Component of Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 11-008-X
Canadian Social Trends

Article
Profile of seniors’
transportation habits
by Martin Turcotte

January 23, 2012

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suppressed to meet the confidentiality requirements of the Statistics Act

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use with caution

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too unreliable to be published

 Profile of seniors’
transportation habits
by Martin Turcotte

Introduction
Most Canadians live in neighbourhoods designed around cars as the
means of travel. Consequently, they
often have to drive or be driven to
work, retail stores, health service
centres or recreation and leisure
activities. Central neighbourhoods
of large cities are the exception in
this residential landscape, since
residents can more easily go about
their daily business on foot or
by public transit. However, these
central neighbourhoods are home
to a minority of people, including
a minority of senior citizens (see
“Where seniors live and how this
affects their day-to-day travel”).
While most seniors have retired
from the workforce, a majority of
them want to grow old in their own
homes and take an active part in
society. To do so, they need some
form of transportation to run
errands, participate in recreational
or volunteer activities and visit
family and friends. Their desire to
remain in their homes is not very
realistic unless they have adequate
transportation. In most residential
areas, this means having access to a
private vehicle.
Seniors’ dependence on cars raises
safety issues. Although most seniors
drive carefully, statistics show that
people aged 70 or older have a higher
accident rate per kilometre driven
than any other age group except
young male drivers, still the highest

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

risk category.1 In addition, seniors are
more likely than younger people to
be killed when they are involved in a
collision. 2 In the context of an aging
population, the balance between
road safety and the autonomy some
people associate with driving is a
growing concern.
This article examines various
issues about seniors’ access to
transportation or to a vehicle, bearing
in mind that the majority of seniors
live in areas with few alternatives to
car travel. The first part of the article
focuses on having a driver’s licence
and driving a car. It compares men
and women by place of residence
and age group, and discusses the
possession of a driver’s licence and
the driving habits of seniors who
have the weakest visual, auditory,
motor and cognitive faculties (and
those who have been diagnosed with
Alzheimer’s disease).
The second part describes seniors’
primary forms of transportation other
than the car. In particular, the number
and proportion of seniors with more
limited access to transportation,
especially those who need help
getting around, are quantified and
assessed. The last part of the article
examines the impact of seniors’ main
form of transportation on their level
of social participation. Seniors living
in residences and institutions are
excluded from this study.

A large majority of seniors drive
cars
In 2009, 3.25 million people aged
65 and over had a driver’s licence—
three-quarters of all seniors. Of that
number, about 200,000 were aged 85
and over. Since people in their 80s
and over are, and will continue to be,
a fast-growing segment of the senior
population, 3 the number of elderly
drivers will also continue to increase
at a rapid pace.
The current generation of seniors
comprises a large number of women
who have never driven. As a result,
there is a substantial gap between the
sexes with regard to having a driver’s
licence, particularly in the 85-andover age group. In 2009, 67% of men
aged 85 and over living in private
households had a driver’s licence,
compared with 26% of women. The
dependence of elderly women on
their spouse or relatives and friends
for transportation is expected to
decline sharply in the future, since
nearly as many women as men in the
45-to-64 age group have a driver’s
licence (Chart 1).
The percentage of seniors who
have a driver’s licence is very similar
to the percentage who drove a
vehicle in the past month (Table 1).
There are slightly larger differences
at more advanced ages. It is worth
noting, however, that old age is not
a barrier to driving for many men. In
the 90-and-over population living
in private households, 37% of men

Canadian Social Trends

3

 What you should know about this study
This study uses data from the Canadian Community Health

Health Utilities Index

Survey – Healthy Aging (CCHS), conducted in 2008 and 2009.

The Health Utilities Index (HUI) is a health status classification

The target population consists of people aged 45 and over

system based on multiple attributes; it measures generic

living in occupied private dwellings in the 10 provinces.

health status and health-related quality of life. 1 The version

Seniors living in residences or institutions are therefore

used in the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) was

excluded from this study.

adapted from the HUI Mark 3 (HUI3) previously used in the

Data collection for the Canadian Community Health

National Population Health Survey. This instrument allows

Survey – Healthy Aging took place between December 2008

the calculation of a generic health status index based on

and November 2009. During this collection period, a total

attributes collected in two different CCHS modules—Health

of 30,865 valid interviews were conducted. In this study, the

Utilities Index (HUI) and Pain and Discomfort (HUP). The

main focus is on the 16,369 respondents aged 65 and over

generic health status index is used in the multivariate analysis

who represent 4,366,101 senior Canadians.

on social participation.
In Table 2 of this article, four health attributes are used:
vision, hearing, cognition and mobility. For more details on
the six levels of ability regarding these attributes, see the
table below.

Level 1

Vision

Hearing

Cognition

Mobility

Able to see well enough

Able to hear what is said

Able to remember most

Able to walk around the

to read ordinary

in a group conversation

things, think clearly

neighbourhood without

newsprint and recognize

with at least three other

and solve day-to-day

difficulty and without

a friend on the other

people, without a

problems

walking equipment

side of the street,

hearing aid

without glasses or
contact lenses

Level 2

Able to see well enough

Able to hear what is said

Able to remember most

Able to walk around

to read ordinary

in a conversation with

things, but has a little

the neighbourhood

newsprint and recognize

one other person in a

difficulty when trying to

with difficulty but does

a friend on the other

quiet room without a

think and solve day-to-

not require walking

side of the street, but

hearing aid, but requires

day problems

equipment or the help

with glasses or contact

a hearing aid to hear

lenses

what is said in a group

of another person

conversation with at
least three other people

4

Canadian Social Trends

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

 What you should know about this study (continued)
Level 3

Able to read ordinary

Able to hear what is said

Somewhat forgetful,

Able to walk around

newsprint with or

in a conversation with

but able to think clearly

the neighbourhood

without glasses but

one other person in a

and solve day-to-day

with walking equipment

unable to recognize a

quiet room with a

problems

but without the help of

friend on the other side

hearing aid, and able

of the street, even with

to hear what is said in

glasses

a group conversation

another person

with at least three other
people, with a hearing
aid

Level 4

Able to recognize a

Able to hear what is said

Somewhat forgetful,

Able to walk only

friend on the other

in a conversation with

and has a little difficulty

short distances with

side of the street with

one other person in a

when trying to think

walking equipment, and

or without glasses but

quiet room, without a

or solve day-to-day

requires a wheelchair

unable to read ordinary

hearing aid, but unable

problems

to get around the

newsprint, even with

to hear what is said in

glasses

a group conversation

neighbourhood

with at least three other
people even with a
hearing aid

Level 5

Unable to read ordinary

Able to hear what is said

Very forgetful, and has

Unable to walk alone,

newsprint and unable to

in a conversation with

great difficulty when

even with walking

recognize a friend on the

one other person in a

trying to think or solve

equipment. Able to walk

other side of the street,

quiet room with a

day-to-day problems

short distances with the

even with glasses

hearing aid, but unable

help of another person

to hear what is said in

and requires a

a group conversation

wheelchair to get around

with at least three other

the neighbourhood

people even with a
hearing aid

Level 6

Unable to see at all

Unable to hear at all

Unable to remember

Cannot walk at all

anything at all, and
unable to think or solve
day-to-day problems

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

Canadian Social Trends

5

 What you should know about this study (continued)
Neighbourhood level of dependence on cars

For each survey participant, the census tract of residence

Three categories of neighbourhoods were established

(or the municipality if they lived outside a metropolitan area)

using 2006 Census data. Census metropolitan areas and

was known. This enabled contextual information about the

agglomeration areas were divided into census tracts, and

neighbourhood of residence to be combined with other

neighbourhoods were defined according to census tract

personal characteristics.

boundaries. Outside metropolitan areas, the boundaries for
census subdivisions (or municipalities) were used. In each
neighbourhood and census subdivision, the proportion of
workers with a usual place of work and who commuted to
work by car was estimated. The neighbourhoods were then
divided into three categories: neighbourhoods with high
dependence (more than 85% of workers in the neighbourhood
commute to work by car), neighbourhoods with moderate
dependence (more than 75% and up to 85% commute by
car) and neighbourhoods with the lowest dependence (75%
or less commute by car).

Residential density of neighbourhood of residence
Using the same method as for estimating a neighbourhood’s
dependence on cars, neighbourhood residential density
was measured as the proportion of its residents living in
apartments (based on 2006 Census data). Neighbourhoods
were divided into six categories. Neighbourhoods with the first
level of density (the lowest density) had less than 2% of their
population living in apartments. At level 6 (neighbourhoods
with the highest density) 57% or more of the population
lived in apartments.
1.

F e e n y, D a v i d , W i l l i a m F u r l o n g , G e o r g e W. To r r a n c e ,
Charles H. Goldsmith, Zenglong Zhu, Sonja Depauw, Margaret
Denton and Michael Boyle. 2002. “Multi-attribute and singleattribute utility functions for the Health Utilities Index Mark 3
system,“ Medical Care. Vol. 40, no. 2.

Where seniors live and how this affects their day-to-day travel

6

In the coming years, delivering services tailored to an aging

distance to travel. However, people in the 65-to-74 age group

population will likely involve more financial and human

are slightly more likely to live outside census metropolitan

resources in regions where a large number of seniors live.

areas and census agglomerations. In 2009, 22% of people

In 2006, people aged 65 and over made up about 13.7% of

aged 65 and over lived in regions outside census metropolitan

the Canadian population, and varying proportions in the

areas and census agglomerations, compared with 20% of

provinces. The Atlantic provinces, Quebec, Saskatchewan

people aged 45 to 64.

and British Columbia had the highest proportions of seniors.

The extent to which people use a car as their primary

Saskatchewan ranked first, with a proportion of 15.4%, while

means of travel varies widely from one type of environment

the proportion in Alberta was 10.7%.

to another. One way of classifying neighbourhoods and

However, the proportion of seniors in a province’s

municipalities is to estimate the proportion of workers

population is not the only factor affecting the cost of

living there who commute to work by car (see “What

delivering services to them. Their type of residence and living

you should know about this study”). Even though most

environment as well as the form of transportation they require

seniors no longer work, the proportion of their working

may also play an important role.

neighbours who commute to work by car is an indicator of

In general, it is easier to provide care and health services

the neighbourhood’s general level of dependence on the

at a senior’s home in an urban environment than a rural one,

car. The chart below shows population distribution by age

in part because professionals and care providers have less

group in three types of neighbourhood. People aged 65 to 74

Canadian Social Trends

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

 Where seniors live and how this affects their day-to-day travel (continued)
Elderly people aged 75 and over are
slightly less likely to live in a highly cardependant neighbourhood

were as likely as people aged 45 to 54 and 55 to 64 to live in
neighbourhoods with the highest level of dependence on cars.
The picture was slightly different among people aged 75 and
over, as they were less likely to live in highly car-dependant

percentage
60

neighbourhoods.
54

54

In Canada, the majority of people live in a single-family

54

home, and this is also the case for seniors. However, the

50

proportion of seniors living in this type of dwelling is

45
40

40

35

30
23 23

23 23

24

27 27
22

25

20
10

Level of
neighbourhood
dependency
on cars
Lowest

substantially lower among older age groups. In 2009, 53%
of people aged 85 and over lived in a single-family home,
compared with 71% of people aged 75 to 84, 70% of people
aged 65 to 74 and 75% of people aged 55 to 64.
These statistics are reflected in the residential density

Average

of the neighbourhoods where the oldest seniors live.

Highest

The proportion of people aged 85 or older who lived in
a high residential density neighbourhood—that is, the
neighbourhood category with the highest proportion of

0
45 to 54 years 55 to 64 years 65 to 74 years 75 to 84 years 85 years and over

apartment dwellers—was 31%. By comparison, the proportion
was 21% in the 65-to-74 age group.

Age group
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009 and
Census of Population, 2006.

had driven a vehicle in the previous
month, compared with 11% of women.
Senior women in Quebec and
Newfoundland and Labrador
drive less
The proportion of seniors who had
a driver ’s licence varied widely
according to province of residence.
Saskatchewan and Alberta had the
highest proportions (84% and 83%
respectively) (Table 1). In contrast,
the lowest proportions of seniors
who had a driver’s licence were in
Newfoundland and Labrador and
Quebec (69% and 71% respectively).
These lower proportions are due to
the fact that senior women in these
two provinces are less likely to have
a licence (55% of senior women in

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

Newfoundland and Labrador and 58%
in Quebec had their licence).
Among the oldest seniors (aged 85
and over), the majority of men in
every province had a driver’s licence.
The highest proportions were in New
Brunswick (81%), Manitoba (77%) and
Saskatchewan (77%) (Chart 2). The
proportion of women aged 85 and
over with a driver’s licence varied by
province, from 14% in Quebec to 44%
in Saskatchewan.
Possession of a driver ’s
licence also varied across census
metropolitan areas (CMA). The lowest
proportions of seniors with a driver’s
licence were in Toronto (63%) and
Montréal (64%), the most populous
CMAs in Canada. In both these CMAs,
less than one-half of senior women
had a licence.

Even in the most densely
populated neighbourhoods,
senior men prefer to drive
The type of neighbourhood people
live in is related to whether they drive
a car or have a driver’s licence and the
number of trips they make by car, by
public transit or by foot. 4 In general,
people of all ages who live in higher
residential density neighbourhoods
are more likely to walk or take public
transit when they go out; stores
are more likely to be within walking
distance, and public transit service
i s b e t t e r. N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n i n
neighbourhoods with some of the
highest residential density levels in
Canada (the central neighbourhoods
of the largest CMAs), the majority of
men reported that their primary form

Canadian Social Trends

7

 Chart 1 The difference between men and women with a driver’s
licence is greatest among those 85 and over
percentage
100
96

90

90
95

87

86

94
77

80

67

70
57

60

Men

50

Women

40
26

30
20
10
0
45 to 54 years

55 to 64 years

65 to 74 years

75 to 84 years

85 years and over

Age group
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

Chart 2 In New Brunswick, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, about 4 out
of 5 men aged 85 and over have a driver’s licence
percentage
90

81

80

75

72

77
72

70
60

77

51

50

Men

44

41

40
30

66

62

62

35
28

28

20

28

25

35

26

14

10
0

New
Prince
found- Edward
land and Island
Labrador

Nova
New Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskat- Alberta British
Scotia Brunswick
chewan
Columbia
Province

Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

8

Canadian Social Trends

Women

of transportation was the car (56% of
men, compared with 26% of women).
In addition, 67% of senior men living
in the neighbourhoods with the
highest residential density reported
that they had driven their vehicle
in the previous month, compared
with 36% of senior women (Table 1).
In short, for senior men, living in
a neighbourhood that offers other
transportation options does not mean
giving up their car. 5
The association between income
level and having a driver’s licence,
as well as the likelihood of having
driven a car in the past month, was
clearer among senior women than
men. Among women, each increase in
income quintile was associated with a
substantial increase in the likelihood
of having driven. Among men, only
those in the lowest income quintile
were slightly different from the rest,
though even in their case, almost
80% had a licence (Table 1). In all the
other income quintiles, driving a car
was extremely common.
Having visual limitations does
not always mean an end to
driving
It is not seniors’ more advanced age
that increases the risks of traffic
accidents, but rather certain medical
conditions that they are more likely
to have. Driving a vehicle safely
requires good vision, good hearing,
adequate cognitive abilities and
adequate motor skills—functions that
deteriorate naturally with age.
The majority of seniors see well
enough to read the newspaper and
recognize a friend on the other side
of the street with glasses or contact
lenses (Level 2 vision) (Table 2).
Among seniors with Level 2 vision,
77% had a driver ’s licence. The
proportion of people with a driver’s
licence obviously decreased among
those with more limited vision. It
was 43% at Level 3, that is, among
people who saw well enough to read
the newspaper with or without glasses
but could not recognize a friend on
the other side of the street, even with

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

 glasses. At Levels 5 and 6 (people
who did not see well enough to read
the newspaper or recognize a friend
on the other side of the street, even
with glasses), 19% had a driver ’s
licence. The proportion of people at
these levels (5 or 6) who had driven
in the previous month was somewhat
lower (9%).
Hearing had less influence than
vision on having a driver’s licence and
driving a car. Among seniors who had
the most serious hearing problems
(Levels 5 and 6), 53% had a licence,
and about one-half had driven a
vehicle in the previous month.

To drive a car, one has to be able
to make quick decisions, remember
the rules of the road, the directions
to one’s destination, and so on.
Most seniors (72%) are at Level 1
with regard to their cognitive
abilities, which means they are able
to remember most things, think
clearly and solve everyday problems.
Among seniors at Level 1, 79% had
a driver’s licence. At Levels 5 and 6,
people are very likely to forget things
and have a great deal of difficulty
thinking clearly and solving everyday
problems. Of this group, 36%, or
about 38,000 seniors, had a driver’s

licence (Table 2). The number of
seniors at Levels 5 and 6 who had
driven in the previous month was
lower (28,500).
More than one-quarter of
seniors with Alzheimer’s disease
or another form of dementia
had a licence
Pe o p l e w h o a r e d i a g n o s e d w i t h
Alzheimer’s disease or any other form
of dementia (senility) will eventually
have to stop driving. Although driving
a car is not necessarily a problem
for everyone who is diagnosed
(especially in the early stages of the

Table 1 Proportion of people aged 65 and over with a driver’s licence, who drove a vehicle in the previous
month and for whom driving was the main form of transportation, by selected characteristics, 2009
Drove in the
previous month

Had a valid driver’s licence
Total
population

Both sexes

Men

Women

number
Total
4,344,500
3,254,500
74.9
88.8
Men
1,962,500
1,743,200
88.8*
...
Women †
2,381,900
1,511,300
63.4
...
Age group
65 to 74 years †
2,396,500
2,032,600
84.8
93.6
75 to 79 years
865,900
659,100
76.1*
90.1*
80 to 84 years
596,700
365,500
61.3*
80.7*
85 to 89 years
375,800
169,600
45.1*
72.0*
90 years and over
109,600
27,800
25.3*
45.5*
Province
Newfoundland and Labrador 70,400
48,800
69.3
86.4
Prince Edward Island
19,500
15,800
80.9*
91.3
Nova Scotia
136,800
104,900
76.7
90.7
New Brunswick
106,900
84,600
79.2*
92.2*
Quebec
1,088,400
776,000
71.3
88.7
Ontario †
1,673,000
1,226,000
73.3
86.9
Manitoba
149,400
116,100
77.7*
92.7*
Saskatchewan
137,200
115,200
84.0*
94.8*
Alberta
349,900
290,500
83.0*
91.1*
British Columbia
613,100
476,600
77.7*
90.0
Census metropolitan area or census agglomeration of residence
Toronto †
618,100
388,700
62.9
79.5
Montréal
492,700
313,700
63.7
83.2
Vancouver
303,000
219,800
72.5*
88.1*
Ottawa–Gatineau
132,200 E
105,200 E
79.6*
88.6
Calgary
99,200
78,400
79.0*
85.2

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

Men

Driving was the main
form of transportation

Women

Men

Women

percentage
63.4
...
...

86.3
...
...

56.1
...
...

79.2
...
...

43.8
...
...

76.8
64.9*‡
46.3*‡
29.6*‡
16.0*‡

91.6
86.9
78.0*
68.2*
36.8*

69.2‡
54.4*‡
42.2*‡
23.9*‡
11.3*‡

83.7
80.0
73.4*
61.9*
31.7*

53.3‡
41.9*‡
34.7*‡
20.1*‡
8.8E*‡

54.8*‡
72.3*‡
65.4‡
68.8*‡
57.5*‡
62.1‡
65.7‡
75.2*‡
76.0*‡
67.0‡

84.4
87.4
87.6
87.7
86.7
84.9
90.4*
92.4*
88.4
85.5

49.5‡
65.2*‡
56.3‡
62.0*‡
50.4*‡
55.4‡
55.3‡
64.3*‡
68.8*‡
58.8‡

77.5
81.7
77.5
83.3
80.1
78.8
82.7
86.8*
77.8
77.1

37.6*‡
49.4‡
44.2‡
46.3‡
39.7*‡
45.0‡
41.8‡
48.9‡
44.5‡
47.0‡

48.9‡
49.1‡
59.8*‡
72.1*‡
72.6*‡

76.5
80.6
81.9
87.0*
81.8

42.3‡
41.1‡
50.9*‡
65.3*‡
64.2*‡

67.3
70.7
72.6
73.7
75.8

33.3‡
32.0‡
42.0*‡
49.7*‡
49.9*‡

Canadian Social Trends

9

 Table 1 Proportion of people aged 65 and over with a driver’s licence, who drove a vehicle in the previous
month and for whom driving was the main form of transportation, by selected characteristics, 2009
(continued)
Drove in the
previous month

Had a valid driver’s licence
Total
population

Both sexes

Men

Women

number

Men

Women

Driving was the main
form of transportation
Men

Women

percentage

Edmonton
104,800
83,600
79.8*
Québec
84,900 E
64,200 E
75.7*
Winnipeg
97,600
74,100
75.9*
Other census
metropolitan area (CMA)
793,200
621,000
78.3*
Census agglomeration (CA) 674,600
535,100
79.3*
Outside CMAs and CAs
937,700
765,800
81.7*
Income quintile
Lowest quintile †
1,186,200
705,200
59.5
Second quintile
968,800
767,400
79.2*
Third quintile
615,300
526,700
85.6*
Forth and fifth quintiles
727,800
656,800
90.2*
Residential density of neighbourhood of residence 1
Lowest level †
801,900
659,400
82.2
Level 2
736,900
596,800
81.0
Level 3
867,300
686,200
79.1
Level 4
933,500
697,500
74.7*
Level 5
507,900
339,100
66.8*
Highest level
494,000
273,000
55.3*
Type of housing
Single-detached house † 2,825,300
2,282,200
80.8
Semi-detached or
row house
389,100
284,700
73.2*
Apartment or duplex
1,128,600
687,600
60.9*

92.6*
91.1*
91.6*

68.0*‡
63.4*‡
62.7*‡

89.9*
88.3*
88.4*

64.9*‡
53.9‡
50.6‡

76.5
83.0*
81.0*

42.6‡
39.0 E‡
40.1‡

90.5*
91.2*
94.2*

68.8*‡
70.0*‡
70.2*‡

88.9*
89.1*
92.2*

61.1*‡
61.2*‡
64.9*‡

84.7*
82.5*
87.3*

50.9*‡
47.6*‡
48.3*‡

78.3
91.3*
93.5*
95.3*

47.8‡
68.5*‡
77.1*‡
82.9*‡

75.2
88.3*
91.8*
93.2*

41.1‡
60.4*‡
69.6*‡
76.6*‡

68.5
82.5*
85.7*
85.9*

33.6‡
45.3*‡
50.3*‡
62.1*‡

92.4
92.3
90.9
88.2*
87.4*
72.5*

71.2‡
70.7‡
69.8‡
63.8*‡
51.8*‡
45.6*‡

90.0
90.9
88.7
85.6*
84.8*
66.9*

65.9‡
62.9‡
62.8‡
55.6*‡
45.3*‡
36.1*‡

83.6
83.7
80.9
79.7
78.5
56.3*

47.5‡
47.7‡
49.3‡
47.0‡
38.3*‡
25.8*‡

92.1

69.6‡

90.2

63.0‡

83.9

48.8‡

84.3*
78.9*

63.7*‡
51.6*‡

81.9*
74.2*

56.3*‡
42.7*‡

73.0*
65.2*

44.2‡
34.1*‡

†
*
‡
1.

reference group
statistically significant difference from the reference group at p < 0.05
statistically significant difference between men and women at p < 0.05
Residential density of a neighbourhood is calculated according to the percentage of people living in apartments. The neighbourhood corresponds to the census tract for
people living in a census metropolitan area or a census agglomeration. For the others, the neighbourhood corresponds to the municipality.
Note: The total of each characteristic may not equal the total population due to missing values.
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

disease), experts say that driving
ability should be assessed regularly. 6
In 2009, 28% of people aged 65 and
over who had been diagnosed with
Alzheimer’s disease or some other
form of dementia had a driver ’s
licence. In numerical terms, this
is about 20,000 people, including
13,000 men. It should be noted that
of these 20,000 seniors, a smaller

10

Canadian Social Trends

number, 14,600, had actually driven
in the month preceding the survey
(Table 2).
Moreover, among seniors who had
been diagnosed and whose cognitive
ability was at Level 5 or 6 (people at a
more advanced stage of the disease),
the number with a licence was only
about 7,000.

Driving a car usually requires the
use of one’s legs and a degree of
mobility. A minority of seniors are
unable to walk (mobility Levels 5
and 6). They can only move around
their neighbourhood with the aid of
a person, a device or a wheelchair.
Nevertheless, just over one-quarter
(28%) of seniors with reduced mobility
had a driver’s licence.

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

 Table 2 Proportion of people aged 65 and over with a driver’s licence, who drove a vehicle in the previous
month and for whom driving was the main form of transportation, by level of functional capacity,
2009
Had a valid
driver’s licence
percentage

number

Drove in the
previous month
percentage

Vision
Level 1: Able to see well enough to read ordinary
newsprint and recognize a friend on the other
76.5
612,500
71.9
side of the street, without glasses or contact lenses †
Level 2
76.9
2,568,500
71.8
36.2*
Level 3
43.5*
19,900 E
Level 4
32.5*
14,900
21.0E*
Level 5 or 6: Unable to read ordinary newsprint
and unable to recognize a friend on the other side
19.5E*
13,600 E
9.2E*
of the street, even with glasses1
Hearing
Level 1: Able to hear what is said in a group
conversation with at least three other people,
without a hearing aid †
76.3
2,784,600
70.9
Level 2
75.1
222,400
71.0
Level 3
62.1*
89,400
58.9*
Level 4
65.8*
93,100
61.2*
Level 5 or 6: Unable to hear what is said in a group
conversation with at least three other people even
53.3*
26,400
50.4*
with a hearing aid2
Cognition
Level 1: Able to remember most things, think clearly
and solve day-to-day problems †
78.7
2,347,900
73.8
Level 2
62.1*
67,300
55.9*
Level 3
76.1*
638,200
70.8*
Level 4
53.7*
161,500
47.1*
Level 5 or 6: Very forgetful, and has great difficulty
36.1*
37,900
27.1*
when trying to think or solve day-to-day problems3
Mobility
Level 1: Able to walk around the neighbourhood
without difficulty and without walking equipment †
79.3
2,953,600
74.8
Level 2
69.9*
54,900
64.1*
Level 3
51.3*
191,300
42.7*
28.5E*
Level 4
52.9*
13,200 E
Level 5 or 6: Unable to walk alone, even with
walking equipment. Able to walk short distances with
the help of another person, and requires a wheelchair
27.7*
39,500
17.6*
to get around the neighbourhood4
Has been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s Disease or any other sort of dementia (senility)
No †
75.7
3,232,300
70.5
Yes
28.3*
19,800
20.8E*

Driving was the main
form of transportation

number

percentage

number

575,700
2,395,700*
16,600E*
9,500E*

63.8
61.0*
26.7E*
18.9E*

504,100
2,017,600*
11,400E*
7,800E*

6,500E*

7.1E*

4,700E*

2,586,700
210,000*
84,700*
86,300*

60.5
64.9*
53.8*
51.7*

2,181,100
188,800*
76,200*
70,500*

25,000*

42.2*

20,500E*

2,202,300
60,500*
592,700*
141,700*

63.5
46.6*
60.1*
40.8*

1,877,900
47,800*
497,600*
120,900*

28,500*

20.0*

19,300*

2,783,400
50,300*
159,200*
7,100E*

64.0
56.4
35.9*
F

2,370,400
44,000*
131,900*
F

25,000*

11.8E*

13,900E*

3,010,100
14,600E*

60.5
17.3E*

2,551,700
10,900E*

†
*
1.
2.
3.

reference group
statistically significant difference from the reference group at p < 0.05
At Level 6 of vision, people are unable to see at all. Among people at Level 5 or 6, 19% were at Level 6.
At Level 6 of hearing, people are unable to hear at all. Among those at Level 5 or 6, 32% were at Level 6.
At Level 6 of cognition, people are unable to remember anything at all, and unable to think or solve day-to-day problems. Among those at Level 5 or 6, 18% were at
Level 6.
4. At Level 6 of mobility, people cannot walk at all. Among those at Level 5 or 6, 22% were at Level 6.
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

Canadian Social Trends

11

 A small number of seniors had a
driver’s licence but had not used it
in the previous month. Consequently,
there were similar associations
between having a driver’s licence by
health status and having actually used
it in the past month (Table 2). For
seniors whose health is deteriorating
but who want or need to continue
driving if they wish to remain in their
homes, various options can minimize
the risks of accidents (urban and
road design, signage, intelligent
transportation systems, vehicle
modification and changes in driving
habits, etc.). 7 The fact remains that
aging at home can be very difficult for
someone whose disabilities become
very severe if a car is their only
available means of transportation.
Relatively few seniors use public
transit
Given the statistics on having a
driver’s licence, it is not surprising
that for all age groups and for both
sexes, a minority of people used a
primary means of transportation
other than a car (public transit,
walking, accessible transit or taxi).
Among men aged 65 to 74, 84% got
around mainly by driving their car,
and 9% by being a passenger in a car
(Table 3). That left 4% using public
transit, 3% walking or bicycling, and
the rest using accessible transit or
taxis.
As people get older, travelling
as a passenger in a private vehicle
becomes their main form of
transportation; this was the case for
about one-half of seniors aged 85 and
over (with or without a licence). This
was even more common among
women of this age group, as 52%
travelled primarily as passengers
and had no licence while another 7%
had a licence but travelled mainly as
passengers (Table 3).
Seniors do not use public transit
more often as their main form of
transportation as they get older. Nor
does occasional use increase with
age. Rather, the proportion who had
used public transit at least once in
the previous month declined with

12

Canadian Social Trends

increasing age (Table 3). For example,
25% of women aged 55 to 64 had
used public transit at least once in
the previous month, compared with
18% of women aged 85 and over.
Part of the decline in the use
of public transit with age is due
to the fact that on average, the
elderly go out less often.8 The
relatively infrequent use of public
transit compared with other means
of transportation is possibly also
attributable to the fact that seniors,
l i ke t h e r e s t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,
tend to live in low residential
density neighbourhoods. In those
neighbourhoods, public transit, if
any, is designed primarily to meet
the needs of workers (rush-hour
service to key destinations such as
the downtown core or main work
areas). 9 In addition, being unable
to drive may mean being unable
to use regular public transit. Some
seniors with reduced mobility could
use accessible transit services, but
these are not available in every city
or every neighbourhood (for example,
kneeling buses that are comfortable
and safe, and with travel routes that
meet their needs). 10
As with the population as a
whole, public transit was used more
frequently by seniors living in the
largest census metropolitan areas
(CMAs). More than one-sixth (16%)
of seniors in the Montréal CMA
used public transit as their primary
means of transportation, a higher
proportion than in any other CMA.
And many seniors in major centres
occasionally used public transit,
even though it was not their primary
mode of transportation (roughly 1 in
3 seniors in Montréal, Toronto and
Vancouver had used public transit in
the previous month).
Wa l k i n g a n d c y c l i n g w e r e
considerably more popular than
public transit as occasional means
of transportation. More widespread
in large metropolitan areas, these
flexible forms of transportation were
also relatively common outside these
areas (Table 3). Even though walking
is good for the environment and

urban air quality, it is not dangerfree for seniors, since in the fiveyear period from 1996 to 2001, 34%
of fatally injured pedestrians were
seniors, nearly triple their proportion
in the population. 11
Accessible transit and taxis are
seldom used before age 85
Most people probably consider
accessible transit and taxis as options
of last resort, and people who depend
on such forms of transportation may
have reduced mobility. On the other
hand, accessible transit and taxis
may be very important to people
who cannot drive and whose relatives
do not live nearby or are not always
available. The data show that before
the age of 85, a very small minority
of seniors use either of these types
of transportation. The picture is
different for people aged 85 and over,
especially women: 9% of them used
accessible transit or taxis as their
primary means of transportation.
Outside census metropolitan
areas and census agglomerations,
alternatives to the car are virtually
non-existent as primary means of
travel. In addition, data show that
accessible transit services seem to
be less available in those areas. Only
1% of seniors living outside census
metropolitan areas and census
agglomerations reported that their
primary form of transportation was
accessible transit or taxis, compared
with 3% in Toronto.
The reasons given by seniors for
not using accessible transit illustrate
the lack of these services outside
major centres (Chart 3). Only 5% of
seniors living in a CMA or a CA and
needing help to get around reported
that they did not use accessible
transit because it was unavailable
in their area, compared with 49% of
those who did not live in a CMA or
a CA.
The inability to get around on
one’s own makes it difficult to age
at home. In 2009, 14% of women
aged 65 and over reported that they
needed help getting to places to
which they could not walk (Table 4).

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

 Table 3

Main form of transportation, by age and sex, 2009
Main form of transportation
(in general)

Driving
one’s vehicle

Passenger
in a vehicle
(with
driver’s
licence)

Passenger
in a vehicle
(without
driver’s
licence)

Public
transit

Had used this form of transportation
at least once in the previous month

Walking
or
bicycling

Taxi or
accessible
transit

Public
transit

Walking
or
Accessible
bicycling transit

percentage
Age group - Both sexes
45 to 54 years
79.2*
7.9*
55 to 64 years
75.2*
10.2
65 to 74 years
67.9*
13.3
75 to 84 years †
55.9
11.5
85 years and over
31.2*
8.6
Age group - Men
45 to 54 years
85.1*
4.6 E
55 to 64 years
84.6*
5.6 E
65 to 74 years
83.7*
6.4 E
75 to 84 years †
77.3
6.1 E
85 years and over
55.9*
11.2 E
Age group - Women
45 to 54 years
73.2*
11.1
55 to 64 years
66.3*
14.6
65 to 74 years
53.3*
19.6
75 to 84 years †
39.0
15.8
85 years and over
17.5*
7.1E*
Area of residence (people aged 65 and over)
Toronto †
48.8
10.5 E
Montréal
48.5
10.6 E
Vancouver
56.0
9.4 E
Census metropolitan area
of 1,000,000 to 2,000,000
residents
60.8*
14.4 E
Other census metropolitan
area (CMA)
64.5*
11.0
Census agglomeration (CA) 62.9*
14.1
Outside CMA or CA
67.0*
14.1
Type of housing (people aged 65 and over)
Men
Single-detached,
semi-detached or
row house †
82.7
6.6
Apartment or duplex
65.2*
7.4 E
Women
Single-detached,
semi-detached or
row house †
48.2
19.1
Apartment or duplex
34.1*
11.4*

2.8E*
4.0*
9.0*
19.5
40.6*

6.7
5.8
5.5
6.8
7.5 E

3.2 E
4.0 E
3.2
3.6 E
4.6 E

F
0.8E*
1.2E*
2.6E*
7.4*

23.2*
21.9
18.7
18.5
16.5

41.5*
41.1*
35.2
31.1
25.1

F
0.8E*
1.3E*
2.7
8.0E*

F
1.4E*
2.4E*
7.1
19.5*

5.3 E
4.2 E
3.7 E
5.6 E
F

3.4 E
3.6 E
2.8 E
2.7 E
F

F
F
F
F
4.0E*

22.6
18.9
16.5
17.1
13.8 E

40.0*
39.2*
33.6
31.7
28.3

F
F
F
F
F

4.2E*
6.5E*
15.0*
29.3
52.4*

8.0 E
7.3
7.2
7.8
8.4 E

3.1 E
4.3 E
3.5 E
4.4 E
5.2 E

F
1.0E*
1.4E*
3.8E*
9.3E*

23.9
24.8*
20.7
19.6
18.0

43.0*
42.9*
36.8*
30.6
23.3*

F
F
1.5E*
3.4
9.8E*

11.7 E
15.7 E
12.8 E

F
4.9 E
F

2.8 E
F
F

32.8
32.2
35.5

40.1
31.4
50.3

3.3 E
F
F

11.6E*

7.0 E

F

F

25.2

46.8

F

15.3
15.0
15.0

4.4E*
F
F

2.7 E
3.5 E
2.4 E

2.2 E
3.0 E
1.2E*

15.7*
8.7E*
3.5E*

31.2
27.2*
23.5*

2.5 E
1.6 E
1.3E*

2.5
12.7E*

2.2 E
5.6E*

0.8
3.2E*

13.7
27.8*

31.2
37.8

1.0 E
3.6E*

3.7 E
16.1*

2.6 E
7.2E*

1.8 E
6.5E*

14.8
31.4*

30.0
39.4*

1.7 E
6.7E*

21.4
17.1
14.7

5.3
6.0 E

24.6
24.8

† reference group
* statistically significant difference from the reference group at p < 0.05
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

Canadian Social Trends

13

 Chart 3 Outside urban centres, the reasons given for not using
accessible transit illustrate the lack of such a service
percentage
70
Census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations

61
60

Outside metropolitan areas

49

50
40

36

30
21
20

11E

10
0

5
No need for service

Prefers not to use the service

Service not offered in their area

Reason for not using accessible transit
Note: Includes only people who need help to get to places out of walking distance and don't use accessible transit.
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

The same was true for 5% of men
aged 65 and over. For both men and
women, the proportion needing help
getting around increased rapidly with
more advanced age (28% of men and
54% of women aged 90 and over).
This may be a problem, since the size
of seniors’ social networks tends to
shrink as they age,12 while their need
for assistance with transportation
tends to grow.
People living alone are particularly
likely to need help. In 2009, 14% of
senior women living alone (136,000)
and 6% of senior men in the same
situation (24,000) required assistance
with transportation (Table 4). These
are some of the people who face the
greatest obstacles to transportation.
In fact, this was one of the groups
most likely to have used accessible
transit; 13% of seniors who were living
alone and had mobility problems had
used accessible transit in the previous
month. By comparison, this was the
case for 3% of seniors who needed
help with transportation but were
living with their children or other
people.

14

Canadian Social Trends

There is substantial interprovincial
variation in the need for assistance
with transportation. Saskatchewan
and Alberta had the lowest
proportions of senior women who
needed help with transportation (9%
in both provinces). This proportion
was about double in Nova Scotia
(18%) and Prince Edward Island (19%).
In Toronto, 1 in 5 senior women
stated that they were unable to use
transportation without assistance;
that equates to 66,000 women in that
CMA alone.
Access to transportation and
seniors’ social participation
There is growing acceptance of the
idea that leading an active life and
participating in social activities
promotes good health and successful
aging. 13 Consequently, governments
and various international
organizations are encouraging such
behaviours and activities, and are
also developing policies to eliminate
barriers to participation. At least
one study has demonstrated the
link between seniors’ access to

transportation and their social
participation, but it was based on a
small sample. 14 The CCHS – Healthy
Aging collected data on participation
in various social activities (family
activities, physical activities with
other people, community activities,
volunteer work, etc.). According
to the data, inadequate access to
transportation or difficulty getting
around may be a barrier to social
participation.
Seniors whose main form of
transportation was driving their car
were the most likely to have taken
part in a social activity during the
previous week (73%), with passengers
who had a driver ’s licence close
behind (69%). Public transit users
and seniors who walked were a little
less likely to participate (61% and
66% respectively). People who were
mainly passengers and did not have
a licence (53%) and people who used
accessible transit or taxis (46%)
had the lowest participation rates.
Women, particularly those 85 and
over, were much more likely to be in
the last two groups. When all other
factors affecting social participation
were kept constant (age, health
status, sex, income level, household
status, mental health, type of place
of residence in a CMA or non-CMA),
the conclusion was the same: seniors
who travelled mostly by driving their
car were more likely to participate
than those who used any other form
of transportation (except passengers
with a licence, who were not
significantly different from drivers).
According to studies, people who
depend on others for transportation
have a greater tendency to be
reluctant to ask for assistance in
getting to leisure activities compared
with activities perceived as more
essential. 15
Respondents were asked if they
had felt a desire to participate in
more social, recreational or group
activities in the past 12 months.
Those who answered yes were asked
whether one or more of eight possible
reasons accounted for the fact that
they had not participated as much

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

 Table 4 Number and percentage of people needing assistance with transportation, 2009
Needs assistance to get to places out of walking distance
Men
Total
Age group
65 to 74 years †
75 to 84 years
85 to 89 years
90 years and over
Household living arrangement
Lives alone †
Lives in a couple
Lives with children
Lives with others
Income quintile
Lowest quintile †
Second quintile
Third quintile
Forth and fifth quintiles
Province
Newfoundland and Labrador
Prince Edward Island
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Quebec
Ontario †
Manitoba
Saskatchewan
Alberta
British Columbia

Women

number

percentage

number

percentage

99,100

5.0

331,800

26,100 E
41,800 E
21,500 E
9,800 E

2.3 E
6.5E*
15.6E*
28.2E*

70,400
131,600
88,400
41,400

5.6‡
16.0*‡
36.6*‡
54.2*‡

24,100 E
62,800 E
F
F

6.4 E
4.3 E
F
F

136,200
102,700
36,700 E
56,100 E

13.6‡
9.4*‡
28.5*‡
32.4*‡

34,600 E
26,900 E
F
7,900 E

7.6 E
5.9 E
F
1.8 E

125,700
58,600 E
32,600 E
23,200 E

17.1‡
11.4E*‡
11.0E‡
7.9E*‡

2,200 E
F
4,000 E
3,700 E
23,300 E
34,600 E
F
F
F
18,500 E

6.8 E
F
6.6 E
7.8 E
4.8 E
4.6 E
F
F
F
6.5 E

5,900 E
2,100 E
14,000
9,900 E
85,200
137,200
14,800 E
6,500 E
17,400 E
38,800 E

15.4E‡
19.2E‡
18.4‡
16.7E‡
14.0‡
14.9‡
17.5E‡
8.5E*
9.1E*‡
11.9 E

13.9 ‡

† reference group
* statistically significant difference from the reference group at p < 0.05
‡ statistically significant difference between men and women at p < 0.05
Source: Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey – Healthy Aging, 2009.

as they would have liked. Health
problems were the most common
reason given by men and women
aged 75 and over. Elderly men seldom
cited transportation problems as the
reason for limited participation. For
women aged 85 and over however,
transportation problems were the
second most common reason after
health problems for not participating
in more social, recreational or group
a c t i v i t i e s ( 2 4 % ) . Tr a n s p o r t a t i o n
problems were mentioned by 10% of
women aged 75 to 84.

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008

Summary
A majority of seniors live in areas
where the car is the primary form
of transportation. Thus, it is not
surprising to find that the majority of
seniors, even those of more advanced
ages, travel mostly by car. According
to various sources, 16 the majority of
seniors have no intention of moving
and plan to remain where they live
as long as possible. The number and
proportion of seniors who drive can
therefore be expected to increase
over the coming years.

In 2009, three-quarters of all
seniors had a driver’s licence. For
men, being an older senior is not an
obstacle to driving. In the 85-andover age group, 67% of men and 26%
of women had a licence. This large
gap between men and women aged
85 and over is expected to diminish
in the future, since almost as many
women as men aged 55 to 64 had a
driver’s licence.
A majority of seniors have
adequate visual, cognitive and
auditory functions and most seniors

Canadian Social Trends

15

 drive their cars to get around.
However, some 14,000 seniors who
had very limited sight (they were
unable to read the newspaper or
recognize a friend on the other side
of the street, even with glasses)
still had a licence. That is also the
case for 40,000 seniors who had a
driver’s licence but were very likely
to forget things and had considerable
difficulty thinking clearly and solving
everyday problems. In addition,
about 20,000 people who had been
diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease
or some other form of dementia had
a driver’s licence.
Given the popularity of the car
as the main form of transportation,
only a minority of seniors used
other forms of transportation. For
example, 7% of people aged 75 to
84 got around principally by public
transit, while 4% mainly walked or
cycled. The proportions using these
alternative forms of transportation
were the same for seniors as for 45-to
54-year-olds.
A very small minority of seniors
aged 65 to 84 used accessible transit
or taxis as their primary means
of transportation. This changed,
however, among seniors aged 85 and
over where these were the main forms
of transportation for 9% of women
and 4% of men.
Older senior women are most
likely to be limited in their day-today travel, either because they are
passengers who have no driver ’s
licence or, for those aged 85 and over,
because they have to use accessible
transit. Furthermore, 54% of women
aged 90 and over needed assistance
with transportation.
Seniors’ main form of transportation is linked to their level of
participation in social activities—
such as family, educational or cultural
activities done with others. In fact,
seniors who mainly got around by
driving their car or as a passenger
with their own driver ’s licence
were more likely to participate in
such activities. Seniors who mainly
travelled as a passenger without a

16

Canadian Social Trends

licence or by using accessible transit
or taxis were less likely to participate.

CST
Martin Turcotte is a senior analyst
in Statistics Canada’s Social and
Aboriginal Statistics Division.
1. Li, Guohua, Elisa R. Braver and Li-Hui
Chen. 2003. “Fragility versus excessive
crash involvement as determinants of
high death rates per vehicle-mile of travel
among older drivers.” Accident Analysis
and Prevention. Vol. 35, no. 2.
2. According to the most recent statistics
on traffic collisions in Canada, people
aged 65 and over accounted for about
17% of collision fatalities in 2009, even
though they make up about 14% of the
population and travel fewer kilometres
per year on average. See also RamageMorin, Pamela L. 2008. “Motor vehicle
accident deaths, 1979 to 2004.” Health
Reports. Vol. 19, no. 3. Statistics Canada
Catalogue no. 82-003.
3. Statistics Canada. 2010. Population
Projections for Canada, Provinces and
Territories, 2009 to 2036. S t a t i s t i c s
C a n a d a C a t a l o g u e n o . 9 1 - 5 2 0 -X .
According to this report, there were
1.3 million people aged 80 and over
in Canada in 2009. According to
demographic projections (medium-growth
scenario), the 80-and-over population will
increase by a factor of 2.6, to 3.3 million,
between now and 2036 and by a factor
of 3.9, to 5.1 million, between now and
2061.
4. Turcotte, Martin. 2008. “Dependence on
cars in urban neighbourhoods,” Canadian
Social Trends. No. 85. Statistics Canada
Catalogue no. 11-008-XPE.
5. In the 45-to -64 age group, the car
remained the main form of transportation
of 55% of men living in the highest
residential density neighbourhoods,
compared with 43% of women. Among
seniors, the gender gap was even wider.
6. For example, see Hunt, Linda A. 2003.
“Driving and Dementia,” Generations.
Vol. 27, no. 2.
7. Fo r a r e v i e w o f t h e s e o p t i o n s a n d
their effectiveness, see the following
in particular: Anne E. Dickerson,
L i s a J. M o l n a r, D a v i d W. E b y, G e r i
A d l e r, M i c h e l B é d a r d , M a r l a B e r gWe g e r, S h e r r i l e n e C l a s s e n , D a n i e l
Foley, Amy Horowitz, Helen Kerschner,
Oliver Page, Nina M. Silverstein, Loren
S t a p l i n a n d Le o n a r d Tr u j i l l o . 2 0 0 7 .
“Transportation and aging: a research

agenda for advancing safe mobility.” The
Gerontologist. Vol. 47, no. 5.
8. Turcotte, Martin. 2006. “Seniors’ access to
transportation,” Canadian Social Trends.
No. 82. Statistics Canada Catalogue
no.11-008-XPE. This study showed in
particular that people aged 85 and over
were more than twice as likely not to have
gone out on survey day as people aged
65 to 74.
9. Studies in which seniors were asked their
opinions on various transportation options
also raised this issue. For example, see
Glasgow, Nina and Robin M. Blakely.
2000. “Older nonmetropolitan residents’
evaluations of their transportation
arrangements,” The Journal of Applied
Gerontology. Vol. 19, no. 1.
10. Transport Canada. 2010. Bus Routes
for the Elderly. Urban Transportation
Showcase Program. Issue paper no. 81.
11. Transport Canada. 2010. A Quick Look
at Fatally Injured Vulnerable Roads Users.
Road Safety and Motor Vehicle Regulation
Directorate. Fact Sheet TP 2436E.
12. Milan, Anne and Mireille Vézina. 2011.
“Senior women,” Women in Canada.
Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-503.
13. World Health Organization. 2002. Active
ageing: a policy framework. Geneva.
14. Dahan- Oliel, Noémi, Barbara Mazer,
Isabelle Gélinas, Bonnie Dobbs and
Hélène Lefebvre. 2010. “Transportation
use in community-dwelling older adults:
association with participation and leisure
activities,” Canadian Journal on Aging/
La Revue canadienne du vieillissement.
Vol. 29, no. 4. The obstacle of inadequate
access to transportation was noted in this
study, which was conducted recently in the
Montréal area; however, there were only
90 participants.
15. Bendixen, Roxanna M., William C. Mann
a n d M a c h i k o To m i t a . 2 0 0 5 . “ T h e
relationship of home range to functional
status and cognitive status of frail elders,”
Physical and Occupational Therapy in
Geriatrics. Vol. 23, no. 2;
Taylor, Brian D. and Sophia Tripodes.
2001. “The effects of driving cessation
on the elderly with dementia and their
caregivers,” Accident Analysis and
Prevention. Vol. 33, no. 4.
16. For a thorough review, see Lord, Sébastien.
2009. Étude longitudinale de la mobilité
quotidienne et de ses rapports avec les
choix résidentiels : l’expérience d’un
groupe d’aînés vieillissant en banlieue
pavillonnaire. Doctoral thesis. École
supérieure d’aménagement du territoire
et de développement régional.

Statistics Canada — Catalogue no. 11-008