t y ” f o r a lt r u is t ic g o a ls w it h o u t
u r b a n / s u b u r b a n c it iz e n s e v e n k n o w in g it. T h e s e s p e c ia l in t e r e s t lo b b ie s h a v e
c o n v in c e d th e u r b a n /s u b u r b a n m a j o r it y a n d c o n g r e s s to c re a te a n in t e r lo c k in g
w e b o f la w s a n d r e g u la t io n s th a t u s u rp lo c a l a n d s ta te ju r i s d i c t i o n s a n d b e s to w
e n o r m o u s p o w e r s o n fe d e r a l b u re a u c r a ts w h o im p le m e n t r e g u la t io n s , y e t h a v e
lit t le to n o a c c o u n t a b ilit y to c it iz e n s t h e y g o v e r n . T h is v io la t e s th e p r o t e c t io n s
in te n d e d b y th e N in t h a n d T e n t h A m e n d m e n t s t o th e C o n s t it u t io n (se e p a g e 7 ).
O u r F o u n d e r s in te n d e d th a t u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s a n d th e c o n c e n t r a t io n o f
p o w e r a t th e lo c a l le v e l w o u ld p r o t e c t th e r ig h t s o f th e m i n o r i t y f r o m th e t y r ­

While imperfect, a democracy can flourish only
when unalienable rights arc held sacred, the powers of government are
divided multiple times, and those administering those powers arc d ir e c tly
accountable to (he citizens they govern at the lowest possible level of juris­
diction. T h a i le v e l o f ju r i s d i c t i o n w a s n e v e r in te n d e d to be th e f e d e r a l g o v e r n ­
a n n y o f th e m a j o r i t y . 53

m e n t.

T he o n ly p r a c t ic a l w a y th a t C o n g r e s s c a n p r o t e c t th e r u r a l m i n o r i t y is

providing full compensation to a landowner when
enforcement of a regulation devalues their land value. T h e o n ly excep­

th e C o n s t it u tio n a l w a y o f
th e

t io n to c o m p e n s a t io n m u s t b e in th o s e in s ta n c e s w h e r e a la w o r r e g u la t io n is
c le a r ly o n e b a s e d o n c o m m o n la w n u is a n c e a n d h a r m .
T h is a p p ro a c h is c le a r ly th e d ir e c t io n th e S u p r e m e C o u r t is t a k in g in r e c e n t
d e c is io n s (s e e S u p r e m e C o u r t C a s e H is t o r y , p a g e 2 9 ) . S in c e th e lin e b e tw e e n
n u is a n c e a n d a n a lt r u is t ic “ p u b lic g o o d ” c a n n e v e r b e c le a r ly d e fin e d , n u is a n c e
a n d h a rm m u s t b e t r u ly s ig n if ic a n t * b e fo r e a la n d o w n e r is n o t e n t it le d to c o m p ­
e n s a tio n . ' f l i c c o n c e p t o f s ig n if ic a n c e m u s t b e in c lu d e d b e c a u s e r h e t o r ic c a n
e le v a t e a s o - c a lle d p u b lic g o o d to th e le v e l o f h a r m a n d n u is a n c e . A h a r m o r
n u is a n c e c a n o n l y b e s ig n if ic a n t w h e n th e b u lk o f p e e r - r e v ie w e d e m p i r i c a l

aAs an example, clearculting to the edge of a stream has the high probability of increasing the
temperature and siltation of the stream which has been demonstrated by empirical science to lower
a state's property values inherent in the biodiversity of the stream. A regulation requiring a
minimum of a 50 to 75 foot buffer zone has been scientifically shown to prolect these values in all
but a minority of cases and is therefore a defendable regulation requiring no compensation. The
same would be true of effluent from a community or city.
Any requirement of a wider buffer zone is based purely on aesthetic values or some unproven
theory. Such a requirement in a regulation must therefore be compensated. Likewise, the use of
wetlands, or harm as used in the current Endangered Species Act must be at least partially
compensated since the single activity by itself would not harm the ’overall' health of an ecosystem
"T f i I
yL
Its '
‘
It

 24

DKl'UNJJ OF PROPERTY KU'.H ir. AND FREEDOM IN AMEKll'A

s c ie n t if ic e v id e n c e d e m o n s tr a te s a c le a r h a rm to h u m a n h e a lth o r a lo w e r in g o f
a n o th e r p e r s o n ’ s o r s t a le ’ s p r o p e r t y r ig h ts o r v a lu e s th r o u g h n e g lig e n c e , p o llu t ­
io n , o r o v e r t a c t. W h e n e v e r th e re is a d o u b t, p r o p e r t y r ig h t s m u s t a lw a y s p r e ­
v a il.
It lo o k th e F re n c h t w o R e v o lu t io n s to le a rn th e s e le s s o n s a n d t h r o w o f f th e
b o n d a g e o f f e u d a lis m in F ra n c e . A le x is d e T o e q u e v ille a c k n o w le d g e d in 1 8 4 8 ,
" T h e p r in c ip le s o n w h ic h th e A m e r ic a n c o n s t it u t io n s r e s t, th o s e p r in c ip le s o f
o rd e r, o f th e b a la n c e o f p o w e r s , o f tr u e lib e r t y , o f d e e p a n d s in c e r e re s p e c t f o r
r ig h t, a re in d is p e n s a b le to a ll r e p u b lic s . " 54 In d e e d , as o u r F o u n d e rs a s s e rte d , n o
o th e r f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t c a n p r o te c t th e fr e e d o m o f its c it iz e n s .

F e d e r a l L a n d O w n e r s h ip
O f th e g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f e x a m p le s o f f e u d a lis m in A m e r ic a , fe d e r a l la n d
o w n e r s h ip h a s c r e a te d th e g re a te s t t y r a n n y a n d its r e s u lt in g s t r if e a n d c i v i l
u n re s t. T h e u se o f fe d e r a l la n d is n o t c o n t r o lle d b y th o s e w h o m u s t d e p e n d o n
it f o r a l i v i n g o r s u r v iv a l, b u t b y a n in c r e a s in g ly a r r o g a n t fe d e r a l b u r e a u c r a c y .
A lt h o u g h r e c e n t e n v ir o n m e n t a l la w s n o r m a lly h a v e p r o v is io n s to ta k e in t o
a c c o u n t lo c a l n e e d s , in p r a c t ic e fe d e r a l a g e n ts r e s p o n d to th e la r g e r w is h e s o f
th e s o - c a lle d “ m a j o r i t y ” o f A m e r ic a n s f o r w h o m th e p a r t ic u la r A c t w a s w r i t ­
te n . I t r e p r e s e n ts th e v e r y w o r s t o f th e “ t y r a n n y o f th e m a j o r i t y ” th a t J a m e s
M a d is o n w a r n e d us to n e v e r p e r m it to o c c u r. T o a v o id th is ty p e o f t y r a n n y , o u r
F o u n d in g F a th e r s s e v e r e ly lim it e d th e a b ilit y o f th e fe d e ra l g o v e r n m e n t to o w n
la n d in A r t i c l e

I , S e c t io n 8 o f th e U .S . C o n s t it u t io n ,

“ T o e s ta b lis h p o s t o f f ic e s a n d p o s t ro a d s ;55 T o e x e r c is e e x c lu s iv e L e g is ­
la t io n in a ll c a s e s w h a t s o e v e r , o v e r s u c h d is t r i c t ( n o t e x c e e d in g te n
m ile s s q u a re ) as m a y , b y c e s s io n o f p a r t ic u la r S ta le s , a n d th e a c c e p ta n c e
o f C o n g r e s s , b e c o m e th e s e a t o f th e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e U n it e d S la te s ,
a n d t o e x e r c is e l i k e a u t h o r it y o v e r a ll p la c e s p u r c h a s e d b y th e c o n s e n t
o f th e L e g is la t u r e o f th e S la te in w h ic h th e s a m e s h a ll b e , f o r th e e re c ­
tio n o f f o r t s , m a g a z in e s , a rs e n a ls , d o c k - y a r d s , a n d o t h e r n e e d f u l b u ild ­
in g s .” 5® ( I t a l i c s a d d e d )

T h e s e a r c th e o n ly a u t h o r iz e d ty p e s o f p r o p e r ly to w h ic h th e f e d e r a l g o v ­
e rn m e n t c a n a n d d o c s h o ld t it le a n d d e e d . N o w h e r e in th e C o n s t it u t i o n d o e s it
p r o v id e f o r th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t to o w n la r g e b lo c k s o f la n d . Y e t , t h r o u g h
a se ries o f q u e s tio n a b le d e c is io n s a n d a g re e m e n ts o v e r th e p a s t 190 y e a rs s t a r t ­
in g w it h th e O h io E n a b lin g A c t o f 1 8 0 2 , v a s t tr a c ts o f f e d e r a lly a d m in is t e r e d
la n d c u r r e n t ly e x is t a c ro s s A m e r ic a — e s p e c ia lly in th e W e s t. I r o n ic a lly , i t w a s
T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n h i m s e l f w h o s ta rte d th is tr e n d w h ile h e w a s P r e s id e n t, s o
th a t t e r r it o r i a l “ w a s te la n d s ” c o u ld be h e ld in F e d e r a l t r u s t a n d s o ld to p a y
d o w n th e n a t io n a l d e b t c r e a te d b y th e R e v o lu t io n a r y W a r . 57 E v e n t u a lly th e
r

’-r I

n -

■r

li -

t-

it

i

t

i

1-« t=

-

“

u

i

i

 T U I:. D lX 'U N K OH I'K O IM illTY HH'.HT.S A ND FKHKDOM IN A M K K K 'A

25

fe d e r a l j u r i s d i c t i o n as a c o n d it io n o f s ta te h o o d . B y d o in g s o , th e fe d e r a l g o v ­
e r n m e n t s e e m e d t o a v o id th e n e e d to o b t a in “ th e

consent o f the Legislature

of

th e S ta le in w h ic h th e s a m e s h a ll b e .”
N o t o n ly d o e s t h is “ c o n d it io n o f s t a t e h o o d ” s m a c k o f e x t o r t io n , th e w h o le
a p p ro a c h le n d s to v io la t e th e in te n t b e h in d th e “ E q u a l f o o t i n g D o c t r i n e ” as s e t
f o r t h in th e N o r t h w e s t O r d in a n c e a n d p a s s e d in

1 7 8 7 . T h e O r d in a n c e w a s

r e e n a c te d w it h o u t c h a n g e b y C o n g r e s s a f t e r th e C o n s t it u t i o n w a s r a t if ie d ,
“ A r tic le IX

. . . p r o v id e s a ls o th a t n o s la te s h a ll b e d e p r iv e d o f t e r r it o r y

f o r th e b e n e f it o f th e U n it e d S ta le s .” 58
“ S e c tio n 13 . . . t o p r o v id e a ls o f o r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s la t e s , a n d p e rm a ­
n e n t g o v e r n m e n t t h e r e in , a n d f o r t h e ir a d m is s io n t o a s h a re in th e F e d ­
e ra l C o u n c ils o n a n

equal footing with the original states.”

“ A r t i c l e V . . . a n d w h e n e v e r a n y o f s a id s ta te s s h a ll h a v e s ix t y th o u s a n d
fr e e in h a b it a n t s th e r e in , s u c h s ta te s h a ll b e a d m it t e d , b y its d e le g a te s ,

equal fooling with the origi­
nal states, in all respects whatsoever . . . ” 59 ( I t a lic s a d d e d )
in t o th e C o n g r e s s o f th e U n it e d S ta te s , o n

A lt h o u g h t e r r it o r i e s h e ld “ in t r u s t ” b y th e U .S . G o v e r n m e n t a re u n d e r
fe d e r a l j u r i s d i c t i o n a c c o r d in g to A r t i c l e I V o f th e U .S . C o n s t it u t io n , o n c e a
t e r r it o r y b e c o m e s a s ta le u n d e r th e IZ q u a l F o o t in g D o c t r in e , th a t s ta le is e q u a l
in a ll r e s p e c ts w it h th e o r i g i n a l t h ir t e e n s ta le s . S in c e th e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t
m a d e n o c la im o n a n y la n d w i t h i n th e t h ir t e e n ( e x c e p t f o r th e D i s t r i c t o f C o l­
u m b ia ) , n o c la im c o u ld b e m a d e o n a n y s ta le m a d e f r o m a U .S . t e r r it o r y . T h is

Report o f the Interdepartmental Committee fo r the
study o f Jurisdiction over Federal Arcus within the Slates. Part II @ 46, 47,
p o in t w a s m a d e c le a r in th e

“ T h e c o n s e n t r e q u ir e m e n t o f 1 .8 .1 7 w a s in te n d e d b y th e fr a m e r s o f th e C o n s t i­
t u t io n to p r e s e r v e th e S la t e ’ s j u r i s d i c t i o n a l in t e g r it y a g a in s t fe d e r a l e n c r o a c h ­
m e n t. T h e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t

cannot,

b y u n ila t e r a l a c t io n o n its p a r t, a c q u ir e

le g is la t iv e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r a n a re a w i t h i n th e e x t e r io r b o u n d a r ie s o f a s ta te .”
T o m a k e t e r r it o r i a l c o n c e s s io n a c o n d it io n o f s ta te h o o d is n o t h i n g m o r e
th a n b la c k m a il a n d e x t o r t io n a n d is n o n - b in d in g . T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t s e e m s t o
h a v e a g re e d in n u m e r o u s d e c is io n s . T h e E q u a l F o o t in g D o c t r in e w a s u p h e ld
in

Pollards Lessee v. Hagen

w h e r e th e C o u r t a f f i r m s th e s o v e r e ig n t y o f th e

o r i g i n a l t h ir t e e n s la te s ,

“ W h e n th e U n it e d S ta le s a c c e p te d th e c e s s io n o f th e t e r r it o r y , t h e y t o o k
u p o n th e m s e lv e s th e

trust

to h o ld th e m u n ic i p a l e m in e n t d o m a in f o r th e

n e w s ta le s , a n d to in v e s t th e m w it h it, to th e s a m e e x t e n t , in a ll r e s p e c ts ,
th a t w a s h e ld b y th e s ta te s c e d in g th e t e r r it o r i e s . ” 00 a ( I t a lic s a d d e d ) *I

"Seven of the original thirteen stales had claim ed all the land to the Mississippi River. Since
I -d w as weallh m any slates like Connecticut and Rhode Island w ere already surrounded by
-i u * .)

 ?.(■>

P l i l 'U N B OK P R O P E R T Y P U JH T S AND F R E E D O M IN A M E R IC A
T h e fu e l th a t a n e w s ta te is n o t b o u n d b y a g re e m e n ts m a d e w h i l e it w a s a

t e r r it o r y w a s c le a r ly e s t a b lis h e d in

Coyle

v.

Oklahoma.01

C o n g re s s had re ­

q u ir e d the O k la h o m a T e r r i t o r y to a g re e to m a in t a in th e s la te c a p it a l a t th e
te r r ito r ia l c a p ita l o f G u t h r ie as a c o n d it io n o f s ta te h o o d . T h e T e r r i t o r y o f O k la ­
h o m a a g re e d to th is c o n d it io n , b u t in I 9 10 ( th r e e y e a rs a lt e r it b e c a m e a s ta le )
th e le g is la tu r e m o v e d th e c a p it a l to O k la h o m a C it y . T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t h e ld
th a t s in c e C o n g re s s h a d n o r ig h t to d e te r m in e th e lo c a t io n o f th e c a p it a l in a n y
o f th e o r ig in a l th ir t e e n s ta le s , it c o u ld th e re fo re n o t e n f o r c e th e o r d in a n c e m a n ­
d a t in g th e lo c a t io n o f O k la h o m a ’ s c a p it a l w h e n it r e c e iv e d s ta te h o o d .
T h e E q u a l F o o t in g D o c t r in e is a ls o r e a f f ir m e d b y th e T r e a t y o f G u a d a lu p e
H id a lg o w h e r e b y M e x i c o c e d e d to th e U n it e d S la te s m o s t o f th e s o u t h w e s t , in ­
c lu d i n g C a lif o r n i a , N e v a d a , U t a h , A r iz o n a a n d p a rts o f W y o m in g , C o lo r a d o
an d N e w M e x ic o ,

“...stales shall be form ed into free, sovereign, and independent states
a n d in c o rp o r a te d in t o th e U n io n o f th e U n ite d S ta te s as s o o n as p o s s ib le ,
a n d the c it iz e n s t h e r e o f s h a ll b e accorded the enjoyment o f all the rights,
advantages, and immunities as citizens o f th e o r ig in a l s t a t e s . . . ” 62 “ W h e n
th e o r i g i n a l s ta te s b e c a m e fr e e s o v e r e ig n s ta te s , all th e la n d w i t h i n th e
b o r d e r o f e a c h s la te w a s to b e e it h e r p r i v a t e ly o w n e d , o r b e lo n g to th e
s la te .’’0'1 ( I t a lic s a d d e d )

In s p ite o f th e c le a r in t e n t o f t h is tr e a ty , v a s t tr a c ts o f th e s e s a m e s la te s a re
n o w in fe d e ra l tr u s t w i t h C a l i f o r n i a e x c e e d in g 5 0 p e r c e n t a n d N e v a d a 9 0 p e r ­
c e n t! W h ile m o s t p e o p le b e lie v e th e fe d e ra l g o v e r n m e n t o w n s th e s e la n d s , th e y
a p p e a r to h a v e n o t i t l e o r d e e d t o th e la n d .

T he o n ly la n d th e fe d e r a l g o v ­

e r n m e n t “ o w n s ” a rc th o s e C o n s t it u t i o n a lly p r o v id e d f o r in A r t i c l e
8 .7

1, S e c tio n

a n d 8 . 17 . A t b e s t, th e v a s t tr a c ts o f fe d e r a l la n d h e ld as a c o n d it io n o f s ta te ­

h o o d a n d a d m in is t e r e d b y th e U .S . F o r e s t S e r v ic e a n d D e p a r t m e n t o f I n t e r io r
a re “ p u b lic la n d s ” h e l d i n t r u s t f o r t h e p e o p le o f t h e s ta te i n w h ic h t h e y a r e
f o u n d ! T h is d i s t in c t io n w a s c le a r in th e O r g a n ic A c t 1 8 9 7 a n d th e T a y l o r
G r a z in g A c t o f 1 9 3 4 . B o t h r e c o g n iz e d c e r t a in h a r v e s t in g , g r a z in g a n d o t h e r
p r o p e r t y r ig h ts o f th e f ir s t u s e rs a n d c le a r ly s ta te d th e la w w a s to b e n e f it lo c a l
c it iz e n s a n d c o m m u n it ie s as a f ir s t p r i o r it y . O n ly w h e n lo c a l n e e d s w e r e m e t
w e r e th e n e e d s o f th e la r g e r n a t io n to be c o n s id e r e d . 04
T h e liv e s o f th o s e A m e r ic a n s a n d t h e ir fa m ilie s , in d e e d e n tir e c o m m u n it ie s ,
w h o d e p e n d o n p u b lic la n d f o r t h e ir l i v i n g a rc s y s t e m a t ic a lly b e in g d e s tr o y e d
b y fe d e ra l a g e n ts s e r v in g th e la r g e r p u b lic . F e d e ra l a g e n ts d o th e s a m e t h in g to

a(...continued)
existing states and could therefore never be equal to those that claim ed huge land areas. Those
stair 3" srinr I nd to tf \ M r s is s r n i n / / t a lly c ded m uc1 of it to the United H a te s as a trust that
- i
t
(l
l
'•’i , t ~
■" t t f
t-J

 T his D ei 'u n e

ok

P roperty Kujhts

and

F reedom

in

A merica

27

e v e r y A m e r ic a n in th e a d m in is t r a t io n o f e n v ir o n m e n t a l a n d s a f e t y r e g u la t io n s .
B e c a u s e th e s e fe d e ra l a g e n ts a re n o t a c c o u n ta b le to lo c a l c itiz e n s , th e y c a n a n d
w i l l b e c o m e ty r a n ts w it h o u t r e a liz in g it. A s d is c u s s e d o n p a g e s 10, 1 1 , 2 7 , i t is
t h e j e n i l a l / r n l e r s y s te m , n o t t h e p e o p le , t h a t c r e a t e s t h e t y r a n n y . I t w a s f o r
e x a c t ly th is re a s o n w h y o u r b o u n d in g b a th e r s s e v e r e ly lim it e d th e p o w e r s a n d
la n d o w n e r s h ip o l th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t .

D evelopment and C umulative E ffects
^

h e re r e m a in s o n e s t u b b o r n p r o b le m , th e c u m u la t iv e e f f e c ts s y n d r o m e
th a t a c c o m p a n ie s a h e a lt h y , e x p a n d in g e c o n o m y . N e g a t iv e c u m u la t iv e

1

e f f e c ts o c c u r s w h e n a n y o n e a c t i v i t y o r d e v e lo p m e n t w i l l n o t c a u s e a
s ig n if ic a n t im p a c t, b u t m a n y o f th e m a d d e d t o g e t h e r c o u ld c a u s e a s ig n if ic a n t
h a r m as d e f in e d b y c o m m o n la w .

C r e a t in g a H e a l t h y E c o n o m y
T h e ir o n y o f th e e s c a la tin g c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r p r o p e r ly r ig h t s is th a t la n d u se
p la n n in g c a n p r o v id e s o u n d b e n e fits f o r a ll A m e r ic a n s . P r o p e r t y o w n e r s s e e m
to r e c o g n iz e th is as th e y h a v e r e p e a te d ly s ta te d th e y a re n o t a g a in s t r e g u la t io n ,
ju s t th e s ta te s p o n s o r e d t y r a n n y t h e y h a v e s u f f e r e d .
T h e p r i m a r y f o r m s o f e m p lo y m e n t a n d w e a lt h c r e a t io n in r u r a l A m e r i c a
c e n te r s o n a g r ic u lt u r e , m in in g , f o r e s t p r o d u c t s , r e c r e a t io n , m a r in e fis h e r ie s ,
a n d lig h t in d u s t r y . A l l s ix a re c o m p a t ib le w i t h o p e n s p a c e c o n c e p ts a n d c a n
p r o v id e

I ) th e e c o n o m ic b a s e f o r a h ig h q u a lit y s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g f o r lo c a l

r e s id e n ts , 2 ) a h ig h q u a lit y r e c r e a t io n e x p e r ie n c e f o r v is it o r s , a n d 3 ) a h ig h
q u a lit y h a b it a t f o r w i l d l i f e a n d b io d iv e r s it y . Y e t , th e n o - c h e m ic a l, n o -u s e w i l ­
d e rn e s s p h ilo s o p h y t h a t h a s d o m in a t e d m a n y e n v ir o n m e n t a l o r g a n iz a t io n s is
d r a m a t ic a lly r e d u c in g a l l s ix o f th e s e d e s ir a b le u se s o f r u r a l la n d .
In o r d e r to d e v e lo p a s t r o n g s ta b le r u r a l e c o n o m y , 1) lo c a l la n d o w n e r s m u s t
b e a b le t o a p p ly p r o v e n t e c h n o lo g y t o m a n a g e a n d p r o v id e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ,
in c lu d in g f o o d , to a ll A m e r ic a n s , a n d 2 ) lo c a l c o m m u n it ie s m u s t h a v e th e f r e e ­
d o m t o d e v e lo p th e h o u s in g , b u s in e s s , a n d r e c r e a t io n in f r a s t r u c t u r e n e e d e d i f
t h e y a r c to d r a w b u s in e s s a n d t o u r is t s t o t h e ir c o m m u n it ie s . M a n y e n v ir o n ­
m e n t a l s p e c ia l in te r e s t lo b b ie s d e c r y t h is a p p r o a c h as d a m a g in g t o th e e n v ir ­
o n m e n t th a t is n o t s u s ta in a b le . T h e o n l y s o lu t io n a d v a n c e d b y e n v ir o n m e n t a l
le a d e r s h ip h a s b e e n t o c r e a te u n a c c o u n t a b le , a p p o in t e d f e u d a l/ r u le r t y p e r e g ­
io n a l p la n n in g c o m m is s io n s t o d e v e lo p a n d im p le m e n t r e g u la t io n s th a t c o n t r o l
r e s o u r c e u s e a n d c o m m u n it y d e v e lo p m e n t .
A l t h o u g h p r o b le m s d o e x is t , m a n y h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s ia l is s u e s s u c h as th e
use o f c h e m ic a ls in a g r ic u lt u r e a n d f o r e s t c le a r c u t t in g a re g r o s s ly e x a g g e r a te d
in a w a y th a t in v o k e s J a m e s M a d is o n ’ s “ t y r a n n y o f th e m a j o r i t y ” (s e e p a g e s

21 23). R< s e a rc h h a s s h o ” n n a t u r a lly p r o d u c e d c h e m ic a ls c n b e jn s t as t o x i c
a

h

i

i

-

a ‘

I

i

al

r

i

■ - »

-

 4

*
2«

P l- .n .I N K UKPUDPir.KTY K.HVHTS

A M ) ]''K);J;1)0M IN A .M I'K

b lc lo r d e v e lo p in g llie c a n c e r s c r e e n in g te sts in s u c h w id e u s e to d a y h a s fo u n d
th a t th e re a rc m o r e c a r c in o g e n s in o n e c u p o f c o ffe e ( a b o u t 6 0 0 ) th a n in a ll th e
m a n - m a d e c h e m ic a ls li k e l y to be c o n s u m e d b y a n a d u lt in a n e n t ir e y e a r ! '’5
C o n v e r s e ly , r e d u c in g o u r d ie t a r y

in ta k e o f f r u it s a n d v e g e ta b le s h a s b e e n

c o n c lu s iv e ly s h o w n to in c re a s e c a n c e r b y a w h o p p in g 2 0 0 to 3 0 0 p e r c e n t! The
u se o f c h e m ic a ls h a s m a d e f r u it s a n d v e g e ta b le s c h e a p a n d r e a d ily a v a ila b le .
T o d e n y fa r m e r s th e u se o f c h e m ic a ls th a t a re o t h e r w is e p r o v e n s a fe o n a n
e x tr e m e ly lo w p r o b a b ilit y th a t th e re m ig h t be a n in c re a s e d r is k o f c a n c e r is n o t
o n ly lu d ic r o u s b u t w i l l a c t u a lly in c re a s e th e d e a th r a le a m o n g th e p o o r as fo o d
c o s ts in c re a s e b e y o n d t h e ir a b i l i t y to p a y f o r a h e a lt h y d ie t !
L ik e w is e , th e m a j o r it y o f r e c e n t re s e a rc h h a s d e m o n s tr a te d th a t la r g e a re a s
o f u n d is tu r b e d fo re s ts m a in t a in e d b y a w ild e r n e s s p h ilo s o p h y w i l l a ls o d r a m a ­
t i c a l l y re d u c e b io d iv e r s it y a n d w i l d l i f e h a b it a t . 06 A n c ie n t fo re s ts a rc n o m o r e
h e a lt h y th a n a h u m a n s o c ie t y c o m p r is e d o f n o t h in g b u t r e t ir e m e n t c o m m u n ­
itie s . H e a lt h y e c o s y s te m s r e q u ir e a b a la n c e o f a ll a g e c la s s e s a n d f o r e s t h a b it a t
c o n d it io n s to o p t im iz e e c o s y s te m h e a lt h , in c lu d in g o n ly a r e l a t iv e ly s m a ll a m o u n t o f o ld g r o w t h . P r o p e r f o r e s t m a n a g e m e n t, in c lu d in g th e u se o f c le a r c u t t in g c a n p r o v id e th a t b a la n c e . W ild e r n e s s c a n n o t.

W ho P ays?
T h e q u e s tio n o f c u m u la t iv e e ffe c ts b o ils d o w n to w h o p a y s f o r it. T he is s u e
is n e it h e r a c le a r c a s e o f n u is a n c e a n d h a r m w h e r e th e o w n e r p a y s , n o r is it
a lt r u is t ic in n a tu r e w h e r e s o c ie t y p a y s — y e t it is re a l. I f tre a te d as n u is a n c e , as
d o e s m o s t c u r r e n t la w , th e n a t s o m e m a g ic le v e l o f d e v e lo p m e n t o r d is tu r b a n c e
th e la s t la n d o w n e r s h a v e to f o o t th e e n t ir e h i l l . Y e t t h e ir a c t io n s h a v e c o n t r i b ­
u te d to th e p r o b le m n o m o r e o r le s s th a n th o s e a c t iv it ie s th a t p r o c e e d e d th e m .
A l t h o u g h it is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t if y , t y p i c a l l y a ll c it iz e n s in th e c o m m u ­
n i t y , s ta te o r n a t io n h a v e b e n e f it e d f r o m

th e g r o w t h th a t n o w th re a te n s th e

w h o le . T h e r e is o n l y o n e s o lu t io n to t h is p r o b le m th a t m a in t a in s th e c o n s t it u ­
t io n a l in t e n t o f p r o t e c t in g p r o p e r t y . J u s tic e r e q u ir e s th a t th e p u b lic a t la r g e
m u s t c o m p e n s a te , in p a r t , th e lo s s o f v a lu e o f p r o p e r t y o w n e r s w h o a re n o w
r e s tr ic te d in th e u s e o f t h e ir la n d d u e to th e a c t io n s o f o th e r s p r o c e e d in g th e m .
T h e c o m p e n s a t io n s h o u ld c o m e f r o m th e a g e n c y th a t p r o m u lg a t e d th e r e g ­
u la tio n s .
L ik e w is e , th e o w n e r s h o u ld s h a re in th is r e s p o n s ib ilit y . T h e m o s t e q u it a b le
a p p ro a c h w o u ld b e f o r th e a g e n c y t o p a y f u l l c o m p e n s a tio n a f t e r th e p r o p e r t y
is d e v a lu e d b y a c e r t a in a m o u n t — s a y 3 3 p e rc e n t. P a r tia l c o m p e n s a tio n w o u ld
fo r c e b o th p a rtie s to lo o k f o r v ia b le a lt e r n a t iv e s so th a t n e it h e r g e ts s t u c k w it h
th e f u l l c o s t. C r e a t iv e ju ic e s w o u ld f l o w a n d th e s la te w o u ld b e d o in g w h a t
M a d is o n a n d o t h e r F o u n d e r s s a id s h o u ld b e th e f ir s t r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f g o v e r n ­
m e n t — p r o t e c t in g p r o p e r t y r ig h t s . I f n o s o lu t io n c a n be f o u n d , th e la n d o w n e r
r e c e i 'es p i l i a l

■ I ’

t1

cc n ;-

i

l ; t io n . I f a ri a l e r la iiv s o li ti it

t1

a

'

"

c.iii

1 , 1

1 : f o r i d ti e r :

 T his D ecline

ok

I’kouekty R ights

and

F reedom

in

A merica

29

(hat willforce the federal om l slide governm ents to determine what is really
a cumulative damaging activity and force them to prioritize how it will most
effectively use its limited resources to protect the environment.
T h e I c a r th a t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h w o u ld b e f i n a n c i a l l y p r o h ib it iv e h a s b e e n
d is p e lle d b y th e C o n g r e s s io n a l B u d g e t O f f i c e in a r e p o r t o n th e im p a c t o f
O m n ib u s P r o p e r ly R ig h ts A c t S - 6 0 5 w it h p ro p o s e d a 3 3 p e r c e n t t a k in g s th r e s ­
h o ld . T h e ir a n a ly s is p r e d ic t s th a t “ r e l a t iv e ly f e w [ c la im s ] w o u ld r e s u lt in p a y ­
m e n t b e c a u s e . . . t h e r e q u ir e m e n t th a t c o m p e n s a t io n p a y m e n ts b e m a d e f r o m
a g e n c y a p p r o p r ia t io n s w o u ld c a u s e th e a g e n c ie s t o t r y to r e s o lv e as m a n y
c la im s as p o s s ib le w it h o u t h a v in g to p a y a n y c o m p e n s a t io n - f o r e x a m p le , b y
r e v e r s in g o r m o d if y in g p e r m it d e c is io n s o r e n f o r c e m e n t a c tio n s , b y p r o c e s s in g
p e r m it a p p lic a t io n s m o r e q u i c k l y , a n d b y w o r k i n g m o r e c lo s e ly w i t h la n d o w n e r s to n e g o t ia t e p e r m it c o n d it io n s . ” 07 I n d e e d , th a t is th e w a y i t s h o u ld
w o rk !

I

^ h c re

S upreme C ourt C ase H istory
is l i t t l e d o u b t th a t m a n y la w s in A m e r i c a a re f a t a lly f la w e d in a

w a y t h a t h a s le d to lo s s o f u n a lie n a b le p r o p e r t y r ig h t s . C o n t r a r y to

p o p u l a r b e lie f , h o w e v e r , th e f la w is n o t o v e r la n d u s e p la n n in g a n d

e n v ir o n m e n ta l p r o t e c t io n . N o r is it j u s t in th e h e a v y - h a n d e d w a y in w h ic h th e
la w h a s s o m e t im e s b e e n a d m in is t e r e d . A l t h o u g h it c e r t a in ly w o u ld b e le s s
p a in f u l , t y r a n n y , as d e f in e d b y J a m e s M a d is o n , w o u ld p r e v a il e v e n i f fe d e r a l
a g e n c ie s a n d s t a f f w e r e m a d e u p o f s a in ts w h o m a d e e v e r y e f f o r t t o p r o t e c t
p r o p e r ly r ig h t s .
T h e H a w in th e s e la w s c h i e f l y r e s id e s in th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e la w s t h e m ­
s e lv e s . S im p ly , th e y le n d to c re a te a g o v e r n in g b o d y th a t h a s f a r r e a c h in g r e g ­
u la t o r y a n d p u n it iv e p o w e r s th a t b e n e f it s o m e c it iz e n s w i t h o u t m e a n in g f u l
a c c o u n t a b ilit y t o th e c it iz e n s o v e r w h ic h th e la w a n d its r e g u la t in g a g e n c ie s
h a v e j u r i s d i c t i o n . A lt h o u g h th e s e la w s w e r e c r e a te d f o r a n o b le re a s o n s , in
r e a l i t y t h e y im p o s e a n e o - f c u d a l f o r m o f g o v e r n a n c e . T h is f l a w m u s t b e c o r ­
r e c te d .
O n e a p p ro a c h to r e s o lv in g t h is n e o - f e u d a l in e q u it ie s o f th e m a n y e n v ir o n ­
m e n ta l a n d p u b lic in te re s t la w s is f o r a n a g g r ie v e d p a r t y w it h th e r ig h t te s t c a s e
to s p e n d a m i l l i o n d o lla r s ( w it h th e g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d in g a n o th e r m i l l i o n p lu s )
a n d t a k e it to th e S u p r e m e C o u r t . A l t h o u g h i t is a n o p t io n , s o f a r n o o n e h a s
h a d th e f in a n c ia l a b i l i t y to c a r r y a r ip e c a s e a ll th e w a y t o th e S u p r e m e C o u r t .
T h e r e a re f u n d a m e n t a lly t w o C o n s t it u t i o n a l is s u e s in v o lv e d . T h e f ir s t
in v o lv e s th e ta k in g s c la u s e o f th e F if t h A m e n d m e n t a n d c e n te rs o n th e d r a c o n ­
ia n r e g u la t io n s l i m i t i n g w h a t la n d o w n e r s c a n d o o n t h e ir o w n la n d . T h e s e c o n d
fo c u s e s o n w h e t h e r th e fe d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t h a s a r i g h t t o in v o k e a f e u d a l/ r u le r
r e g u la t o r y s t r u c t u r e , a n d i f it d o e s , w h e t h e r i t c a n a p p ly i t a g a in s t a t a r g e te d
lin

- y

" 

h

if

wc

v

v

'

t

a <t

i

i

i ut

r

1 is~

s

 30

D lit'U N If. OK P R O P E R T Y K H '.H TS AND F R E E D O M IN A M E R IC A

c o u ld ta k e y e a r s to r e s o lv e a n d i n u l t i m i l l i o n d o lla r s o f p r iv a t e a n d t a x p a y e r
d o lla r s .
A n o t h e r p r o b le m w it h th e lit ig a t io n a p p ro a c h is th a t e v e n i f a la w is c le a r l y
a v io la t io n o f th e in t e n t o f o u r h o u n d in g F a th e rs , th e re is n o g u a r a n te e th a t th e
c u r r e n t S u p r e m e C o u r t w o u ld r u le in th e l i t i g a n t ’ s f a v o r . C o n s t it u t i o n a l L a w
has d r i lle d f a r f r o m th e o r ig in a l in te n t o f o u r F o u n d in g F a th e rs to th e d e t r im e n t
o f a ll A m e r ic a n s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , th e c o m p o s it io n o f th e C o u r t i t s e l f c a n w e ig h
h e a v ily in a n y d e c is io n o n t h is is s u e .

The Drift Towards a Feiidul/Ruler Police State
T h e u n iv e r s a l r ig h t o f th e s ta te to j u s t i f y in c r e a s in g in t r u s iv e r e g u la t io n s as
b e in g in th e p u b lic h e a lt h , s a f e t y a n d w e lf a r e w a s F irst d e v e lo p e d in 1 8 3 7 - 4 7
w i t h C h a r l e s R iv e r B r id g e v. W a r r e n B r id g e a n d th e L ic e n s e C a s e s o f 1 8 4 7 .
C h i e f J u s tic e T a n e y g a v e th e s ta te p o lic e p o w e r s u c c in c t d e f i n i t i o n , “ T h e
p o w e r to g o v e r n m e n a n d t h in g s w it h in th e lim it s o f its o w n d o m in io n . ” 68 E v e n
s o , th e o r i g i n a l re a s o n a n d in t e n t f o r p r o p e r t y r ig h t s in d e c id in g t a k in g s c a s e s
o f th e F o u n d in g F a th e rs w a s o n ly g r a d u a lly e ro d e d u n t il 1 9 6 2 . W it h th e G o ld b la t t v. H e m p s t e a d d e c is io n in 1 9 6 2 ,69 th e C o u r t b o ld ly m o v e d a w a y f r o m th e
F o u n d in g F a th e rs o r ig in a l in t e n t b y c o m b in in g th e c o n c e p t o f “ n u is a n c e ” w it h
th a t o f “ p o lic e p o w e r . ” ™ T h e c o n c e p t w a s s o lid if ie d
T r a n s p o r t a t io n C o .

in th e P e n n C e n t r a l

N e w Y o r k C i t y d e c is io n in 1 9 7 8 . S in c e th e n th e “ c o u r t s

h a v e d e e m e d t h e m s e lv e s l i c e t o e n g a g e in a b a la n c in g i n q u i r y b e tw e e n t h e ir
v ie w o f th e in t r u s io n ’ s im p o r t a n c e to th e p u b lic a n d th e b u r d e n th e r e g u la t io n
p la c e s o n in d i v i d u a l s ’ p r o p e r t y r ig h t s . ” 71
In r e g u la t o r y c a s e s , a t a k in g c a n b e fo u n d o n ly i f (lie g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t io n
e it h e r “ 1) f a ils to s u b s t a n t ia lly a d v a n c e a le g it im a t e g o v e r n m e n t a l p u r p o s e o r
2)

f a ils to le a v e p r o p e r t y o w n e r s w it h e c o n o m ic a lly v ia b le u s e o f t h e ir p r o p ­

e r t y . ” 72 O f c o u r s e , s u c h a te s t in v it e s m a n ip u la t io n o f th e C o u r t d e c is io n b y
m e r e ly a t t a c h in g th e r ig h t la b e l t o th e g o v e r n m e n t ’ s a c t io n a n d th e n r e q u ir e s
th e p r o p e r t y o w n e r t o c a r r y th e F in a n c ia l b u r d e n o f p r o v in g th e fe d e r a l o r s ta te
g o v e r n m e n t w r o n g . 73 I n S a n D ie g o G a s & E l e c t r i c v. S a n D ie g o , ( 1 9 8 1 ) S u p ­
re m e C o u r t J u s tic e J. B r e n n e n , n o t a m a jo r c h a m p io n o f p r o p e r t y r ig h t s , a s s e rt­
e d th e o b v io u s in h is d is s e n t in g o p in io n ,

“ P o lic e p o w e r r e g u la t io n s s u c h as z o n in g o r d in a n c e s a n d o t h e r la n d - u s e
r e s t r ic t io n s c a n d e s t r o y th e u se a n d e n jo y m e n t o f p r o p e r t y in o r d e r to
p r o m o t e th e p u b lic g o o d j u s t as e f f e c t i v e ly as f o r m a l c o n d e m n a t io n o r
p h y s ic a l in v a s io n o f p r o p e r ly . F r o m th e p r o p e r t y o w n e r s ’ p o in t o f v ie w ,
it m a y m a t t e r l i t t le w h e t h e r h is la n d is c o n d e m n e d o r f lo o d e d , o r w h e t h - .
e r i t is r e s t r ic t e d b y r e g u la t io n to u se in its n a tu r a l s ta te , i f th e e f f e c t in
b o th c a se s is t o d e p r iv e h im o f a ll b e n e f ic ia l u se o f it. F r o m th e g o v e r n ­
m e n t ’ s p o in t o f v ie w , th e b e n e fits f l o w i n g t o th e p u b l i c f r o m p r e s e r v a ti

i

'

'

s' ~

l1-

•

'j

e

' 7

•

;/

v

’■ c ' / r7 1 r

t

f r <m

 T his decline

of

P roperty Kkihth and ii’uiiir-DOM in A merica

31

creating a wildlife refuge through formal condemnation or increasing
electricity production through a dam project that floods private prop­
erty."1* ( I t a lic s a d d e d )
The result o f the Penn Central decision has been to transfer individual
property rights as envisioned by the Pounding Fathers to the governm ent
and its right to promote the public good. B u t e v e n B r c n n c n s u p p o r t e d th e
c o n c e p t th a t as lo n g as th e la n d o w n e r k e p t some e c o n o m ic v a lu e th e C o u r t
w o u ld n o t c o n s id e r th e r e g u la t o r y e f f e c t a “ t a k in g . ” I n u s in g th e “ a ll b e n e f ic ia l
u s e ” b e n c h m a r k t o d e t e r m in e w h e t h e r a t a k in g h a s o c c u r r e d , B r c n n e n a n d
o t h e r J u s tic e s d e n y a la r g e r tr u th . A p a r t ia l d e v a lu a t io n is ta n t a m o u n t t o le g a lly
e x p r o p r ia t in g a c i t i z e n ’ s b a n k a c c o u n t o f a ll b u t $1 f o r s o m e “ p u b lic g o o d ”
s u c h as r e d u c in g th e n a t io n a l d e b t o r c o n d e m n in g a ll e x c e p t o n e a c re o f a
c it iz e n ’ s p r o p e r t y f o r a r o a d . S u c h a b a s is f o r f i n d i n g a “ t a k in g s ” h a s le d to th e
in t e r p r e t a t io n th a t th e la n d o w n e r h a s n o r ig h t s a t a ll.
In

Just

Marinette County ( 1 9 7 2 ) ,

v.

th e C o u r t d e c la r e d th a t th e s ta te c o u ld

p r e v e n t th e J u s t’ s f r o m u s in g t h e ir p r o p e r t y to b u ild a r e s id e n c e f o r th e m s e lv e s
b e c a u s e th e J u s t ’ s h a d n o r ig h t t o d e p r iv e th e p u b lic o f its ‘ r i g h t ’ t o h a v e th e
J u s t’ s p r o p e r t y p re s e rv e d in th e s ta le in w h ic h n a tu r e h a d c re a te d it. I n s o h o ld ­
in g , in a f o o t n o t e th e c o u r t c ite d ( w i t h a p p r o v a l) th e m o t t o o f th e J a c k s o n
C o u n t y Z o n in g a n d S a n it a t io n D e p a r tm e n t: “ th e la n d b e lo n g s to th e p e o p l e . . . a
lit t le o f i t to th o s e d e a d . . . s o m e to th o s e l i v i n g . . . b u t m o s t o f it b e lo n g s t o th o s e
y e t to b e b o r n . ” 75
S u c h d e c is io n s , o f c o u rs e , h a v e n o t h in g to d o w it h e it h e r C o n s t it u t io n a l in ­
t e n t io n o r C o m m o n la w lim it a t io n s im p o s e d b y “ n u is a n c e ” a n d “ h a r m ” c r i ­
t e r ia . They do serve, however, to elevate governm ent rights (in the name o f
the "public good”) above civil rights76— a characteristic shared by all police
states. Further, whether appointed or elected, those chosen fe w charged with
protecting the rights o f “those yet born”Jin d themselves endued with grow­
ing feudal/ruler powers. This is a real danger in the recent push to make
sustainable development the key determinant in all development decisions.
S u c h d e c is io n s s h o u ld p u l a ll A m e r ic a n s o n n o t ic e th a t n o c i v i l r i g h t is s a fe
w h e n th e C o u r t c a n w a n d e r so f a r f r o m th e re a s o n a n d in t e n t o f o u r c i v i l r ig h ts .

Return to Constitutional Intent
T h i s m a y b e c h a n g in g . T h e C o u r t s e e m s t o b e m o v i n g b a c k t o a m o r e
C o n s t it u t io n a l “ in t e n t ” fo c u s in a s c r ie s o f r e c e n t d e c is io n s — Nollan v. Cali­
fornia Coastal Commission; First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v.
County o f Los Angeles; Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council; Dollan v.
The City o f Tigard.
I n th e Nollan c a s e , th e N o l l a n ’ s h a d r e q u e s te d a p e r m it to r e p la c e a s m a ll
b u n g a lo w o n t h e ir c o a s ta l p r o p e r t y w i t h a la r g e r h o u s e . A s g r a n t o r o f th e
~ni*

th

•

cl

1

lif

n i_ 1

I '

r

l i si

■

s r i d

f

rtT c pow er

 .32

D lU X IN E ()]•■ P K D E liK T T K lO H T S AND F R E E D O M IN AM.KKH'A

to im p o s e a n y c o n d it io n it c h o s e o n th e b a s is th a t a. g r a n t o f p e r m it w a s th e
g ra n t o f a g o v e r n m e n t a l b e n e fit. T h e C o m m is s io n t h e r e f o r e a rg u e d th a t it w a s
c o n s t it u t io n a l f o r th e C o m m is s io n to s t ip u la t e th e c o n d it io n th a t th e N o l l a n ’ s
a l l o w th e p u b lic a n e a s e m e n t to p a ss a c r o s s t h e ir b e a c h . " T h e N o lla n s , a lt e r
a ll, h a d th e fr e e d o m to r e je c t th e p ro p o s e d c o n d it io n .
T h e p r e m is u p o n w h ic h th e C a lif o r n i a C o a s ta l C o m m is s io n h a d b a s e d its
“ g r a n t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l b e n e I'll” a s s u m p tio n is th e lo g ic a l c o n c lu s io n o f a p o l­
ic e s ta te . I n t h is r e v e r s io n to th e I c u d a l/ r u le r la w , th e r ig h t s o f c it iz e n s a re
i n f e r i o r to th e r ig h t s o f th e s ta te . T h is a r g u m e n t w a s s o u n d ly r e je c te d b y th e
S u p r e m e C o u r t . T h e C o u r t o p in e d th a t n o t o n ly w a s th e c o n d it io n im p o s e d o n
N o l l a n n o t v o lu n t a r y , b u t th a t it a m o u n te d to v ir t u a l e x t o r t io n . 78 In r e n d e r in g
th e m a j o r it y d e c is io n . J u s tic e S c a lia a s s e rte d ,

“ T o s a y t h a t th e a p p r o p r ia t io n o f a p u b lic c a s e m e n t a c ro s s a la n d ­
o w n e r ’ s p r e m is e s d o c s n o t c o n s t it u t e th e t a k in g o f a p r o p e r ly in te r e s t
b u t r a th e r ‘ a m e r e r e s t r ic t io n o n its u s e ,’ is to u se w o r d s in a m a n n e r th a t
d e p r iv e s t h e m o f a ll t h e ir o r d in a r y m e a n in g . In d e e d , o n e o f th e p r in c ip a l
u s e s o f th e e m in e n t d o m a in p o w e r is to a s s u re th a t th e g o v e r n m e n t be
a b le t o r e q u ir e c o n v e y a n c e o f ju s t s u c h in te r e s ts , s o lo n g as it p a y s f o r
t h e m ___ W e h a v e r e p e a t e d ly h e ld th a t, as t o p r o p e r t y r e s e r v e d b y its
o w n e r f o r p r iv a t e u s e , ‘ th e r ig h t to e x c lu d e [ o t h e r s is j o n e o f th e m o s t
e s s e n tia l s t ic k s in th e b u n d le o f r ig h t s th a t a rc c o m m o n ly c h a r a c te r iz e d
as p r o p e r t y ’ . . . . W h a t e v e r m a y be th e o u t e r lim it s o f ‘ le g it im a t e s ta le
in te re s ts ’ in (he t a k in g s a n d la n d use c o n t e x t , th is is n o t o n e o f I liu m . In
s h o rt, u n le s s th e p e r m it c o n d it io n s e rv e s th e s a m e g o v e r n m e n t a l p u rp o s e
as th e d e v e lo p m e n t b a n , th e b u ild in g r e s t r ic t io n is n o t a v a lid r e g u la t io n
o f la n d u s e b u t ‘ a n o u t - a n d - o u t - p la n o f e x t o r t io n . ” ’ 71>

T h e N o lla n d e c is io n b e g a n to tu r n th e C o u r t b a c k to a b a s is C o n s t it u t io n a l i n ­
te n t o n s e v e r a l k e y is s u e s . P r o p e r t y r ig h t s c o n s t it u t io n a l la w y e r M a r k P o llo t
o b s e rv e s ,

“ F ir s t , th e C o u r t h e ld t h a t to b u i l d o n o n e ’ s p r o p e r ly w a s a r ig h t th a t
c o u ld n o t r e m o t e ly b e c o n s id e r e d a g o v e r n m e n t a l b e n e f it o r p r i v ile g e ,
a lth o u g h it c o u ld be s u b je c te d to s o m e re a s o n a b le r e g u la t io n . T h is h o ld ­
in g d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t e d t w o o f th e m o s t p e r n ic io u s d o c t r in e s t o fa c e
p r o p e r t y o w n e r s : ( a ) th e n o t io n th a t p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y o w n e r s , w h e t h e r o f
re a l o r o t h e r p r o p e r t y , w e r e m o r e c a re ta k e r s o f t h e ir p r o p e r ly th a n o w n ­
e rs a n d t h e ir u s e o f p r o p e r t y w a s , th e r e f o r e , s u b je c t t o th e u n lim it e d
c o n t r o l o f th e p u b lic t h r o u g h its g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c ie s , a n d ( b ) th e
re la te d d o c t r in e th a t h o ld s th a t p r o p e r t y o w n e r s ’ s o le r ig h t is to u s e t h e ir
p r o p e r ty in its n a tu r a l s ta te . E q u a lly im p o r t a n t , th e C o u r t h e ld th a t g o v ­
e r n m e n t <'0 " I H im p o s e n o c o n d it io n

t " I I i f it c o u ld n o t h we p r o h ib it e d

 T he Decline

ok

Property

kk ;hts and

F reedom

in

A merica

33

th e u se a p p lie d f o r w it h o u t c a u s in g a t a k in g . ” 80

W h ile th e C o u r t a f f ir m e d “ th a t la n d u se r e g u la t io n d o e s n o t e f f e c t a t a k in g
i f it ‘ s u b s t a n t ia lly a d v a n c c  s   le g it im a t e s ta le in te r e s ts ’ a n d d o c s n o t ‘ d c n [ y ] a n
o w n e r e c o n o m ic a lly v ia b le u s e o f h is la n d , ’ ” 81 it a ls o s p e c i f i c a l l y r e je c te d th e
u n d e r ly in g

p r e m is e o f ( J o ld h la t t th a t th e re e x is ts a g e n e r a l p o lic e p o w e r

e x c e p tio n in w h ic h g o v e r n m e n t ’ s a c t io n is s u b je c t e d to v i r t u a l l y m e a n in g le s s
j u d i c i a l r e v i e w p ro c e s s . T h e C o u r t in s is ts t h e r e m u s t b e a le g it im a t e c o n n e c ­
t io n ,

“ ' f l i c e v id e n t c o n s t it u t io n a l p r o p r ie t y d is a p p e a r s , h o w e v e r , i f th e c o n d ­
it io n

s u b s t it u t e d

f o r th e

p r o h ib it io n

u t t e r ly

f a ils

to

f u r t h e r th e e n d

a d v a n c e d as th e ju s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e p r o h i b i t i o n . . . . I t is q u it e im p o s s ib le
to u n d e r s ta n d h o w a r e q u ir e m e n t th a t p e o p le a lr e a d y o n th e p u b lic b e a ­
c h e s be a b le to w a lk a c ro s s th e N o lla n ’ s ’ p r o p e r t y r e d u c e s a n y o b s ta c le s
to v ie w i n g th e b e a c h c r e a te d b y th e n e w h o u s e . I t is a ls o im p o s s ib le to
u n d e rs ta n d h o w it lo w e r s a n y ‘ p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a r r ie r ’ t o u s in g th e p u b lic
b e a c h e s , o r h o w it h e lp s to r e m e d y a n y a d d it io n a l c o n g e s t io n o n th e m
c a u s e b y c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e N o l l a n ’ s ’ n e w h o u s e . ” 82

T h is in t e r p r e t a t io n r e in f o r c e s th e d e c is io n in l u r x t E n g lis h E v a n g e lic a l
L u t h e r a n C h u r c h v. C o u n t y u j L o s A n g e le s . I l l th is c a s e th e C o u n t y o f L o s
A n g e le s in v o k e d a d e v e lo p m e n t m o r a t o r iu m th a t a t le a s t t e m p o r a r ily p re v e n te d
a c h u rc h c a m p fro m

r e b u ild in g c a m p b u ild in g s d e s t r o y e d b y a f lo o d . F ir s t

C h u r c h a r g u e d th a t th e g o v e r n m e n t m u s t p a y i f it r e g u la t e s to th e p o in t o f
c a u s in g a t a k in g . T h e C o u r t a g re e d ,

“  S ] u c h c o n s e q u e n c e s n e c e s s a r ily ( lo w f r o m a n y d e c is io n u p h o ld in g a
c la im o f c o n s t it u t io n a l r ig h t ; m a n y o f th e p r o v is io n s o f th e C o n s t it u t io n
a rc d e s ig n e d to l i m i t th e l l e x i b i l i t y a n d fr e e d o m o f g o v e r n m e n t a l a u th o r ­
it ie s a n d th e J u s t C o m p e n s a t io n C la u s e o f th e F i f t h A m e n d m e n t is o n e
o f t h e m . A s J u s tic e H o lm e s a p t ly n o te d m o r e th a n 5 0 y e a r s a g o , ‘ a
s t r o n g d e s ir e t o im p r o v e th e p u b lic c o n d it io n is n o t e n o u g h t o w a r r a n t
a c h ie v in g th e d e s ire b y a s h o r te r c u t th a n th e c o n s t it u t io n a l w a y o f p a y ­
in g f o r th e c h a n g e . ” 83

In m a k in g th e s e d e c is io n s , th e C o u r t h a s r a is e d th e q u e s tio n as t o w h y th e
N o l l a n ’ s o r a n y s m a ll g r o u p o f la n d o w n e r s s h o u ld h a v e to c a r r y th e e n t ir e b u r ­
d e n f o r r e m e d y in g a p r o b le m to w h ic h n u m e r o u s o th e r s h a v e c o n t r ib u t e d .
I n L u c a s v. S o u t h C a r o l i n a C o a s t a l C o u n c i l th e L u c a s f a m i l y p u rc h a s e d
t w o lo ts a lo n g a n a lr e a d y f u l l y d e v e lo p e d s e c t io n o f A t l a n t i c c o a s t f o r S I m i l ­
lio n . T h e y p la n n e d t o e v e n t u a lly b u ild a f a m i l y h o m e . B e f o r e t h e y b e g a n to
b u ild , h o w e v e r , th e S o u th C a r o lin a C o a s ta l C o u n c il e n a c te d th e B e a c h f r o n t

 34

D liV U N J i <>]■' J>KOI>EKTY RtC.HT.S AND FR E E D O M ]N A M E R IC A

M a n a g e m e n t A c t w h i c h im p o s e d a p e r m a n e n t a n d u n v a r y in g p r o h ib it io n o n
th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f a n y h a b it a b le p e r m a n e n t s tr u c tu r e s a lo n g th e c o a s t. L u c a s
c la im e d a " t a k i n g " u n d e r th e F i f t h A m e n d m e n t , b u t th e S o u th C a r o lin a S u ­
p r e m e C o u r t r e je c te d it o n th e b a s is it w a s b o u n d b y th e le g is la t u r e ’s d e t e r ­
m in a t io n th a t th e p r o h ib it io n w a s n e e d e d to p ro te c t a g a in s t h a rm . T h e S u p r e m e
C o u r t a g re e d w it h L u c a s a g a in s t th e S ta le o f S o u th C a r o lin a .
P r o p e rty r ig h t s o p p o n e n ts h a v e d is c o u n te d th e L u c a s d e c is io n b y c la im in g
th e ca se w a s n a r r o w ly d e f in e d to o n ly th o s e issu e s th a t d e p r iv e th e o w n e r o f a ll
e c o n o m ic a lly v ia b le u s e . B u t th e d e c is io n , in r e a lit y , g o e s f a r b e y o n d th a t
lim it a t io n ,

" R e g r e t t a b ly , th e r h e t o r ic a l fo r c e o f o u r ’d e p r iv a t io n o f a ll e c o n o m ic a lly
fe a s ib le u s e ’ r u le is g r e a t e r th a n its p r e c is io n , s in c e th e r u le d o e s n o t
m a k e the ’ p r o p e r t y in te r e s t’ a g a in s t w h ic h th e lo s s o f v a lu e is to b e m e a ­
s u r e d . W h e n f o r e x a m p le , a r e g u la t io n r e q u ir e s a d e v e lo p e r to le a v e
9 0 % o f a r u r a l t r a c t in its n a t u r a l s ta te , it is u n c le a r w h e t h e r w e w o u ld
a n a ly z e th e s it u a t io n as o n e in w h ic h th e o w n e r h a s b e e n d e p r iv e d o f a ll
e c o n o m ic a lly b e n e f ic ia l u s e o f th e b u rd e n e d p o r t io n o f th e t r a c t , o r as
o n e in w h ic h th e o w n e r h a s s u f f e r e d a m e r e d im in u t io n in v a lu e o f th e
t r a c t as a w h o le . ( F o r a n e x t r e m e —

a n d , w e t h in k , in s u p p o r t a b le —

v ie w o l'lh e r e le v a n t c a lc u lu s , see P e n n C e n t r a l T r a u s / io r t a t io n C o . v.
N e w Y o r k [ c it a t io n s o m i t t e d ] , w h e r e th e s ta te c o u r t e x a m in e d th e d i m i n ­
u t io n in a p a r t ic u la r p a r c e l’s v a lu e p ro d u c e d b y a m u n ic ip a l o r d in a n c e in
lig h t o f t o t a l v a lu e o l ' l h e t a k in g c la im a n t ’s o t h e r h o ld in g s in th e v i c i n ­
it y . ) " w

B y d e n y in g th e v a l i d i t y o f P e n n C e n t r a l, th e C o u r t in th e L u c a s d e c is io n
in v it e d ca se s th a t w o u ld m o s t l i k e l y f u r t h e r e x p a n d th e p r o t e c t io n s o f la n d
o w n e r s . In s e v e r a l o t h e r k e y s ta te m e n ts w i t h i n th e m a j o r it y o p in io n th a t d i ­
r e c t ly re la te s to U .S . a n d s ta te la w , th e C o u r t r e c o g n iz e d th a t " n u is a n c e " a n d
" h a r m " a re o f t e n a r b it r a r y , " t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n ’h a r m - p r e v e n t in g ’ a n d
’b e n e f it - c o n f e r r in g ’ r e g u la t io n is o f t e n in th e e y e o f th e b e h o l d e r . . . . W h e t h e r
o n e o r th e o t h e r o f th e c o m p e t in g c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s w i l l c o m e t o o n e ’s lip s in
a p a r tic u la r ca s e d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n o n e ’s e v a lu a tio n o l 'lh e w o r t h o f c o m p e t ­
in g uses o f re a l e s t a t e . . . . [ R j c c i l a l i o n o f a n o x io u s - u s e r a t io n a le c a n n o t b e th e
b a s is f o r d e p a r tin g f r o m o u r c a t e g o r ic a l r u le th a t to ta l r e g u la t o r y t a k in g s m u s t
b e c o m p e n s a te d ." 85
P o l lo t n o te s th a t th e C o u r t m a k e s it c le a r th a t " g o v e r n m e n t c a n e lim in a t e a ll
e c o n o m ic a lly v ia b le u s e o f la n d o n ly i f th e p r o h ib it e d a c t iv it y w a s o n e th a t w a s
’a lw a y s u n la w f u l’ u n d e r p r i n c i p l e s o f c o m m o n la w n u is a n c e .” *6 T h is d o c s n o t
f i t la w s b a s e d o n v a lu e s a n d th e s o - c a lle d “ p u b lic g o o d . ”
In D o la n v. C i t y o f T i g a r d th e C lin t o n a d m in is t r a t io n a d v o c a te d th a t th e
C

n r t r e 'iiir

th e p r o p e r l > o ’ »'i e r t o = h o w th a t - la n d u s e r e s t r ic t io n is “ a s u b -

 T he DiiruNi'.

oe

P roimvety

rights and

Freedom

in

A merica

35

le r f u g c f o r im p o s in g o t h e r w is e u n c o n s t it u t io n a l c o n d i t i o n s . . . . ” 17 T h e D o la n ’ s
h a d s o u g h t a p e r m it to d o u b le th e s iz e o f t h e ir e le c t r ic a l s u p p ly s to r e a n d p a v e
s o m e 2 0 , 0 0 0 s q u a re fe e t o f t h e ir p r o p e r t y ’ s 7 1 , 0 0 0 s q u a re f o o t lo t in d o w n ­
t o w n T i g a r d , a s u b u r b o f P o r t la n d , O r e g o n . T o r e c e iv e a p e r m it th e C i t y o f
T ig a r d r e q u ir e d th e D o la n s to I ) c e d e th e 10 p e rc e n t o l ' l h e p r o p e r t y th a t w a s
w it h in th e 100 y e a r H o o d p la in , 2 ) c e d e a 1 5 - f o o t w id e p ie c e o f t h e ir p r o p e r t y
f o r a b ik e p a th , a n d 3 ) th e n b u ild th e 8 - f o o t w id e p a th . T h e O r e g o n S u p r e m e
C o u r t h e ld t h is w a s n o t a “ t a k in g s ” o n th e b a s is th e D o la n s “ m a y a v o id p h y s ­
ic a l o c c u p a t io n o f t h e ir la n d b y w i t h d r a w i n g t h e ir a p p lic a t io n f o r a d e v e lo p ­
m e n t p e r m it . ” 88
In r e s p o n d in g to th e fe d e r a l A m ic u s C u r ia e , J u s tic e A n t h o n y S c a lia e m p h a ­
s iz e d , “ ( T J h a t ’ s a n a w f u l b u r d e n to p u t o n t h e . . . s m a ll in d iv id u a l p r o p e r t y
o w n e r . . . , ” s‘7 In d e e d it is . T h e in t e n t o f th e C o n s t it u t i o n w a s to p u t t h is b u r d e n
o f p r o o f o n th e s ta te , n o t th e la n d o w n e r ! A s im p o r t a n t ly , C h i e f J u s tic e R e h n q u is t c o n d e m n e d th e a s s e r tio n th a t p r o p e r t y r ig h t s w e r e s o m e h o w in f e r i o r to
o t h e r r ig h t s ,

“ W e se c n o re a s o n w h y th e T a k in g s C la u s e o f th e F i f t h A m e n d m e n t , as
m u c h a p a r t o f th e B i l l o f R ig h t s as th e F ir s t A m e n d m e n t o r F o u r t h
A m e n d m e n t , s h o u ld be r e le g a te d to th e s ta tu s o f a p o o r r e la t io n in th e s e
c o m p a r a b le c ir c u m s t a n c e s . ''" "

A n d to th o s e th a t a r g u e th a t th e T a k in g s C la u s e im p o s e s p r o h ib it iv e c o s ts
o n lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts , th e C o u r t r e a f f ir m e d its e a r lie r F in d in g in

Coal

Pennsylvania

th a t, " A s tr o n g p u b lic d e s ire to im p r o v e th e p u b lic c o n d it io n [ s h o u ld n o t ]

w a r r a n t a c h ie v in g th e d e s ir e b y a s h o r t e r c u t th a n th e c o n s t it u t io n a l w a y o f
p a y in g f o r th e c h a n g e . ” '71
F i n a l l y , th e a r g u m e n t th a t a t a k in g s

has n o t o c c u rre d

e c o n o m ic a lte r n a tiv e s e x is te d w a s a d d re s s e d in

ed Slates.

i f o t h e r v ia b le

Whitney Benefits, Inc. v. Unit­

T h e C o u r t o f C la im s r e je c t e d th e g o v e r n m e n t ’ s a r g u m e n t th a t n o

“ t a k in g ” h a d o c c u r r e d in W h it n e y B e n e f it s ’ a p p lic a t io n to m in e c o a l in W y o m ­
in g s in c e th e c o m p a n y c o u ld s t i l l g r a z e c a t t le o n th e s u r f a c e . 92 W h it n e y B e n e ­
f it s w a s a w a r d e d m o r e th a n $ 6 0 m i l l i o n . 93
L ik e w is e in

Loveladies Harbor, Inc.

v.

United Stales,

th e o w n e r / d e v e lo p e r s

o f a 2 5 0 a c re v a c a n t p a r c e l in L o n g B e a c h T o w n s h ip , O c e a n c o u n t y , N e w
J e rs e y w e r e d e n ie d a p e r m it t o d e v e lo p th e la s t 5 0 a c re s b e c a u s e 1 1 .5 o f th o s e
a c re s w a s w e t la n d s . T h e C o u r t d is m is s e d th e g o v e r n m e n t ’ s c la im t h a t th e r e
w e r e o t h e r e c o n o m ic v a lu e s s u c h as h u n t in g , a g r ic u lt u r e , a m it ig a t io n s ite , o r
e v e n a m a r in a ,

“ T h e v a lu e o f th e p r o p e r t y v i r t u a l l y h a s b e e n e ra d ic a te d as a r e s u lt o f
g o v e r n m e n t a c t io n . . . . A s a r e s u lt o f g o v e r n m e n t a c t io n , th e re is n o m a r ­
ket

'll

*nl'

t

i I b i ' r is

o v ~ r r n '• n N

n r it

a n d th e o n 11' r e -

 36

P E l 'U N E O F P R O P E R T Y K lO H T S AN D FR E E D O M IN A M E R IC A

maining value is a nominal one.... To fulfill llie mandate o f the Fifth
Amendment, the court awards plaintiff the amount of $2,658,000 plus
interest from the date o f taking....”99
Ferry Fendlcy, a Constitutional lawyer sums up the gains made in the Supreme
Court by noting,
“For the past twenty and more years, environmental extremists have
used the courts of the land — particularly in the West — to clutch court­
room victories from the jaws of congressional defeat, to expand statutes
and regulations beyond recognition, and to apply laws in seemingly im­
possible situations. In the process, property rights have been spurned
and the efforts of landowners to seek constitutional redress have been
thwarted. More recently, courts, in particular the Supreme Court and the
Court o f Claims, have read the Fifth Amendment as our Founding Fat­
hers intended and our liberty demands.... The Supreme Court has taken
important steps in the right direction, but those steps have occurred rel­
atively recently in a journey that began back in 1922. Much remains to
be done.”95
Supreme Court decisions still leave many questions regarding stale powers
to regulate when properly values are lost. Nor do they address the issue of
landowners being denied the freedom, as James Madison so eloquently pos­
ited, “to relieve their fatigues and sooth their cares.”‘l<' This latter issue may be
the most important in the long-term.
The growing use o f non-clcclcd regional comprehensive planning and the
usurpation o f local rights by the federal government is rampant in the federal
expansion o f regulations and unfunded mandates. It is troubling, but not sur­
prising, that the same strife that has characterized the properly rights debate is
already happening at the state level across America! Indeed, the benefits ob­
tained by citizens of some Americas at the expense of others portends their
own loss o f freedom as America reverts back to the feudal/ruler system of
governance abhorred by our Founding Fathers. Just as the federal government
has usurped slate rights in regulatory actions, federal rights, in turn, are being
usurped by treaties like the Convention on Biological Diversity — whose
United Nations Global Biodiversity Assessment argues for the need for redis­
tributing most property rights to the UN Global Environmental Facility.97
In any event, the Supreme Court remedy is fraught with pitfalls and uncer­
tainties and could be a double edged sword for all parties. We need a strong
federal government to provide for healthy commerce and national defense. At
the same time we must return the powers usurped by the federal government
to the states ai d local governments. Most importantly we must protect all civil
i
s “i i at h t 
1
R t i
i
I m i nJ i ......
i>
i '

 T he D ecline <>e P roperty Kioht .s a n d F reedom

in

A merica

37

those that are politically correct or expedient.
A more assured way to achieve this balance is for Congress to take it upon
itself to review and correct existing laws to conform to the intent of the Found­
ing Fathers and the freedoms our U.S. Constitution is supposed to provide all
citizens. The numerous suggestions that many landowners have been hurt by
nco-leudal laws should be taken seriously by congress. In doing so, Jefferson
also offers hope that correction can be made peaceably if the principles of the
Constitution outlined earlier guide the process,
“Even [should] representative organs...becom e corrupt and perverted,
the division into wards, constituting the people...a regularly organized
power, enables them by that organization to crush, regularly and peace­
ably, the usurpations of their unfaithful agents, and rescues them from
the dreudful necessity o f doing it insurrectionally.'m (Italics added)
We are fortunate the Constitution still exists and offers the structure for a
peaceful solution.

S ummary ok A N ew

eeuimlism in A merica

n the many supporting documents used to frame and write both the
Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution, our Founding
Fathers repeatedly asserted that liberty is governed by natural laws and
that mankind is endowed with certain unalienable rights from our creator.
Among these are “ life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Key to these
unalienable rights and freedom is property rights. Our Founders warned that
without the God given right to own and use land unencumbered by govern­
ment interference, America would began to revert back to the evil feudal/ruler
form o f governance from which America had just fought a revolutionary war
to gain her freedom. In this form of government all power is held by the high­
est levels of government with the people having the least power and freedom.
The rights of the government are superior to the rights of its citizens.
The foundation of this evil form o f government is land control; he who
controls the land (and water) controls the people. If a person cannot own unen­
cumbered land to grow crops, conduct business, or build a home to shelter
their family, they arc at the mercy of those who do control the land. Tyranny
is the inevitable result. All other freedoms in our Bill of Rights depends on
properly rights constrained only by the common law concepts o f nuisance and
harm.
Thomas Jefferson and our Founders established our U.S. Constitution around what he called the People’s Law. Power within the People’s law is held
by the local people and their unalienable right to own and use property. That
p~’*' r i ' ....i ,:t; >n P > m D orlioned to various levels of government, first to

 *

J
38

D jrt'L lN J i (>]•' P K O I’E K T r K ltiH T S A N D FK E liD O M IN A M liK K 'A

local government, then to slate government, and finally to the federal govern­
ment. The federal government has the least power o f all. Within each level of
government all government agents were to he directly accountable to the peo­
ple over which they had jurisdiction. Once the power reverts back to the fed­
eral level, the government will become, as Jefferson warned, “as venal anil
oppressive as the one from which we have just separated.”
'flic cause of this shift to tyranny has been the incorrect assumption in re. cent years that property owners, communities and stales will not voluntarily
protect the environment and public values. Consequently, prevailing wisdom
held that laws and regulations had to be developed to force them to do what is
right. Ironically, the common law nuisance and harm limitations to properly
rights has historically prevented serious harm to private land. It is the public
domain (water, air and land) that has suffered the most environmental damage
due to the “law o f the commons.” No one “owned” our waters and air, so no
one was responsible. Had states used the nuisance and harm provisions of
common law to prevent air and water pollution, the avalanche of federal law
and the creation of the much maligned EPA would not have been necessary.
Unalienable rights limit the power of the state to use private property for
the public good without “just compensation.” In turn, common law nuisance
and harm provisions limit the rights o f a property owner to harm their neigh­
bor. Therefore, if an activity or use o f property clearly causes harm to a neigh­
bor by causing harm to the environment, the properly owner must pay the cost
of mitigation or restoration. These activities can be established in regulatory
statutes where the regulators are accountable to those within their jurisdiction.
However, if a regulation benefits the larger (i.e. a "public good) without a clear
and definable harm, any reduction of property value must be compensated ac­
cording to the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Finally, if an activity
or use docs not cause a definable harm by itself, but docs when added to all
similar activities or uses preceding it, both the property owner and society
should share the cost o f diminished property value. Society must bear respon­
sibility because it contributed to the problem as much as the proposed activities
or use of the current property owner. Partial compensation according to the
Fifth Amendment should be required.
Tragically the warnings of Madison. Jefferson, Hamilton and other Found­
ers have gone unheeded in congress and some stale legislatures. The overly
ambitious and incredibly powerful environmental and public interest lobbies
have brought influence and pressure against Congress and State Legislatures
to provide agencies with far ranging powers that isolated them from any ac­
countability to the community they regulate. The cost o f providing for the
“ public good” falls disproportionately on a few property owners who often
have their life savings tied up in their land. Additionally, by creating these
overarching laws and giving agencies incredible authority, powers historically
belonging to state, towns and counties have been usurped by the federal gov-

 T he Decline or P roperty Rights and Freedom

in

A merica

39

eminent. Even lor those laws that are supposedly equitable in their application,
the laws and regulations arc often so vague that the regulators have awesome
powers to apply the regulations selectively, and can be used to intimidate,
harass, line and even imprison specific individuals who do not agree with the
regulator. Such laws are common among the police states of the world. Many
of the federal laws passed since the 1970s allow federal agencies to bypass any
accountability to the citizens over whom the agency has jurisdiction. A ncoI'cudal structure is being established which has had predictable repercussions.
Every one of the fundamental truths of freedom exalted by.our Founding
Fathers arc violated in the present structure of many federal laws and regulat­
ions. A growing tyranny and civil unrest is the result. Contrary to prevailing
wisdom, the growing controversies and civil unrest are fundamentally not
about safety, environmental protection, zoning, planning or how much devel­
opment. All of these can be important and beneficial if done within the original
Constitutional framework envisioned and provided by our Founding Fathers.
Rather, the growing tensions are the result o f the abolishment of property
rights and a government “of the people, for the people, and by the people.”
We often forget the true dimensions o f Jefferson’s words when quoting the
first few lines of the Declaration of Independence, “We hold these Truths to be
self-evident, that all Men arc created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these arc Life, Liberty,
and the Pursuit o f Happiness. That to secure these Rights, Governments are
instituted among Men, deriving theirjust Powers from the Consent o f the Gov­
erned.”
We have a clear choice before us. We can choose freedom or feudalism.
Congress must begin the process to reverse this evil trend. Failure to do so will
result in increasing tyranny, civil unrest and the destruction o f over 200 years
of freedom — taking with it the light and hope o f the world provided by the
greatest nation on earth.

 I

It

40

I >!U L I N K I LI-' P K O P L K T V K l l ' . H T i : A M ) !• Kl-.ICI>« >M I X . A . M K K K ' A

NOTES AND CITATIONS
1.

William 8lackstone, C o m m en taries on the Law s o l England. Ed. William Carey Jones, 2 Vols. (San
Francisco; Bancroft-Whitncy Company, 1916), 1:54-63.

2.

Ibid, pp 93.

3.

W. Cleon Skousen. The M aking o l Am erica, The Substance a n d
Cenler lor Conslitulional Studies, Washington, DC. 1986. Pp 28.

4.

Hamilton, Alexander, John Jay, and James Madison, Jr. The Federalist. Edited by Michael Lloyd Chadwick.
Springfield, VA, Global Allairs Publishing Co. 1987, No 47.3, pg 270. Also, W. Cleon Skousen. T h e
M a k in g o f A m e r ic a . I’p 44.

5.

Alexander Hamilton,

The Federalist P a p e rs

6.

W. Cleon Skousen.

The M aking o l A m erica,

7.

Adapled Irom Skousen, W. Cleon.

8.

D. P. Simson. Cassell’s Lalin Dictionary. (MacMillan Publishing Co., NY), 1975, Pp 252.

9.

W. Cleon Skousen.

10.

Federalist Papers,

M eaning o l the Constitution.

Ilic National

17.16.
Pp 45.

The M aking o l Am erica,

The M aking o l Am erica,

Pg 44.

Pp 401.

No.45.12.

11. W. Cleon Skousen,

The M aking o l Am erica,

Pp 401-402.

12. Alxis deTocqueville,
1:329-330.

D em o cracy in A m erica,

1835,1840 12th ed. 2 Vols. (New York: Vintaqe Books, 1945)

13.

Federalist Papers, No. 25.

14

Federalist Pa pers, No. S.

15. Albert Ellery Bergh, Ed. The Writings
Memorial Association). 1907. 15:332
16.

The Federalist Papers.

The Federalist P a p ers.

19. W. Cleon Skousen.

20 vote. (Washington: Thomas Jellerson

Nos. 17.16-19; 19.3: and 45.5.

17. Albert Ellery Bergh. Editor.
18.

o l Thom as Jellerson.

The Writings o l Thomas Jellerson,

1:73.

Nos 17.16-19; 45.5.

The M aking o t Am erica, Pp.

10-11, 28-37, 44-48, 51-53.

20. Ibid. Pp 244.
21. Ibid.
22. Jellerson, Thomas. A S u m m ary View o l the
Skousen, The M aking o t A m erica, pp 23.

Rights o lD iitish Am erica.

July, 1774. Reproduced in W. Cleon

23. Jonathan Elliot, ed., The D e b ates in the S e v e ra l State Conventions on the Adoption
Constitution. 5 Vote. (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott company). 1901, 3:59.
24. Robert G. Lee.

o f the F e d e ra l

(Wilsonville, OR: BookPartners). 1994. Pp 27.

Broken Trust Broken Land.

25. Stanley Milgram. O b edience to Authority. New York: Harper Torchbooks. 1974. Also see, Zygumunt
8auman. M odernity a n d the Holocaust. Ithaca, N Y : Cornell University Press. 1989.
26. Robert G. Lee,

Broken Trust Broken Land,

27. W. Cleon Skousen,

Pp 28.

The M aking o l A m erica,

Pg 55.

28. John Locke, Second Essay Concerning Civil Government, Great Gooks of the Western Worid, vol. 35
(Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952). Pp, 56.
29. Albert Ellery Bergh, Ed.,

The Writings o l Thom as Jellerson,

15:450.

30. William G. Latfer III. "George Bush's Hidden Tax: The explosion in Regulation," Backgroounder, Heritage
Foundation, Washington, D.C., Regnery Gateway, 1993), 162.
31. 4 The Jam es M adison Letters 478 (March 27,1792). The portion in single quotes is from Sir William
Blackslone, C om m entaries. This language appears in part as well in Properly, N ational G azette, March 27.
See Mark Pollot, G ra n d Theft an d P e tit Larceny, pp 98.
32. John Adams.

W orks.

C. Francis Adams, ed. (Little & Brown. Boston, 1850-1856). 1854. Vol. 14:560.

33. Ibid, 15:278.
34. W. Cleon Skousen, The Making of America,. Pp 46-51. See chapters 18 ol Exodus and 25 of Leviticus lor
a
— ■ ■
o-

 T his Okci.ini; or I’koimskty

rights and

35. W. Cleon Skousen,

The M aking o f Am erica,

Pp 47-61.

36. W. Cleon Skousen,

The M aking o f Am erica,

Pp 33.

Fkisudom

in

A merica

41

37. 4 Letters an d O th e r Writings o l Jam es M adison, 174. Taken Irom the essay 'Properly' written in 1792 and
published in the N ational G azelle. March 27,1792. See also The P apers o l Jam es M adison 266 (Riland,
cd. 1977) and Mark Pollol, G ra n d T licll an d P c lil Larceny, P roperty Rights in Am erica. (Pacific Research
Institute lor Public Policy. San Francisco). 1993. Pp 99.
30. Ibid, 175.
39. Alston Chase. Ploying G o d in Yellowstone, the Destruction
Brace Jovanovich, New York, San Diego). 464 pages.
40. W. Cleon Skousen,

The M aking o l A m erica.

o f Am erica's First National Park.

(Harcourt

Pp 466.

41. Ibid.
42.

Federalist Papers,

No. 42.

43. Ibid.
44. Allodium means "land held absolutely in one's own right, and not ol any lord or superior and is not subject to
feudal duties or burdens. Black's L a w Dictionary.
45. Albert Ellery Bergh, Ed.

The Writings o f Thom as Jefferson,

2:207.

46. United Steelworkers v. Weber, 443 U.S. 192, 219 (1979)(Burger, J., Dissenting).
47. William Perry Pendley, The W ar on the West,
Publishing, Inc. Washington, D.C. Pps 56-57.

G overnm ent tyranny on Am erica's G reat Frontier.

Regnery

48. 33 U.S.C. §1251(g).
49. William Perry Pendley,

The W ar on the

Wesl, Pp 57.

50. James Madison,

N otes o f debates o f the F e d e ra l Constitution.

51. James Madison,

The Fed eralist P a p ers,

52. Albeit Ellery Bergh, ed.
53. See

The Writings o l Thomas Jellerson,

The Federalist P apers

54. Alexis de Tocqueville,

(Bicentennial Edition), 1987. At 76.

10.21-10.22.
14:421.

10.31 -10.34 and 45.0 through 49.18.

Dem o cracy in Am erica,

12th ed., 2 vols. (New York: Vintage Books), 1945,1:x.

55. Article I, Section 8, paragraph 7 ol the United Slates Constitution.
56. Article I, Section 8, paragraph 17 ol Iho United Slates Constitution.
57. l ingo. Wayne.
WA). Pp 37.

Storm O ver R angelands, P rivate R ights in F e d e ra l Lands.

58. United Slates Articles of Confederation. In: Judge Clel Georgetla,

(Free Enterprise Press, Bellevue,

G olden F le e c e in N e vada.

Pp 150.

59. Judge Clel Georgelta, G olden F le e c e in N evad a. Pp 152,153. In reference to the specific Articles and
Sections ol the 1787 Northwest Ordinance.
60.

Pollards L es see v. H a g en

61.

Coyle

v.

44 U.S. 212 (1845)

Smith, also known as Coyle v. O klahom a,

62. Judge Clel Georgetta,

G olden F le e c e in N e vada.

221 U.S. 559, 31 S.CI. 688, 55 L.Edl 853 (1911).

Pp 165.

63. Ibid. @150.
64. Wayne Hage. Storm over R angelands, Private Rights in F e d e ra l Lands. (Free Enterprise Press, Bellevue,
WA). 1990. P p 4 ,18-19. The Organic Act ol 1897 is in 30 Stat.34 and the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 is in
48 Slat. 1269.
65. Dr. Bruce Ames, University of California, Berkeley (retired), see
66. Mike Coffman, The Philosophy,
Perspectives, Inc.), pp 25-29.

S cience

258.261-265.

Politics a n d S cience o f Biological Diversity.

(Bangor, ME, Environmental

67. Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate on S-605 and Letter to Senate Judiciary Committee, Senator
Orrin G. Hatch, Chairman, Oct. 17,1995.
68. Alpheus Thomas Mason and Donald Grier Stephenson, Jr. Am erican Constitutional Law. 10th Edition.
(Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ). 1993. Pp 270. Also Bridge v Bridge, 36 U.S. (11 P el) 420,9 L.Ed.
773(1837).
69. 369 U.S. 590 (1962)
70. Mark Pollol.
Ins t-

G ra n d Theft a n d P e lil Larceny; P rop erty Rights in A m erica.

'ill

- . 1 ' 3.

07

d1

- 13 .

(San Francisco, Pacific Research

 «■

6

DKCLiNIS OJ*" M tO P liK T Y K lO O T S A M ) FJKJjJ£IM>M IN A Ml:'. HI ("A

42
71. Ibid, pp 88.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid
74.

S an D iego G as

75. Mark Pollol.

& Electric

v. S a n D iego.

450 U.S., 621, 652-658 (1981)(Brennen, J. Dissenting.

G ia rn l Thell and Petit Laiceny,

pp 64; Just v.

M a iin c tlc County,

201 N.W.2d 761 (1972).

76. Property rights is a civil right, as a te all oilier rights in the Bill of Rights. See A zul-Pacilico-Inc.
Angeles, U S. Court ol Appeals. Ninth Circuit Court, July 23, 1992,90-55853.
77. Alpheus Thomas Mason and Donald Grier Stephenson, Jr. Am erican
316.
78.

Nollan,

483 U.S. at 837,107 S.Ct. 3141, 97 L.Ed. 2d 677 (1987).

79.

Nollan,

483 U.S. at 825.

80. Mark Pollot,
81.

Constitutional L aw :

G ra nd Theft an d Petit Larceny, P roperty Rights in Am erica,

Nollan,

483 U.S. at 825.

82.

Nollan,

483 U.S. at 825.

83.

First English, supra,

84.

Lucas, supra,

482 U.S. at 312,1987, citing

v City o tL o s

10th Edition, Pp

pp 145.

M ahon.

112 S.Ct. at 2894 n.7,1992.

85. Ibid, 112 S.Ct. at 2998 and 2899.
86. Mark Pollot,
87.

G ra n d Theft a n d Petit Larceny, Property Rights in Am erica,

pp 193.

Brief lor the United Slates as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondent, U.S. Supreme
Court, October 1993, No. 93-518.
D olan v. City o f Tigard,

88. Petitioner's App. A-11 n.8.
89.

Dolan v. City o l Tigard.

93-518. Ollicial Transcript proceedings before the Supreme Court ol the United
Slates, March 23,1994, p. 50.

90.

D o la n v. C ity o l Tigard,

91. Ibid, at 323; quoting
92.

512 U.S., 129 L.Ed. 2d 304, 305, 114 S. Ct. 321 (1994).

Pennsylvania Coal,

W hitney Benefits v. United states,

op. Cit. 260 U.S. at 416.

752 F.2d 1554 (Fed. Cir. 1985), 18 Cl. Ct. 394 (Cl.Ct. 1989), 926 F.2d

1169 (Fed Cir. 1991).
93. Ibid. 920 F.2d 1169,011178,
94. Loveladics Harbor, Inc., v. United States. 21 Cl.Ct. 100-161. (1990).
95. William Perry Pendley. War on the West, Pp 186,
96. 4 Letters an d O th e r Writings o l Jam es M adison, 174. Taken Irom the essay "Property" written in 1792 and
published in Ihe N ational G azette, March 27,1792. See also The Papers o f Jam es M adison 266 (Riland,
ed, 1977) and Mark Pollot, G ra n d Theft a n d Petit Larceny, Property Rights in A m erica. (Pacific Research
Institute (or Public Policy, San Francisco). 1993. Pp 175.
97. Section 6 of the United Nations Global Biodiversity Assessment.
98. Albert Ellery Bergh, ed.

The Writings o f Thom as Jefferson,

14.421

  

.. 
I
7