Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc.

The MRGO Navigation Project: A Massive Human-Induced Environmental, Economic, and
Storm Disaster
Author(s): Gary P. Shaffer, John W. Day, Sarah Mack, G. Paul Kemp, Ivor van Heerden,
Michael A. Poirrier, Karen A. Westphal, Duncan FitzGerald, Andrew Milanes, Chad A. Morris,
Robert Bea and P. Shea Penland
Source: Journal of Coastal Research, , SPECIAL ISSUE NO. 54. Geologic and Environmental
Dynamics of the Pontchartrain Basin (FALL 2009), pp. 206-224
Published by: Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc.
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 Journal of Coastal

Research

SI

54

206-224

West Palm Beach, Florida

Fall 2009

The MRGO

Navigation Project: A Massive Human-Induced
Environmental, Economic, and Storm Disaster
Michael A. Poirrier??,
Gary P. Shaffer ,John W. Day, Jr.*, Sarah Mack5, G. Paul Kemp++, Ivor van Heerden-,
Karen A. Westphal+++, Duncan FitzGerald*", Andrew Milanes???, Chad A. Morris+t++, Robert Beamt, and
P. Shea Penland+t+
of Biological
SLU-10736

department
Sciences,
Southeastern

department
and Coastal

Louisiana

Louisiana
Baton

University
LA
Hammond,
shafe@selu.edu

70402,

Baton

"Department
Sciences

New
Science

Springs,
1289, U.SA.

Orleans,

mtCMor

of Biological

LA

Consulting

70148,

Baton
LA

Rouge,

LA

Tulane

LA

Orleans,

70112,

New

70148,

Society

Rouge,

LA

70808,

U.S.A.

U.S.A.

Institute

LA

Orleans,

Audubon

of Earth Sciences
"department
Boston University
675 Commonwealth
Avenue
U.S.A.

Boston,

MA

02215,

U.S.A.

U.S.A.

U.S.A.

70727

""Department
Environmental

of Civil

&

Engineering

212 McLaughlin Hall
University

of California

Berkeley
Berkeley,

ABSTRACT

t'AUHh.

Baton

University
1440 Canal
Street

t+tPontchartrain

LLC
70810,

+tNational

6160 Perkins Road, Suite 215

of New Orleans
University
2000 Lakeshore
Drive

545 Shady Lake Parkway

Inc.
Services,
P.O. Box 1289
Denham

University
LA 70803, U.S.A.

of New Orleans
University
2000 Lakeshore
Drive

University
LA 70803, U.S.A.

"Environmental

State

Rouge,

of Environmental
department
Health
Sciences

New

State

Rouge,

Sciences

U.SA.

of Civil and
"Department
Environmental
Engineering
Louisiana

of Oceanography

CA

94720,

U.SA.

I

SHAFFER,
G.P.; DAY, J.W. JR.; MACK,
S.; KEMP,
G.P.; VAN HEERDEN,
I.; POIRRIER,
M.A.; WESTPHAL,
K.A.;
FITZGERALD,
D.; MILANES,
A.; MORRIS,
C.A., BEA, R, and PENLAND,
P.S., 2009. The MRGO
navigation project: a
massive
human-induced
206-224.
environmental,
economic, and storm disaster. Journal
SI(54),
of Coastal Research,
West Palm Beach
(Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.
It is generally felt in the water resources community that the most significant twenty-first century public works projects
to correct environmental
will be those undertaken
damage caused by twentieth century projects. A second axiom is that
to restoration and mitigation, what we call redemption, often will be precipitated
the switch from economic development
by disaster. Finally, itmust be expected that the repair project will cost far more than the initial public investment but
benefits. We examine this cycle
environmental
also may have economic revitalization
potential far exceeding anticipated
River Gulf Outlet (MRGO) navigation project east ofNew Orleans, beginning with its
for the federally funded Mississippi
to the Gulf ofMexico and
much heralded birth in 1963 as a 122 km long free-flowing tidal canal connecting New Orleans
and closure. We track the direct and indirect effects of the project through its
ending with its recent de-authorization
environmental
commercial failure, and then on to the official denial, the pervasive
impacts, and finally exposure of its
in 2005. Post
role in flooding New Orleans during Hurricane
Betsy in 1965 and more seriously during Hurricane Katrina
and economic damage now offers an opportunity to apply
de-authorization
planning to curtail continuing environmental
that were disrupted or interrupted by the MRGO
lessons that have been learned and to reinstate natural processes
during the half-century of its operation. One surprising outcome is that the restoration program may turn out to be more
as an agent
of economic
conceived
successful
than the original navigation
project, which was
commercially
even in the face of compelling scientific
still does not acknowledge,
transformation. The U.S. Army Core of Engineers
flooding of the Upper and Lower 9th
evidence, that the MRGO
project was a significant cause of early and catastrophic

effort that removed the MRGO
Wards, St. Bernard Parish, and New Orleans East during Hurricane Katrina. A modeling
reduced flooding from Hurricane
from the landscape, and restored the cypress swamps and marshes killed by the MRGO,
that
Katrina by 80%. We conclude that the MRGO
spelled the difference between localized flooding, and the catastrophe
economic damages
If the MRGO-caused
killed 1464 people and inflicted tens of billions of dollars of property damages.
and
are combined with those of construction, operation and maintenance,
associated with Hurricanes
Betsy and Katrina
wetlands

destroyed,

cost of the MRGO

is in the hundreds

of billions

of Engineers,

of dollars.

River Gulf Outlet, Hurricane Katrina,
baldcypress, hurricane
Mississippi
environmental disaster, saltwater
intrusion, dead zone, storm impacts.

INDEX WORDS:

ADDITIONAL
Army Corps

DOI:

then the total economic

10.21121SI54-004.1.

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buffer, U.S.

 The MRGO

Environmental,

INTRODUCTION

as a system

The Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO) is a 122 km long
deep-draft
that

channel

shipping

connected

thousands

in the

constructed

of hectares

1960s

early

of storm-surge

reducing

baldcypress swamps and freshmarshes directly to theGulf of
Mexico.

The

was

channel

navigation

to shorten

constructed

the travel time from theGulf to the Port ofNew Orleans and
its

were

"levees"

economic
The

originally

to

thought

be

suitable

for

to demonstrate

(1)

development.
are

of this review

purposes

primary

that the environmental impacts brought on by the MRGO
were

known

and

by the U.S.

ignored

Army

of Engineers

Corps

(USACE), prior to its construction, (2) that these impacts
were indeed a direct or indirect result of the MRGO, and
(3) that

specifically,

to

factor

ing
Bernard

the

parishes

was

the MRGO

a

substantial

contribut

destructive

in Orleans
and
flooding
Hurricanes
and
Katrina.
Betsy

during

St.

and

barrier

of theMississippi

Delta

the

During

loss of coastal
in the

twentieth

protecting

both marshes

wetlands,

delta.

Most

research

has

and

forested

study

et al., 2000;
but more
attention
2007),
on coastal
focused
forested wetland
loss

has

et al.,

2005;

loss and

To

2009).

we will

for restoration,

plans

a conceptual

framework

understand

of deltaic

(i.e.,
been

recently

(Chambers

et al.,

the causes

of this

these

put

loss

ecosystem

into

processes

The

functioning.

Mississippi Delta formedover the past 5000 to 6000 years as a
series

of overlapping

channels.

delta

channels

divide

lobes

associated

Ridges

coast

the

nourished

by

distributary

active

and

abandoned

with
into

between

exchange

into the basins.
deltaic

lobes

the

twentieth

the

area

over

2007;

the

Shaffer,

several
and

Hoeppner,

input
in active

thousand

levee

natural

ridges

framework

skeletal

within

was

framework

critically

in

important

distichum?
(Taxodium
tupelo
in the
wetlands
other freshwater

baldcypress-water

of wetland
loss is important
of the causes
understanding
a
of
mechanisms
for
scientific
the
appreciation
only
can be
but also so that effective management
involved,
plans
An

not

to restore
the Mississippi
developed
see Boesch
et al.,
these
1994,
issues,
2007;

et

Tornquist
in the

reduction

most

lead

that

led

Louisiana
active

that

of forces

of factors

Human

2007).

al.,

forces

Delta

lead

activity

a

and

an
A

deterioration.

loss

in

of wetlands

levees

and

most

riverine

that eliminated

distributaries

of

2000,

caused

growth

to delta

flood-control

including

et al.,

Day

to delta

the massive

to

(for reviews

2006;

closure

of

input

to the delta plain (Boesch et al, 1994; Day et al, 2000, 2007).
Most

river

are

sediments

There

also

has

to deep
a reduction

lost

been

waters
of at

of the Gulf
50%

least

of

of the

suspended sediment load in the river (Kesel, 1988, 1989;
1995).

Meade,

a result

As

the Pontchartrain
the early

Basin

twentieth

Within

of these
have

activities,

been

century.

the delta, about

most

wetlands

cut off from the river

15,000 km of canals

of
since

led to

of hydrology
2000; Turner,
(Day et al,
and
Canal
1982).
Costanza,
Schaife,
spoil banks
interrupt
cause
sheet
and
deterioration
of
water,
flow,
impound
pervasive

alterations

wetlands.

Long,

retention

water.

time

deep
and

The MRGO

destructive

navigation
allow

greater

offers a

channels
inland

lessen

freshwater

penetration

textbook example

of salt

of this

process.

to

lobes, but prior
a net increase

generally
past

riverine

increased

in abandoned

there was

century

(Day

ridges prevent

strong

area

wetland

Historically,
and decreased

of wetlands

et al.,

(Day

there was

but

basins,

basins

interdistributary

et al., 2000, 2007; Roberts, 1997). These

a

Delta Deterioration

Mexico.

wetlands,

on marsh

focused

Day

Shaffer

a massive

interwoven

and

formed

and
swamps
aquatica)
area from saltwater
intrusion.

Nyssa

coastal

there was

century,

This

1992).

McCraw,

enhancement

An understanding of the formation and functioning of the
Mississippi Delta is critical to appreciating the impacts of the
MRGO.

of overlapping
islands
that

which the delta plain developed (Kesel, 1989; Kesel, Yodis, and

number

Development

207

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

in

years

Gosselink,

2005).

Tornquist

et al.,

The delta network efficientlyretained about 25% of sediment
(Kesel,

input

and

Yodis,

McCraw,

1992;

2007).
The MRGO study area (Figure 1) is part of the Pontchar
train Basin, which is located between the Mississippi and
Pearl

rivers

with

Pleistocene

Pontchartrain
nel

and Maurepas.
in southeastern
Louisiana

Bernard
nant

delta
ridges

Orleans

A number
retard

between

Borgne

of factors

served

its deterioration,

uplands
current

north

of Lakes

chan
Mississippi
first formed as part of the St.
about

BP.

1000-3000
occur

Bernard

area,

metropolitan
and the Lake

Parish,
and

complex
of the St.

The

eastern

Rem

in the New

complex
New Orleans,

St. Bernard

area.
to enhance
including

the growth
strong

of the delta

sediment

and

water input to the delta plain via functioningdistributaries,
overbank
most

delta

flooding,
lobes have

and

crevasse

been

splays.

incorporated

of
Significant
parts
into the current delta

Journal of Coastal

Research,

Figure 1. The MRGO
Gulf ofMexico. Reach
the GIWW, and Reach
Mexico. Other features
the Bayou La Loutre
Bienvenue and Dupres.

Special

Project from the IHNC lock inNew Orleans to the
1 extends from the IHNC to the turn southeast at
2 runs through the marsh southeast to the Gulf of
include the CWU largely destroyed by the MRGO,
and its ridge, the 40 Arpent levee, and Bayous

Issue No. 54, 2009

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 208 Shaffer et al.

In summary,
a

is a broad

there

consensus

of a

interaction

complex

that wetland
of

number

factors

is

loss

at

acting

different spatial and temporal scales (Boesch et al, 1994;
Day and Templet, 1989; Day et al, 1995, 1997; Turner and
Cahoon, 1987). Day et al (2000, 2007) concluded that
isolation of the delta from the Mississippi River by levees
was

the most
factor for the
important
perhaps
whole.
In general,
where
deep
straight
navigation

a

as

delta

channels

affect the local hydrology, accelerated land loss in freshwater
wetlands is associated with dredging activities in the channel
(Day et al, 2000; Steyer et al, 2008).
Coastal

Basins and Vegetation
Delta

Zones

of the

Mississippi

Penfound and Hathaway (1938) studied wetland commu
nities in the New Orleans vicinity and distinguished four
on

based

communities
species,

fresh

species,

and

freshwater

saltwater

and marsh

tolerance:

salinity

or nearly

both

included

evidence

in

forests

ghost
region.

Lake

the
a

Subsequently,

swamp

of maps

(Chabreck,

into

marshes

saline

based

scriptions.
saline
tation

on
plant

species

to

fresh

marshes

and

Visser

and

detail

and
de
from

increases

More

swamps.

described
et al,

(Visser

these

vege

1998,

1999,

of trees,

and

vines,

shrubs,

or swamps

wetlands

forested

herbaceous

common

in freshwater

forested

wetlands,

than 5 ppt (Chambers et al, 2005; Penfold and Hathaway,
1938).
Both Chabreck (1970) and Palmisano (1970) stated that

"when

is increased

salinity

instead

organic

sequences,

grasses,

the marshes

ponds and
construction

lakes"

(Coastal

of being

replaced

break

and

up

Environments,
the

of the MRGO,
in southeastern

wetlands

coastal

simply

by

was

saline
to open

revert

Inc.,

thick

to

Prior

1973).

setting

for

significantly

different than at the present time. The area affected by the
MRGO includes the Central Wetlands Unit (CWU), wetlands
Lake

around

Borgne,

and

(Figure 1) natural

Loutre

there were

extensive

CWU

adjacent

and

exchange

between

north

and

of the Bayou

La

levee ridge. Before the MRGO,

baldcypress-water
to the Bayou
these

south

La

freshwater

tupelo
Loutre
areas

in the

swamps

Local

precipitation

and

runoff from

was

swamps

of baldcypress-water
in legislation
changes

tupe

logging

driven

by

and

unsuitable

for cultivation

1947).

(Norgress,

Large

scale logging of old-growth baldcypress began in 1889 with
the invention ofpullboat logging (Mancil, 1980; Perrin, 1983).
Pullboats
along

and winches

cables

used

"runs"

logging

spaced

logs to open water

to winch
45 m

about

This

apart.

carved

logging runs approximately 2 m deep, leaving either parallel
orwagon wheel-shaped markings that are still visible today.
cutover

in coastal

swamps

1912 and

logged between
1950),
and

Louisiana,

(Figure 1)

forests

in second-growth

regenerated

those

including

1920 in the CWU

(Win

1943).

Eldredge,

Surge Buffering Effects of Wetlands
was

There

buffer

of the Tidewater

report

Police

St. Bernard

of

prior to the construction
storm surge as evidenced

knowledge

general

that wetlands

the MRGO

Channel

Advisory

in a

to the

Committee

Jury:

been
have
heretofore
of the Parish
reaches
upper
due to the slowing
tidal waters
from excessive
protected
areas. However,
with the
of the outer marsh
down action

existence of a channel 40 feet deep traversing themarsh
lands from the Gulf to the upper Parish, the full
fluctuation of the tidewill be felt throughout the Parish.
The tidal action will have adverse effects on the entire
marsh

area

intrusion

with

of high

content

water

into areas

the

and

action

erosive

consequent
saline

normally

fresh or only slightlybrackish. During times ofhurricane
the

conditions,
enormous

existence

danger

of

the

to the heavily

channel

populated

will
areas

be

an

of the

ridge.

Water

Parish due to the rapidity of the rising waters reaching

and

nearby

the protected

areas

this proposed

channel.

This

No matter

how

brackish Lake Borgne occurred through shallow winding
bayous.

would

vegetation,

Baldcypress-Water

commercial

Large-scale
lo

marsh

mentioned

maintained.

The

concluded

by

environmental
Louisiana

by

(Zizaniop

resulted

marshes

brackish

a subsequent
study
underlain
in areas

and

loss ofmarsh,

inmaximum
that

and

into fresh

intrusion

saltwater

cutgrass

Baldcypress

species.

occurs
Although
baldcypress
less
salinities
it can tolerate

species.

been

ters, Ward,

(Taxodium distichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatic) are

two of the most

for the previously

selects
have

(Nuttall,

a variety

contain

characterized

likely
giant

sis miliacea), and big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides)
(Penfound and Hathaway,
1938; Russel et al., 1936).
Although somewetland loss in the CWU would have occurred
without construction of theMRGO, had theMRGO not been
built, freshwater conditions, combined with sheet flow that

Most

2000, 2002).
Freshwater

australis),

declared

Hathaway's

diversity

have

colleagues
in more

associations

and

most

vegetation,

(Phragmites

Borgne

brackish,

intermediate,

Penfound

In general,

marshes

recently,

fresh,

generally

tall marsh

roseaucane

of baldcypress-water
swamps,
tupelo
and extensive
of
expanses
along bayous,

trees

Joanen,

Pontchartrain-Lake

series

other

technology.When the Homestead Act of 1866 was repealed
and replaced by the Timber Act of 1876, swamps were

and Palmisano, 1968; Chabreck and Linscombe, 1978, 1988;
Chabreck and Palmisano, 1973; O'Neil, 1949) classified
coastal

oaks,

of hectares

and

dense,

in their classification and, with

vegetation

"all
available
to baldcypress,
that
they
reported
... as the destructive
for
to salt water
agent"
points

respect

thousands

Logging Old-Growth
Tupelo Swamps

species,

They

species.

strictly freshwater
water
brackish

combinedwith the semienclosed nature of the area (offeredby
the La Loutre ridge), maintained primarily fresh conditions
in the CWU and a gradual salinity gradient to Lake Borgne.
Aerial photographs taken by the USACE in the late 1950s
and early 1960s during construction of theMRGO document

adjacent

uplands,

Journal of Coastal

Research,

discounted.

Special

in full

Issue No. 54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of
the avenue
through
one
cannot
be
that
is
danger
small a flood may
be, or how
force

 The MRGO

Environmental,

Economic,

209

and Storm Impacts

small the area towhich it is confined, to the families that
Police

Bernard

it is a major

in their houses,

water

have

(St.

catastrophe

1957).

Jury,

Since themiddle of the twentieth century, there has been
an

that

understanding

buffer

wetlands

storm

The

surge.

(1965) published a graph that showed that, on

USACE

land

average,

the coast

lying between

and

inhabitants

human

reduced storm surge by 6.9 cm/km (or 1 ft/2.75miles). This
on hurricanes

is based

regression

are

swamps
tupelo
Baldcypress-water
for
habitat
other wetland
types
reduction.

damage

live

Only
are more

resistant

palms

(Palmae)
than

1999).

fared
swamps
Cypress-tupelo
in Hurricanes
Camille
types

forest

water

and

baldcypress

wind

and

and
virginica)
throw
blow
{i.e.,

(Quercus
to wind

down)

to most

far superior

storm-surge

oak

coast

the Louisiana

hitting

from 1909 to 1957.

et al.,

(Williams

tupelo

far better

than

other

(Touliatos

and

Roth,

1971), Andrew (Doyle et al, 1995), and Hugo (Gresham,
Williams, and Lipscomb, 1991; Putz and Sharitz, 1991). In
fresh,

addition,

and

intermediate,
in Hurricanes

loss

greater

vastly

swamps

cypress-tupelo

marshes

brackish
Katrina

suffered

Rita

Katrina

2006).

(Barras,

and

than

caused

did

wind

throws ofup to 80% of the bottomland hardwood forestsof the
River

Pearl

while

Basin,

remained

swamps

contiguous

largely intact (Figure 2) (Chambers et al, 2007).
as provided
wet
such
by forested
canopies,
wind
diminish
thereby
reducing
penetration,
greatly
as well
stress available
to generate
surface waves
the wind
as
to reduce
storm
have
been
shown
surge.
Mangroves
Emergent

lands,

wave heights by 20% over distances of only 100 m (Mazda
et al, 1997, 2006) and 150 m of Rhizophora-dominated
forest

can

1997).

More

surge

reduction

(but

by 50%
et al.
(2009)

energy

Krauss

recently,

a mixture

through

surge
wetlands

storm

reduced

et al,

measured

storm

surge

and marsh

was

surge

the best
estimate
Perhaps
comes
from
reduction
marsh
by
Hurricane
Rita.
taken
during

data

(Brinkman

of mangrove

storm

and

marsh)

mostly
cm/km.

9.45

wave

dissipate

to date
USGS

of

cm/km

average

and

St.

these

of wetlands

had

and
parishes
the capacity

(4.5

ft).

Bernard

wetlands

about

1.35 m

these

wetlands

was

of

storm

reduction

10 km

of about

Lake

storm

considerable

surge

of
the

swamp,
been

much

greater.

The sheltering effect of forestedwetlands also affects the

fetch

over

depths
while
breaking,
drag
setup.

and

wave

which

water

wave

Extracting

vegetation
attenuation

in front
drag
storm wave
action

tive

levees

of levees

flanked

from Hurricane
damage
et al,
2007).

provides
also
and

on

the

takes
bottom

Shallow
place.
friction
and
frictional

additional
limits

wave

static

would

or
by breaking
reduce
the destruc

levees

themselves.

from waves

energy

increased

overtopped

development
waves
via

attenuate

either

Indeed,

little structural
by trees received
van Heerden
Katrina
2006;
(IPET,

on freshwater

1938).

Research,

resistant

extremely
far

less

resistant

away,

1938

coupled

with

and

wetland

and

toxicity,

were

vegetation

flushing

following

produc

storm

tropical

et al.,
fresh

events

to

and
2009).

Hath

stressors

Therefore,

water

and

are

they are

and

(Penfound

references),

long

tupelo

flooding,

deep

stress

later

many

and water

baldcypress
throw and

to saltwater

known

(Penfound and

for

during

system

droughts.

led to increased salinity in the CWU and adjacent

The MRGO

which

areas,

Although
to wind

stress
(Shaffer
salinity
a reliable
source
of

require

they

stressed

and

killed

and

baldcypress

water

tupelo.
Water
one-third

Louisiana
show
for southeastern
budgets
of rainfall
remains
after
evaporation

that about
(Brantley,

2005; Shaffer and Day, 2007) (Figure 3). Thus, there was
sufficient

freshwater

to maintain

input

the

baldcypress

water tupelo swamps in the CWU because the system did not
have

a

survived

Journal of Coastal

are

swamps,

tupelo
salt

tion in the soils of highly toxic sulfides. The lethal effects of
salt water

Hathaway,
by

portion

tupelo
baldcypress-water
would
surge
likely have

including
baldcypress-water
direct osmotic
imbalance,

threefold:

before the initial construction of the MRGO

Orleans
Therefore

Borgne.

to reduce
a

Because

(Kemp,

there was

between

The impacts of increasing salinity into fresh to low salinity
wetlands,

the

average,

2008). Prior to the construction of the MRGO,
an

Effects of Saltwater Intrusion

by
storm

water-level

On
13.5

by

decreased

Figure 2. Aerial photograph of a forested area in the Pearl River Basin
that was located near the eye wall of Hurricane Katrina. Brown areas
depict fallen bottomland hardwood trees, such as oaks and sweetgums.
Green areas are contiguous baldcypress-water
tupelo swamps that
suffered relatively little damage.

Special

direct

input
for centuries

of salt
and

water.

certainly

Issue No. 54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

These
endured

swamps
many

typically
of

periods

 210 Shaffer et al

were not granted, and when the USACE finally modeled
MRGO scenarios (USACE, 1963), a salinity increase of4-6 ppt
to cypress-tupelo

(lethal

was

swamps)

of coastal

wetlands
richest

wild

(1958) recognized the

narrow

range;

salinity

result

in direct

desirable

and began
the construction
destruction.
After
construction

USACE
03

03

SX

iZ

3

3

3

X)

X>

X>

X>

to consider

failed

that actions

consistent

to reverse

be taken

USACE

that

M

lead
and

warnings

the detrimental

Extensive

of swamps

mortality

in the

CWU

cut through
allowed
saltwater

the natural

the channel

Loutre

and

areas

adjacent

(van Heerden

intrusion
et al.,

ridge at Bayou
into the CWU

La
and

2007).

Beginning prior to the construction of the MRGO
until

up

the

present,

there

I). In this section,
(Appendix
about
the MRGO.
of concerns

construction

USACE
effects

of Wildlife

Department

and

has

a

been

and
fairly

we

a brief

provide

the

flora

surrounding

and

Fisheries

the

warned

fauna.

"The

Louisiana

Wildlife Biologists Association predicted the project would
create

a 70-km

long swath

of destruction"

(USFWS

1979

letter

references the 1957 letter). In a report to theUSACE (theApril
"1958 InteriorReport"), theUSFWS predicted that theMRGO
ridges

east-west
the natural
by breaching
"particularly
such as the
fresh/brackish
and
salt water"
between

Bayou

La

construction,

wetlands

into the
introduce
salt water
ridge, would
tens of thousands
of hectares
ofmarshes
destroy

Loutre
and

and mature

baldcypress-water

tupelo

swamps.

In a

letter

of

September 23, 1957, Secretary Seaton of the Department of
Interiormade it clear that the USACE had not followed the
protocol put forthin theWildlife Coordination Act ofAugust 14,
1946 (60 Stat. 1080), and requested funds tomodel potential
impacts of theMRGO (vanHeerden et al, 2007). In the 1956
1957 Seventh Biennial Report of theWild Life and Fisheries
Commission,
disappointment

T.B.

Ford
at

the

impacts of the MRGO

further

study

to assess

extreme
expressed
dismissal
of predicted

frustration

impacts

ranging

These

impacts

of the area.

the biota

Dredging
resulted in a 122 km deep

The construction of theMRGO
water

channel

that

connected

directly

offshore,

high

salinity

of the project.

in northern

and

St. Bernard

through

that

of Bayou

importantly
habitats
from direct

Parish

a number

cut

channel

La

and

Orleans

of natural
that

Loutre,

Parish.
most

ridges,

fresher

protected

intrusion.

saltwater

The Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission (1957)
detailed the predicted effects of the MRGO to the USACE.
Furthermore, theUSACE (1976) detailed the following effects
own

statements

and

reports:

(1) Initial loss of 16,183 acres of marshland
material

for dredged

deposition

(2) Negative effectson aquatic species in the 17,600 acres of
designated

disposal

Continued

(3)

10,611

areas

impacts

with

each

dredge

on

operation

acres

(4) Increases in local water turbidity
of dredged
Deposition
trial organisms

(5)

material

over

of bottom dwelling biota

(6) Disturbance

terres

and

aquatic

in the dredge

operation
Creation

(7)

marshlands,

areas
of disposal
thus disturbing

elevated

the

above

adjacent

flow of water

the natural

Modeling

Journal of Coastal

funds

Research,

in

the wetlands
Potential

(8)

and

for resolubilization
biota

neighboring

of chemicals

causing

exposure

local

(9) Effects thatwould cause plant species at disposal sites to
remain

in a pioneer

The USACE

stage

of development

further stated:

environmental

and emphasized the importance of

trade-offs

interacting

and effects on
changes,
are summarized
here.

in their

that constructionof theMRGO could have detrimental
on

environmental

from physical disruption of the landscape, hydrological

habitats

Both the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the

Louisiana

and

pervasive

The

detailed understanding of the impacts associated with its
history

resulted in a number of

The construction of the MRGO

waters of theGulf ofMexico with low salinity and freshwater

EVOLUTION OF UNDERSTANDING OF THE
MRGO IMPACTS
continuing

of the

impacts

and

adjacent areas began shortly after the opening of theMRGO

when

the

suggestions

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE MRGO

(red), and
Figure 3. Average rainfall (blue), potential evapotranspiration
area of Lake
net surplus and deficit (black line) for the western
sources of
Pontchartrain
(from Shaffer and Day, 2007). Additional
freshwater (such as treated effluent, upland runoff, river water from the
lock or Violet diversion) can lower the impact of the
Industrial Canal
summer freshwater deficit.

drought.

cut will

ignored
to massive

of the MRGO,

channel (Appendix I).
_C/)_^

has
must

production

The

and

[that]

the 36-foot-deep

.[and]

their concerns
wetlands

densest

flora

a]

of salinity...."

changes

the

"perhaps

therefore,

conditions...

from exacting

result

as

Louisiana

in the world....[with

fauna

et

(van Heerden

found

2007). Furthermore, the USFWS

al,

From
effects

Special

the single
of O&M

perspective
could
be

Issue No. 54, 2009

This content downloaded from 140.194.40.40 on Tue, 10 Feb 2015 11:51:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of preserving
as
classed

the marshland,
adverse

human

 The MRGO

Environmental,

in the
of on-going
change
of resource
quality
for shellfish
essential
fishing etc. is
trapping,
production,
more
work
of O&M
work....O&M
difficult with
intrusion
work

intrusions....O&M

is part

Preservation

environment.

estuary

is a human
ment.
affects

into a

intrusion

Presence
the

211

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

of the

estuarine

sensitive

1959

environ

areas
disposal
movement
of water

material

dredged

northeast/southwest

(USACE, 1976).
and Maintenance

Operation
The

federal

government

on only

the

million
The

St. Bernard

1998

has

dredging

Council

Parish

$115
approximately
of the MRGO.

spent

low-maintenance

to close

resolution

the

stated that Hurricane Georges cost $35 million in

MRGO
emergency

on

dredging

annual

top of the average

dredging

cost of $7-$ 10 million, and $3 million annually for rock
retention.

dredge
ment

of St.

Citizens

areas

disposal
and

thus

economic

were

Bernard
be

would

led

suitable
The

development.

to believe

for urban
reality,

that

develop
to
known

the USACE, was that dredged material settles and does not
make

foundation

good

for urban

the usefulness
limiting
a lack of access
to the

thus

material,

Furthermore,

development.

area would restrict the ability of the parish to use theMRGO
spoil

bank

for urban

development.

Ongoing operation and maintenance of theMRGO

exacerbated

environmental

damages

by constantly

biota
and
increasing
turbidity.
bottom-dwelling
water
in a navigation
decreases
when
velocity
sediment

further

disrupting
In general,
channel,

the

sediment

decreases,

causing
carrying
capacity
waves
on
bottom.
the
channel
Furthermore,
deposition
cause
or shipping
vessels
the shoreline
either by wind
caused
increase
sediment
to erode
4) and
(Figure
dramatically
on

deposition

the

bottom.

channel

was

This

to

due

works

is not

substrate

of supporting

capable

this slope,

causing

the sides to slump inward and erode, filling the bottom until
an

is reached

equilibrium

In areas

of repose).

(the angle

such

as the throat ofReach 1 (Figure 5), the channel eroded from
approximately
were
wetlands

to over

tidal

by

Deteriorating
source
that was
and

storms,

action,

wetlands,
deteriorating
ship traffic on the
a
created
exacerbated
the
MRGO,
by

hurricanes
need

tremendous

for

dredging

increase

environmental

economic

investment.

and

operation

and

operations

as well

organisms

This

section).
nance

therefore
as

damages

continued
as

well

the

to

public's

From 1965 to 1976, not including work associated with
O&M

3,154,224

m3

dredging

of material

in

resulted
from

dredged

the

an

average

inland

of

section

per year, and 2,745,131 m3/y dredged from the offshore
section of the MRGO. Records from the period further
indicate
(mcmy)

that
were

in actuality
moved,

12.8 million

including

the MRGO

cubic meters

the material

used

per year
for flood

Journal of Coastal Research,

overall

would

be

as

toxins
(see heavy metals
resuspending
and mainte
that ongoing
operation
to have detrimental
effects on
continued

indicates

of the channel
over

biota

the decades,

up

to 2006

when

Before
landscape,

ceased.

dredging

on Hydrology

Impacts of MRGO

alterations
human-induced
major
physical
Parish
wetlands
the Orleans
and St. Bernard
into three

divided

which

maintenance,

of Dredge Material

hurricanes,

on

dredged

for opera
the

9.2 mcmy (USACE, 1976). This material is disposed on land
and in open water (USACE, 1976), smothering sessile

basins

interdistributary

formed

Savage,
(Wicker

et aL,

ridges

The

1982).

sheet

and

was

environment

flow of fresh water
other

to the
were

by natural

distributaries:
River
of former Mississippi
aux
and
La
Terre
Boufs,
Bayou
Bayou

levee

of a general

Volume

of material

that

estimated

(O&M)

900 m wide.
sediment

major

the MRGO

Thus,

and

increased

another
to

transported
hurricanes.
MRGO,

200 m wide

statement

environmental

maintenance

volume

annual

the

The

construction.
and

tions

channel being originally dredged with 1:2 side slopes. The
local

Figure 4. Widening of the MRGO channel from 1959 to 2008 near Bayou
Mercier. Red dot marks the same location in both photographs.

stable

Bayou
Loutre
because

from rainfall,
drainage
was
which
slowed
and

sources,

pump

stations,

stored

the Bayou
La
Furthermore,
vegetation.
water
to
and
salt
retain
fresh
prevent
ridge helped
In addition,
salt water
from Breton
Sound.
intrusion
by wetland

Loutre
water

from Breton

Sound

the Pearl

River

through

Lake

was

and

(and

other

is) freshened

local

Pontchartrain

rivers
into

from
by influences
fresh water
that deliver

Lake

Borgne.

Therefore,

water levels and salinity changed very gradually with rainfall
and

Special

tidal

conditions.

Issue No.

54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

 Shaffer et al.

212

5. Widening

Figure

The

USFWS

of the MRGO

near juncture of the GIWW

determined,

to

prior

and the MRGO

that

construction,

detailed studies were needed to fully understand the effect
on fish and wildlife resources
of the planned MRGO
letters cited previously). The
(Appendix I and USFWS
USFWS

became

the

for extensive

agency

coordinating

and

detailed preproject hydrological and biological studies to
facilitate meaningful discussions with the USACE to mini
mize

channel

the hydrological
A&M

Research

effects

on the environment

studies

were

and wildlife.

under

contract

with

Some

of

studies

Foundation.

the

Most

of

the Texas
include

"Hydrological and Biological Studies of theMississippi River
Gulf Outlet Project" by El-Sayed (1961) and "Analysis of the
Salinity Regime of the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Chan
nel" byAmstutz (1964). The studies addressed the interaction
and

exchange

between

subareas,

existing

in

variations

to enable
in variation
of extremes
forecasting
hydrology
to the planned
fauna
and
of aquatic
project,
sampling

hydrology to consider the potential biological
environmental

One

"Preconstruction
Areas

changes

of the most
Traversed

due

to the project.

detailed

effects of

of
of the Fisheries
Study
the Mississippi
River-Gulf

studies
the

is the

Estuarine

Outlet

Proj

ect." This studywas conducted fromApril 1959 toMarch 1961
to detail the pre-MRGO hydrology (Rounsefell, 1964). Salin
ity, dissolved

oxygen,

water

temperature,

a month

study was
from

inorganic

Journal of Coastal

phos

Research,

throughout

that

Breton

Loutre

little

very

Sound,

ridge acting
Sound.
This,

Breton

turbidity
the area.
saline

sampled

The

conclusion

water

specifically
as a barrier
in

were

entered

Lake

because

of the

between

Lake

combination

with

several
of the
Borgne

Bayou

Borgne

the

La
and

freshwater

surplus of the area now occupied by the CWU, kept salinities
to allow
low enough
the baldcypress-water
on the Texas
survive. Based
A&M
studies,
concluded

that

structure

of

construction

changes
estuarine

tupelo
Rounsefell

in salinity

patterns

organisms

would

and
result

swamps

to

further
population
from the

of the MRGO.

Salinity
The MRGO provided a direct, steady inflowofhighly saline

due
and

and

concentration,

phate
times

waters.
and

construction
of the MRGO,
seasonal
changes
in salinity
not immediately
reflected
peaks were
in hydrology
After
the
construction,
changes
in much more
water
fresh
exchange
allowing
rapid

Before

rainfall

changes.

hydrologic

by

from 1961 to 2005.

resulted

water to drain quickly during low tide and be quickly replaced
by saline waters at high tide (Figure 6) (Wicker et al, 1982).
As

a result,

Gulf

there was

Intracoastal

all the way up to the
salinity
and
Lake
Pontchartrain
(GIWW)

increased

Waterway

(Table 1).

Special

Issue No.

54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

 The MRGO

Environmental,

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

213

1. Comparison ofmean salinities (ppt) before and after completion
ofMRGO. All available data collected prior to, and subsequent to, 1963 for
each station have been included. Data from 1963 have been excluded.

Table

Station

Pre-MRGO

Post-MRGO

Increase

Chef Menteur

3.2

5.8

2.6

Rigolets
North Side

3.8

5.8

2.0

2.6

3.9

1.3

Little Woods

3.2

4.8

1.6

Pass Manchac

1.2

1.4

0.2

Data

from Amstutz,

summarized
1963.

1961; Rounsefell,

1964; El-Sayed,

1964;

USACE,

salinity in the area north of the Bayou La Loutre ridge. This
a dramatic

had

ol-1_I_1_!_,_L
1950
1946
19SS

1960

196$1970 1975

YEARS

prior to, and after, the

6. Mean annual salinity for the GIWW
(Wicker et al, 1982).
opening of the MRGO

Figure

In the early 1960s, theUSACE built a physicalmodel to test
and

in Lake

increases

salinity

Pontchartrain

caused

on average

to increase

salinities

predicted

by the MRGO
by 5.0

ppt and

5.9 ppt for high and low precipitation years, respectively
(USACE, 1963). As a result, the USACE designed a gated
structure

at the junction

of the Inner Harbor

(IHNC) and Lake Pontchartrain (USACE,
this

Had

p. 91).

Pontchartrain

structure

described

been

later

1963; Plate 34,

the

built,

could

have

Canal

Navigation

on Lake

impacts

been

avoided.

affect on freshwater

and

low salinity

There

was

a rapid wetland

loss and

and Loss Caused

in Figure

detailed
that

a number

7. In summary,

of factors

In general,
where
ally

wetland
takes

change
(Barras,

loss
place

in coastal

die-off of baldcypress-water
tupelo swamps
of saltwater
intrusion
caused
by the MRGO.

a result

relatively
and

tolerances

for baldcypress

have

been

Bourgeois,

Handley,

continu
et al,

Barras

areas

was
to

primarily
marsh,

much

more

of the MRGO.
rapid after construction
of the MRGO,
the CWU
consisted

construction

of baldcypress-water
to brackish
transitioning

top;USGS

of the MRGO,

to intermediate
largely converted
or dredge
to open
lost
water
Chabreck,

and

Joanen,

estimate

that

and

construction

fresh marsh

brackish

spoil

habitats
or were

marsh

(Figure
1968).

Palmisano,

the swamps
twenty-first
century,
and open water
habitat
greatly
et al,
Barras
2003).
We

and

7, middle;
the

By

early

had essentially
disappeared
increased
7, bottom;
(Figure

from

erosion

another

destroyed

2008; FitzGerald et al, 2008; USACE,

directly

opening

of the MRGO,

there

were

2000

ha

(Barras,

2007). Following the

significant

3-4

but

ppt,

sustained

were

in the CWU

salinities

opened,

consis

record
the

significant
dramatic

at Bayou

opening
activities
increases

were

the MRGO.

that

There

introduced
not

a dramatic

showed

Dupre

of

were

salt water,

experienced

increase
no
and

in areas

other
such
more

peripheral to theMRGO, such as theManchac land bridge
(Table 1) (Thomson, Shaffer, and McCorquodale, 2002).
All habitat change mapping shows the loss of almost all
and fresh marsh
in the
swamp
baldcypress-water
tupelo
was
CWU
after the MRGO
opened.
are
a number
There
of personal
observations
by local
residents
of baldcypress-water
swamps
tupelo
dying after
was

opened.

caused

the destruction of over 21,000 ha ofwetlands and led to the
indirect death of farmore. The footprintof the channel and
dredge spoil alone destroyed 10,000 ha (Coastal Environ
ments, Inc., 1973; USACE, 1999;Wicker et al, 1982). Channel
widening

to

tently higher than 5 ppt and often higher than 10 ppt. A

the MRGO
of the MRGO

up

species.

was

MRGO

salinity

and
fresh
swamp
tupelo
to the east
marsh
7,
(Figure

swamp

salinities

since

1938). Baldcypress

Levels of salinity in the CWU before the opening of the
MRGO were generally between fresh and 4 ppt. After the

after

topographicmaps, O'Neal, 1949). Shortly following

construction

tree

swamp

2003). In contrast,wetland change in the CWU and adjacent

Prior

tolerate

known

was

salinities higher than 5 ppt are lethal to cypress and other

but

gradually,
1994;

can

is a process

Louisiana

indicate

the rapid

Salinity

by

after construction

change

of the MRGO, as demonstrated by the differentmapping
studies in the area cited previously and the habitat changes

the 1930s (Penfound and Hathaway,

Wetland Habitat Change
MRGO
Construction

wetlands,

killing greater than 9000 ha in the CWU and Golden Triangle
prior to 1978 (Barras, 2008; USACE, 1999). Salinity killed
more than 4000 ha ofbaldcypress-water tupelo swamps in the
CWU alone (FitzGerald et al, 2008; USACE,
1999). In
kill
ha
of
the
of
than
3000
addition,
greater
baldcypress on
theManchac land bridgewas primarily attributed to saltwater
intrusion from theMRGO (USACE, 1999). As discussed, this
salt kill was predicted by state and federal agency personnel
prior to construction of theMRGO.

increases

Journal of Coastal

in

Research,

Canals

have

been

implicated

as

a major

cause

of wetland

loss in the Louisiana coastal zone. Although theMRGO is a
canal, it is quantitatively and qualitatively different from
smaller canals dredged mainly for oil and gas activity (access
to drilling sites, pipelines). The MRGO ismuch larger than
most other canals and connects high salinity Gulf water to
fresher

Special

parts

of the Pontchartrain

Issue No. 54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Basin.

Thus,

the MRGO

 Shaffer et al.

214

Legend
[

] lCA Coast 7050 Unts
FreshMarsh
Intermediate
Marsh
BracKishMarsh
Salt Marsh
Swamp
UplandTrees

[

] SpoilDisposal Area

[

] OtherLand

11
?111

Water
Out ofStudyArea

Notes for1950sMap:
r Marshtype*
taken
from
"Mapof
Louisiana
theVegetation
Type
showing
ofLouisiana
CoastalMarshes 19*9"
TedCNeJ
from
2.TreeandSwampdatadigitized
USGS 7%'and 15'seriestopographic
maps
dated19*6-1957
from
3 Land/Water
basemap taker,
USACE"LanclossinCoastalLouisiana
1932to2001"Maps4.5, 6 and7.
andDunbar.200Q
Britsch

Notes for1960sMap:
1.Marshtypestakenfrom
"Vegetation
TypeMapofCoastalLouisana 1968",
Robert
Chabreck
2 TreeandSwampdatadigtizedfrom
USGST/i and 15'seres topographic
mops
dated1962-1969
3 Land/water
basemap taken'rom
USACE "Landlossin
Coastal Louisiana
1932to2O01"Maps4, 5. 6. and 7
Britsch
andDunbar,
2006

Notes for2000s Map:
'
Marshtypestakenfrom
"Vegetation
'
TypeMapofCoastalLouisiana 9S7',
Chabreck.
Robert
from
2 TreeandSwampdatadigitized
USGS 7Viseriestopograph?
maps
dated1994-2002.
3. LandAwater
basemap takenfrom
USACE"LandlossinCoastalLouisiana
1932to200V Maps4,5,6, and7
Britsch
andDunber,
2006

Figure 7. Habitat maps compiled for the CWU during the 1950s (top: constructed fromUSGS topographic maps and the vegetation map ofO'Neal,
1960s (middle: constructed from vegetation survey of Chabreck et al., 1968), and the early 2000s (bottom: constructed from Barras et al, 2003).

Journal of Coastal

Research,

Special

Issue No. 54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1949), the

 The MRGO

Environmental,

215

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

has had dramatic affects on both hydrology and salinity. By
is a relatively
small area
areas.
For
adjacent
example,

there

contrast,
CWU

and

only 22.7

of canals,

ha

27.5

only

Rangia cuneataBiomass (g/m2)
1997 02

there were

had

increased

channel

and

spoil

to

banks

ha.

of Wetland

Estimates

in the

canals

in 1955

this area

the MRGO

8502

about

comprised

by 1978

and

whereas

ha,

of other

toMRGO

Loss Related

There were direct and indirect impacts of MRGO that
resulted in high rates of habitat loss. The direct impacts
habitat

affecting

loss

include

channel

excavation,

spoil

and shallow water
and
bodies,
filling both wetlands
disposal
wave
erosion.
Indirect
effects that caused
shifts in habitat
type and

increased

hydrological

wetland

loss include

caused

changes

salinity

intrusion

the MRGO.

by

and

Numerous

studies (Coast 2050, 1998; USACE, 1999; van Heerden et
al., 2007; Wicker et al, 1982) detail that theMRGO caused
land

loss during

different

various

using

periods

areas.

defined

All of the studies detail tens of thousands ofhectares of land
the methods,

loss; however,

areas

or excavated

MRGO

during

anoxic
In addition,

construction.

2308 ha ofwater were filled or deepened. In 1956, 4130 ha of
baldcypress forest and 2308 ha of fresh and intermediate
marsh

existed.

and

the

with

open

Both

fresh

and

water

the baldcypress-water
intermediate
marsh
have

and

or saline

brackish

swamp
tupelo
been
replaced

in Lake Pontchartrain

Lake Pontchartrain

Dead

Zone

Through its connection to the IHNC, theMRGO provides a
direct

link between

artrain

and

MRGO
and

the high

low

waters

salinity

salinity

waters

of Lake

of Breton

Pontch

Sound.

The

the water

surface

(Junot,

and

column
bottom

and

Poirrier,

to stratify.

water

can

salinity
1983;

Soniat,

Differences

between

exceed

10 ppt
even

1978)

Poirrier,

though the average salinity of the lake is only 3.9 ppt
(Francis et al, 1994; Sikora and Kjerfve, 1985). The
stratification

leads

and
(hypoxia
clam Rangia

anoxia)

Because

of

cuneata

to episodic
that

events

kill

creatures

sessile

(Poirrier,

saltwater

of low dissolved

intrusion

oxygen
as

such

and Franze,
Spalding,
from the MRGO,

the

2009).
roughly

259 km2 (100 mi2) of the lake's benthos is nearly devoid of life
(Figure 8) (Abadie and Poirrier, 2001; Poirrier, Spalding, and
Franze, 2009; Spalding, Walker, and Poirrier, 2006). The
saline

water

from

the MRGO

causes

hypoxic

to

conditions

occur as far north as 24 km from the mouth of the IHNC
Walker,

(Spalding,

and

2006).

Poirrier,

Earlier

studies

(Sikora and Sikora, 1982) attributed the depauperate benthic
in the

community
runoff.
Poirrier,

Later
and

runoff were

dead

investigations

zone

to chemical
(Poirrier

and

spills
et al.,
1984;

Yund,

1992)

revealed

that

localized

and

the cause

for episodic

the effects

urban
Powers,

of urban

hypoxic

Journal of Coastal

and

Research,

the

larger

intrusion

from

zone

dead

could

be

the MRGO.

the episodic
bottom waters
anoxic
caused
by
decimated
of
R.
which
cuneata,
populations
decreased
the health
of the entire aquatic
of Lakes
ecosystem
cuneata
Pontchartrain
and Maurepas.
filters silts,
Rangia
and

algae,
the

bacteria

The

clarity.
shell

hash

the water

from

shells

(i.e.,

column,

cuneata

stabilize

remnants)

helps

of R.

increasing
the benthos,
to

stabilize

shorelines; Rangia

add about 700,000 t of shell annually to

bottom

and Poirrier,
2006).
Walker,
(Spalding,
serve as a food source for fish, crabs, and

sediments

cuneata
also
Rangia
waterfowl
(Spalding,
estimated

that

closure

delivers salt water to the lake; the salt water sinks

causes

mean

the

to saltwater

Ecologically,
the MRGO

clays,
water

marsh.

in

waters

bottom

attributed

and

Impacts

during 1997.

differ,

(1999) reported that 6680 ha ofmarsh were

The USACE

filled

and defined
periods,
in the quantification.

inconsistencies

causing

Figure 8. Density ofRangia cuneata in Lake Pontchartrain
Dead zone (lightest gray) is 250 km2.

of the MRGO,

the north

shore

of

could

of Lake

to 1.3 m

from 0.6

and

Walker,

restoration

on

hypoxic

increase

south

shore

through
on

light

penetration
from 2.0 to 2.4 m

Pontchartrain

the

zone,

and

(Poirrier

is

It

2006).

Poirrier,

the

and

Spalding,

2004). As a result, submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) would
be

to

expected

increase

in aerial

coverage

by

as much

as

685 ha (Cho and Poirrier, 2005; Poirrier and Spalding, 2004).
Submerged
and

aquatic

juvenile

clarity,
provide
cuneata

fish,

stabilize
SAVs

as

and

detritivors.
a

provide

and

energy,

Combined,

feedback

water

therefore

wave

decrease

and

for breeding

refugia

sedimentation

sediments,

food for waterfowl
and

serve

vegetation
increase

of

loop

Rangia
increased

ecosystem health; this loopwas crippled by theMRGO.
The Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission (LWLFC)
prepared

a written

following

is an excerpt

statement

for

the

Lake

Pontchartrain

Hurricane Protection Plan public meeting (held February 22,
1975) and this statement was provided to the USACE. The

The

proposed

that relates

Seabrook

to the

Structure

lakes'

was

salinity:
designed

for

addition to theMississippi River Gulf Outlet to partially
correct the high salinities that are occasioned in the Lake
by waters

from

that

navigation

channel.

This

structure

will provide the capability formanaging salinities within

Special

Issue No. 54, 2009

This content downloaded from 140.194.40.40 on Tue, 10 Feb 2015 11:51:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

 216 Shaffer et al.

Table

2. Dredged material
criteria June 26, 1973.

samples

to or above proposed

equal

safety factor. It is likely that there is potential formetals to
accumulate in biota tissues and magnify up the food chain to

EPA

larger more

(Total = 27)

Parameter
Number of Samples
Percent volatile solids

17
oxygen demand 11
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen 0

Levees

Mercury
Zinc 2
Arsenic

13

Cadmium

8
0

Chromium

MRGO

Copper 0
Nickel 0
and D.B. McDonald

the Lake. Excessive
considerable
water

1976).

(USACE,

deterioration
The most

and mortality

spectacular

cypress trees visible
(LWLFC, 1975).

the dead

have

fresher,

historically

marsh

vegetation.

Research

salinities in the upper part of the

were

which

Lake,

and

and

Katrina.

Source: Stanley Consultants

of this

from Interstate

berm

extensively.
is

nance

parallel

was

dredge
from all perspectives."

A

of Heavy Metals

in

led to an

that

the

contami

adverse
potentially
conducted
in
program was

1973 for the purposes of the Environmental Statement.
According to the EPA criteria in 1973 for allowable concen
to be disposed

in material

of metals

trations

of in open water,

5 of 27 sample locations did not exceed EPA criteria for at
least

one

metal

and

parameter,

only

two

of 27

sample

locations did not exceed any EPA criterion (Table 2) (USACE,
1976). The report further concluded:

Tests

adverse.

considered

are not presently

It is unclear
wetland

and

to be done.

remain

determined.

Effects

resolubilized.
tween

important

During

bottom

factors

is the potential
sediments

dredge
and

upon

in dredging

for chemicals

contaminat

interface.
water

become

the interface
be
operations,
water
is disturbed.
Therefore,

The

increases

exposed
in
increase
the potential

to
the

the
ratio

direct

for resolubilization

surface

to

of chemicals

in the water. The EPA bases the dredged material criteria
maximum

concentrations

on the

likely

effects

on biota,

plus

from Lake
Pontchartrain.

crown

ship

caused
with

from

discharge

the
more

and
the

its

funnel

extensive

and

overtopping

increase

in

elevation

surge

sequence

in excess

Borgne
When

In

progressed.

of what
was

the funnel

flood

control

to

drain

could

to the mean

filled

excess

structures,

in proportion

Orleans

into New

the

(2008) demonstrated that without
funnel was like a bathtub receiving

of the

elevation

poured

as

changed

Lake

to the rate

surge

of input,

which was greatly enhanced by the presence of theMRGO
channel, but peak surge was constrained by the height of
the structures. The model predicted that peak surge input to
the channels in the throat of the funnel was increased by
300% by the presence of the MRGO navigation project.
of

modeling
the

an

intact

oceanography

flood

system

protection
funnel
and

the

of

potential

project, actual floodingadjacent to the

was

that

as by the combined
be modeled.

as well

modeled,
could

a

Journal of Coastal Research,

surge

and wave

built

and

operated

to expand

and

climate

channel had not

The model predicted that if the MRGO
been

cause

wetland

loss,

and the Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity (LPV) flood control
were

as

in place

they

were

before

Hurricane

Katrina, that the potential for overtopping would have been
reduced by 80%, while wave energy experienced by the LPV
embankments would drop by 66%. The combination of
reduced
ished

sediment-water

of particle

which

structures

to become

the bottom sediments that were blanketed by overlying
sediments

that

The
failures.
of structural
quite different because
was
affected
of breaching
and
sequence
by local
severity
could not be effectively
to each breach, which
factors unique

were
measures
to protect
taken
ifmitigation
resources.
is only one
There
biotic
estuarine

of the most

channel,

the

significant

impacts of theMRGO

1976)

(USACE,

a

water

funnel

involved.
One

of

and more

other words, Kemp
breaches, the MRGO

explained

statement in the report stating that the determination would
be made in the future by those state and federal agencies

ed sediments

earlier

increased

earlier

without

Although

when
amount
is being resolubilized
If a significant
ofmetal
are
sediment
opera
during
dredge
resuspended
particles
be
the effects would
the food web,
tion, and are entering
biota

Lake
Borgne
it to breach

within the channel system because surge height was
determined by themean crown elevation of the flood control
structures,

"considered

sampling

baldcypress-water

failure of structures along both sides of the IHNC. This

in 1976

Statement

material

of Hurricane

impacts

area into theMRGO Reach 1 and the IHNC (Figure 1) that

10

responded in their Operation and Mainte

Environmental

nated

from

to
adjacent
The
presence

embankment,

occurred

The USACE

the

included

specifically

of waves

regeneration

caused

on

features

models

tupelo swamps and marshes killed by saltwater intrusion
from theMRGO. The models show that the widening of the
MRGO, at the expense of adjacent wetlands, enhanced
earthen

of fresh

evidence

associated

The

again

and Resolubilization

Resuspension
the Sediment

on Storm-Surge Transmission

floodwalls adjacent to the MRGO
failed
Hurricane
Katrina
(ILIT, 2006;
catastrophically during
IPET, 2006; van Heerden et al, 2007). To further address
the relationship between theMRGO and levee failure,Kemp
(2008) constructed models to quantify the impacts of the

1

6

fish.

game

Effects of theMRGO

Chemical

Lead

desirable

and

overtopping

waves

of structural

the risk

would

have

greatly

dimin

failure.

Enlargement of the GIWW to create the MRGO Reach
provided

a much

greater

potential

for conveyance

1

of Lake

Borgne surge into the IHNC, particularly after the forests in
the

Special

throat

Issue No.

of

the

funnel

were

54, 2009

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

destroyed

by

saltwater

 The MRGO

Environmental,

intrusion.The MRGO levee in Reach 2 enhanced flooding in
Reach 1 by eliminating surge storage in the CWU and by
allowing the surge level to build up further and drive added
flow through the adjacent deep channel toward Reach 1, an
that would

interaction

not have

if one

occurred

or the other

of

these projects had not been built in the close conjunction that
they were.

Even slight reductions in peak surge elevation, or delays in
could

onset,

peak

to significantly

combine

reduce

of

overtopping

the LPV flood protection structures throughout the funnel.
When all traces and effectsof theMRGO projectwere removed
from the landscape, but the LPV flood protection structures
were

retained

in their

condition,

pre-Katrina

Summary of Impacts of theMRGO
Economic
the
The

channel

to the Mississippi

was

the MRGO
beginning,
was
as
canal
built

an

River

never

an

had

shipping
a

it was

because

ports. As

the banks

previously,
explained
to erosion.
For
subject

shorter

such

this

it was

that

of the channel

benefits

maintain
bank

the

reason,

large

to travel

quicker

were

costs

through

about

$10

about

billion.

$0.5

associated
with

with

ships
via the

wetlands

MRGO

and

costs

annual

economic

and

Betsy
the

damages
combined

and maintenance,
economic
cost

operation

then

are

Katrina

total

and
of

the

is in the hundreds of billions of dollar*

Environmental
We

to

and
dredging
rock retention

These

If the MRGO-caused

Hurricanes

destroyed,

costs

associated
with hurricanes
repairs
cost over the life of the project
of

of construction,

those

maintenance

large. Dredging
million
annually.

with emergency
a total maintenance

the

small,

were

combined
yield

were

of the MRGO

channel

stabilization

have

mental

in this

impacts of the MRGO.

paper

the

numerous

hectares

of productive
wetlands
and estuarine
water
bodies
to the deep navigation
or by placement
channel

of tens

destruction

of thousands

of

by conversion

of spoil. The changes in hydrology due to the MRGO, most
specifically the breaching of the Bayou La Loutre ridge, led to

hectares

of fresh

baldcypress-water

intrusion
and

that killed

low

tupelo

salinity

swamps

tens

wetlands,
in the CWU

of thousands
most
and

of

notably
adjacent

to the La Loutre ridge. Saltwater intrusion via theMRGO

and

IHNC

also

had

an

creation

a

of

large

clam,

cuneata.

Rangia

and

toxins.

other

impacts

was

a pervasive

in Lake

Pontchartrain

cumulative

The

degradation
and

Breton

Biennial

wrote in the 1956-1957

in reference

Report

dismissed

edly

ecosystems

Sound.

Dr. T.B. Ford of the LWLFC
Seventh

effect of these

of estuarine

predictions

of massive

some

observations

to the WLFC's

repeat

environmental

degra

dation from theMRGO:
...Unfortunately,

indicate

would

that

many people do not have the ability to recognize or
the difference

understand
es and

long-term

between

changes.

the short-term

same

This

chang
to

appears

principle

hold true forbenefits associated with projects. These facts
of lifeare unfortunate because generally the people of an
or of the country

or its subdivisions

are

called

upon

enormous

detrimental

Sadly, everything that Mr. Ford fought so hard to bring to
lightbefore the construction of theMRGO became the current
reality

for those who

impact

Hurricane

experienced

we

report

have

demonstrated

Katrina.
that

construction

of

theMRGO, in addition toO&M activities, has led to one of the
human

greatest

induced

environmental

in human

disasters

history.When the Bayou La Loutre ridgewas cut in 1961, and
the connectivity between the CWU and Breton Sound was
increased through widening and deepening of the MRGO
between 1961 and 1963, salinity abruptly increased in the
CWU (Figure 6) and surrounding areas, including Lake
Pontchartrain.
tupelo

The
and

swamps

to theMRGO
influences,

tens

to open water

offered

the

effects
Lake

of thousands

rapid,

of hectares

or spoil banks.

clearly

pointing

in Lake

created

zone

of that dead

and

Pontchartrain,

have

negative

impacts

estuarine

the

massive

ecosystem.

have
dredging
of wetland
and aquatic

areas

environmental

MRGO

was

were

impacts

dead

indirect

on the entire

of maintenance

These

suffered
protection
sur

tupelo

Maurepas-Pontchartrain
decades

of wetlands
Hurricane

and
swamps
a 259-km2
In addition,

baldcypress-water
was
marshes
erased.

rounding
zone was

of baldcypress-water

was

as the cause. Through both direct and indirect

conversion
by

death

subsequent
fresh marshes

foreseen

Further
negatively
ecosystems.
before

the

constructed.

environ

The initial dredging of the

led to the direct

saltwater

the oligohaline

especially

metals

heavy

affected

channel

massive

organisms,

more,

Disaster

reviewed

the

Dredging also led to the resuspension and resolublization of

In this

river. In addition, the locks between the IHNC and the
Mississippi River are too small for large ships. The result of
these limitationswas that only one to four ships per day used
theMRGO (carrying only about 3% of theNew Orleans port
freight tonnage) compared with at least one order of
magnitude more traveling theMississippi River. While the
economic

was

them.

economic

alternative

route fromtheGulf ofMexico to the Port ofNew Orleans and
highly
to go so slow,

severe

Most

to pay for the cost of the changes and thenmust livewith

From

were

217

hypoxic zone that resulted in thewidespread death ofbenthic

area

Disaster

success.

other

Pontchartrain.

(2008)

Kemp

predicted overtoppingwould have been reduced by about 80%
for all of the three developed polders that experienced
catastrophic flooding damage onAugust 29, 2005.

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

on Lake

Journal of Coastal Research,

Storm Disaster
The dredging of theMRGO
disasters
deep,

associated
straight

with

created by theMRGO
the surge

surge.

such

transmitted

in

channel,

for hurricane

Betsy

combination

and Katrina.
with

the

The
funnel

spoil bank and levee, provided a path

The

funnel

that water

much

set the stage for the dramatic

Hurricanes

sooner,

caused

levels were
than

the amplification

much
they

higher,
would

of

and were
have

been

naturally. Indeed, the models of Kemp (2008) demonstrate
that the MRGO functions like a major river
during hurri

Special

Issue No.

54, 2009

This content downloaded from 140.194.40.40 on Tue, 10 Feb 2015 11:51:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

 218 Shaffer et al.

canes,

massive

delivering

to

of water

volumes

the

funnel,

which is aimed directly at the city ofNew Orleans.
Saltwater intrusion via the MRGO killed thousands of
hectares

of baldcypress-water

and

swamps

tupelo

on top of the surge.

of waves

The

dramatic

been

was

the channel

before

predicted

constructed.

Indeed,

when the wetlands were put back into the landscape for the
"neutral

MRGO"

in Kemp

2C

(i.e., scenario

scenario

modeling

2008), a fairlyuniform reduction in overtoppingvolume of 80%
to 85% occurred at points discharging into all three of the
developed polders that experienced massive flood damage on
August 29, 2005. In addition, overtopping of theReach 2 spoil
banks was reduced by 60% (Kemp, 2008).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION
of the

restoration

Environmental

ecosystems

by

and

to the area,
hurricane

enhanced

of forested

reestablishment

wetlands,

and

Katrina

of Hurricanes

passage

Rita

significant filling of the portion of the MRGO
open waters

through
were
no

of Breton
to use

able

longer

maintenance.

that passed
draft vessels

deep

a

of this,

Because

channel.
had

to

calls

been

close

the

beginning immediately after its construction, these

MRGO
calls

the

there

Although

and

Sound,

in

resulted

to either redredge or discontinue

decision had to be made

rose

a

to

a group of environmentalists
notably,
a report
the
in the months
after
detailed

plan
Foundation

called

for a barrier

et al.,
to be

ridge. Subsequently,
Resources

Most

constructed

Language

a

that

(Lake

provided
Pontchartrain
the

report

important,
at the Bayou

La

included

in the

was
Act

Development

Loutre

directing

2007
to

the USACE

decommission and close the MRGO. As of July 2009, the
MRGO has been plugged with a rock barrier at the LaLoutre
ridge.

intrusion,
fresh water
projects
Orleans
several

plans
into

are

the CWU

is to introduce
and

St. Bernard

decades,

wetlands

St. Bernard

Katrina

and

Orleans

New

Rita,

the

After

wetlands.

tupelo

this

storm,

evolved intoa plan to discharge treated effluentfromthe East

Bank

Treatment

Sewage

of New

Plant

Orleans

and

several

plants in St. Bernard Parish to freshen the CWU to enable
of approximately

restoration

ha

10,000

of baldcypress-water

swamp.

tupelo

In the summer of 2008, a feasibility analysis for the project
was completed (Nelson, 2008). The State of Louisiana is
Impact
providing $10 million as part of the Coastal
Assessment Program (CIAP) for the initial work on the
project, and it is anticipated that the project will begin in
2009. The funds will be used for modifications at the
of the distribution

construction

plants,

for

system

discharge of the treated effluent, filling deeper areas with
dredge spoil, planting baldcypress and water tupelo seed
baseline

lings,

and

studies,

ecological

fees.

engineering

The

total cost of the project is estimated at about $60 million. The
cost

of restoring

which

is less

comes

the area

to about

than most

expensive

$5300

other

per hectare,

coastal

restoration

via Diversions

to

and

underway
and adjacent

introduce
areas.

area

Borgne

to enhance

oyster

production

and

wetland health. This project is in the planning stages, and it
is likely that itwill not be finished for a number of years.
When both thewetland assimilation and Violet diversions are
area

the

operational,

to a

to return

is expected

condition

similar to that which existed prior to construction of the
even

but with

MRGO,

hurricane

greater

protection.

All

of the previously

control

of saltwater

by both
The
fresh water.

and

supplementing
control measures

tion of theMRGO
A

number

has

been

intrusion

measures

were

result

in a greater
salt water

out

keeping

of salinity
importance
construc
since before

recognized

(USACE, 1963).

of measures

salinity

measures

discussed
intrusion

the

and

CWU

taken

been

have

could

into

adjacent

to prevent
areas
both

of these

before and after the opening of the MRGO. Many
prior

suggested

MRGO opening, but theUSACE
in response

to

construction

and

post

never implemented them. In
Protection

to the Environmental

Agency

Region VI that had requested measures tomitigate salinity
indicated that the proposals for
intrusion, the USACE

With the reconstructed La Loutre ridge limiting saltwater
also

Hurricanes

Before

baldcypress-water

1976,

Freshwater Introduction
Treated Effluent

enhancement
and

Salinity Control

prepared

produced a report that

the USACE

closure.

recommended
Water

2006).

scientists

storm

of the channel

for closure

Basin

and

Most

Katrina.

Hurricane

after

crescendo

Orleans

2004).

had plans fora small project to use treated effluent to create

to the Lake
The

in wetland

result

et al.,

projects in Louisiana (Lindquist and Martin, 2007)
In addition, there is a plan to enlarge a Mississippi River
diversion at theViolet Canal (Figure 1) to provide freshwater

protection.

of theMRGO

Closure

can

also

(Day

together produce over 378,500 m3/d of treated

parishes

treatment

degraded

the MRGO
involves a variety of features and projects
to
return
the area to a condition similar to that
designed
which existed prior to construction of the channel. The
restoration includes closure of the MRGO, introduction of
fresh water

assimilation

restoration

effluent.

flooding

east of the INHC and in St. Bernard Parish would have been
much less had the swamps still been alive and the channel not
been dredged. The impacts of theMRGO on hurricane flooding
had

wetland
and

herbaceous

wetlands that would have reduced both surge levels and the
formation

assimilate municipal effluent. This was initially done to
achieve water quality goals, but it has become clear that

additional
One

of the

effluent from New
municipal
the past
to the CWU.
Over
Parish
to
in Louisiana
used
been
have

treated

Journal of Coastal

Research,

salinity

control measures
for "new

authorization
require
which was

environmental

to operation

Special

and

system
features

would

require

... which

would

socio-economic

investigation"
in relation
for comments

"not appropriate"
of the channel.
and maintenance

deemed

theUSACE

measures

in the MRGO
construction

Unfortunately,

repeatedly used the excuse that "salinity control

were

outside

of the scope

Issue No. 54, 2009

This content downloaded from 140.194.40.40 on Tue, 10 Feb 2015 11:51:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of work."

Ifmeasures

had

 The MRGO

during

including

baldcypress-water
Measures
taken

killed
most

The
been
was

loss,

could have been
tupelo swamps,
of the MRGO
after the opening
that
to revegetate
the forests
made
it possible
intrusion.
by saltwater

prevented.
would
have
were

of the vegetation

much

construction,

measure
that could have
significant
either before or after MRGO
construction,

obvious

and

implemented,
a structure

La

to the Bayou

adding

Loutre

A gated

ridge.

structure could have been opened for the few ships per day
that
To

the MRGO,

used

accommodate

greatly

smaller

and recreational
boats,
an ancillary
structure.
at

been

constructed.
at

exchange

could

craft, USACE

ridge.

These

implement,

but

the

to

expensive

reducing
such as

crew

boats,

shrimp
have

constructed

If complete
control of water
exchange
was
then a lock could have
desired,
ridge
water
eliminated
This would
have
largely

Loutre

the La

vessels,

intrusion.

saltwater

measures
much

would

have

than

cheaper

been

saltwater

either

intrusion,

or

before

after

of

construction

they would in all likelihood have identifiedmost of

MRGO,

mentioned

the previously

control measures.

salinity

Restoration

Baldcypress

It is clear that construction of the MRGO led to salinity
intrusion that caused the death of thousands of hectares of
forested

After

wetlands.

Katrina

by Hurricanes

caused

the

flooding
a growing

there was

and Rita,

realization

the loss

that

of the forested wetlands significantly contributed to the
flooding.This has brought about the development of plans to
restore the forestedwetlands that existed prior to theMRGO.
When thewetland assimilation project isunderway, planting of
water
such as
species
tupelo, and perhaps midstory
baldcypress,
and maple
ash (Fraxinus)
(Acer), will be carried out to restore
area
before
to a greater
than existed
the forested wetlands
construction.

MRGO

environ

219

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

to prevent salinity

been taken prior to opening of theMRGO
intrusion

Environmental,

The

of the area,

restoration

in conjunction

mental and flood damages due to the loss of the baldcypress

with flood protectionworks, will lead to enhanced hurricane

water

protection

forests

tupelo

and

marshlands.

surrounding

for eastern

Salinity intrusion into the CWU could have been greatly
reduced

by

Bienvenue

at

structures
water
control
placing
and Bayou
1). Such
(Figure
Dupris

Bayou

could have been built when the first phase of the MRGO
channel was dredged so that theywere in place by the time
cut through
the immediate

the channel

prevented
the succeeding
banks

could

would

have

Loutre

have

of salt water

introduction

have

could

been

very

excluded.

been

largely
economical

and

easy

have
as

Then

channel through bank

The MRGO
preventable.
at its authorized
to protect
width

Had

this been

spoil
would

between

This

option
to implement.

was

also

armored

would

were
the spoil
completed,
phases
secure.
In this
and more
been made
higher

The massive widening of theMRGO
erosion

This

ridge.

dredging

salt water

way,

the La

the approximately
done,
the channel
bank
and

could

have

been

toe

of the

The

Basins
more

natural

and

out

flushed

if the

hurricanes
several
including

sources

salt.

This

the Violet

It

effluent

diversion

as mentioned

is clear

measures
concert,
adjacent

that

is

from
could

to prevent
areas. These

any

of fresh water

saltwater

in
important
are
overtopped.

banks
spoil
of fresh water

available

structure,

to the CWU,
uplands
adjacent
from adjacent
municipalities,
ipal

introduction

bank,

pumps
and

to

drainage
that drain

treated,

intrusion
the

case

the

of
are

There

CWU,

water

from

storm water

disinfected

munic

earlier.

a suite of
that there were
analysis
or in
been used,
either individually
saltwater
intrusion
into the CWU
and

this

have

measures

could

have

been

implemented

before or after the constructionof theMRGO. If theywere done
before constructionofMRGO, it is clear that themassive die off
of baldcypress-water
forests and
low salinity marshes
tupelo
due
to salinity
intrusion
could have
been
If the
prevented.

USACE

had carried out a careful analysis of the problem of

Journal of Coastal

of the

management
Sound

and

actions

that

Breton

two major

First,

functioning.

is to be closed.

what

and

the

coastal-wetland

Lake

Pontchartrain
to a

the area

return
channel

that

sources

additional

will

reserves

freshwater

Second,

areas

adjacent

This

In addition to exclusion of salt water at the La Loutre ridge
buffered

work

allowed

both rapid draining of freshwater and the rapid inflowof salt

vegetation.

spoil
have

an

involves

ecosystems

ecosystems

be

conserved

of fresh water

from

and

in the CWU
enhanced

treated

by

effluent

and

a diversion

become

the MRGO
along
the CWU
could

of

these

will succeed.
In general,
approaches
serve as the basis
for
function
should

and

in upper
involves

integrate

into

ecosystems

restoration

sense,

neering,

and

management

ecosystem

in herbaceous
shrub
vegetated
plants,
to the dredge
scrub, and trees, similar
spoil on the western
more
side
of the "levee,"
but
with
salt-tolerant
perhaps
have

Parish.

St. Bernard

their sustainable management (Day et al, 1997, 2009). In this

and

"levee"

and

restoration
of how

sustainable
the way

Orleans

for Restoration

sustainable

understanding

water

it from ship wakes.
area of dredge

250-m
the

Basis

Conceptual

structures

New

Research,

of the Mississippi
River.
to
management
approach
which

is the design
society with

human

is called

the natural

engi

ecological

of sustainable

that

ecosystems
environment

for the

benefit ofboth (Day et al, 2009; Mitsch and Jorgensen, 2003).
It combines
basic
and
science
for the restoration,
applied
use
and
sustainable
of aquatic
and
construction,
design,
terrestrial
and because
it uses mainly
natural
ecosystems,
it is very energy efficient. The primary
tools are self
energies,
designing

ecosystems

biological

species
are:

engineering
(1)

The

restoration
disturbed

tially
(2)

The
have

with
and

use

components
The

of ecosystems

that

goals

have

being
mostly
of ecological

been

substan

by humans.
of new

development
both human

(3) Maximum

the

processes.

and

sustainable

of natural

that

ecosystems

value.

ecological
energy

and

reduction

of fossil

energy.
In a time when
and

fossil

scarce,

currents,

greater
and waves

are
energies
use
of natural
allows

for more

(Day et al, 2009).

Special

Issue No.

54, 2009

This content downloaded from 140.194.40.40 on Tue, 10 Feb 2015 11:51:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

becoming
energies
sustainable

more
such

expensive
as winds,

management

 220 Shaffer et al.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Chambers,

This effortwas enhanced by several exhibits provided by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, such as historic photo
graphs taken during the construction of theMRGO. We are
very

for the thoughtful
comments
of two anonymous
We
dedicate
to the memory
the paper
of Shea

grateful

reviewers.

Penland who contributed substantially to this effort.

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APPENDIX
A listing of comments, correspondence, and reports about the environmental
impacts of the channel prior to its construction.

impacts of theMRGO.

Note that there was a considerable understanding

of the

Reference

Date

Comment

United States Fish and Wildlife Service
*Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
J.N. Gowanloch

1979
12-19-1951

Association predicted the project would create a 44-mile-long swath of destruction.
The letter details the frustrations ofWLFC
trying to give input on theMRGO and being
excluded fromMRGO meetings where only oil and shipping representatives were
included.
Letter to Louisiana Congressional Delegation emphasizing the important natural
resources, predicting environmental damages including saltwater intrusion. The
letter requested legislation and funds for a biological study to provide

Wild Life and Fisheries
L.D. Young Jr.

Commission

05-09-1956

Wild Life and Fisheries
Correspondence Letter

Commission

05-29-1957

New Orleans

State Newspaper,

Picayune

Secretary of Interior

State Newspaper,
Picayune Newspaper

New Orleans

Times

06-04-1957
06-05-1957

09-23-1957

09-26-1957
Times
09-27-1957

Journal of Coastal

recommendations to USACE.
Letter stated construction would lead to: increases in tidal action inmarsh pond areas;
higher average salinities with wider salinity ranges; increased turbidity; and the
filling with spoil of numerous ponds attractive to waterfowl. Furthermore, these
processes would alter vegetation types and lead to land loss. WLFC made
recommendations for alternative alignments that would have less negative effects on
the environment and wildlife resources.
Articles depict that St. Bernard Police Jury is in opposition to alternative alignments
proposed byWLFC because itwould throttle industrial development and the "St

Bernard Parish's shrimping and fishing industry would be enhanced tremendously
by access to a deep-water channel along the route planned by the engineers."
had violated Fish and Wildlife
Informed Secretary of the Army that the USACE
Coordination Act ofAugust 14, 1946, which required that all phases of project
planning be brought into balance.
Articles detail that the Secretary of the Interior asked in a letter to the Secretary of the
Army tomodify theMRGO project tominimize effects on fish and wildlife resources.

Research,

Special

Issue No. 54, 2009

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 The MRGO

Environmental,

223

and Storm Impacts

Economic,

APPENDIX
Continued.
Reference
Wild Life and Fisheries
T.B. Ford

Date
Commission

St. Bernard Parish Tidewater

Channel

12-06-1958
03-24-1958

Letter cites adverse

Committee
Commission

Times Picayune

12-12-1958

Times Picayune

12-17-1959

11-1957, 04-1957,
05-04-1959, 07-09

Resources and an Outline
Fish and Wildlife Studies

Fish and Wildlife

1959, 12-08-1960.
07-27-1960, 09-27

Service

forHurricane

Wild Life and Fisheries

Flood

Commission

should be included in the project cost.
that spoil banks would alter current patterns and result in shoaling and
salinity changes over a large area and reduce the freshening effects of the Pear and
Mississippi Rivers.

11-24-1965

letter to Colonel Bowen ofUSACE.
The letter specifically details the
Correspondence
levees forming "a funnel, channeling all hurricane surges and wind driven water into
the Intracoastal Waterway and Industrial." The letter further details mitigation
measures
to prevent the funnel.

3-11-1968
8-16-1972

St. Bernard Parish Planning
Commission

9-28-1972

Commission

"Every effortwas made to secure a modification in the channel alignment tominimize
denied the realignment due to increased
damages." He continued that the USACE
construction and maintenance
costs. It is further detailed that no benefit-cost study
was performed to come to this conclusion, and that provisions for rehabilitation
Predicted

letters between Wild
Correspondence
Life and Fisheries Commission and
the Covington Daily News

Wild Life and Fisheries

studies by several agencies.

07-27-1960

Letter Report
Citizens Committee
Control

and adjoining St. Bernard parish that the Houston ship channel had for
Houston." The article went on to say that there would be no appreciable change in
hurricane tides, and property owners will receive just compensation "including
payment of damages, if any."
Coordinating agency on extensive and detailed pre-project hydrology and biological

1960, 01-12-1961.
12-13-1961, 05-08
1962, 09-13-1962
09-28-1962,
01- 26-1965.
02- 24-1966
1958-1959

Eighth Biennial Report of the Louisiana
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
T.B. Ford

U.S.

environmental effects of the proposed MRGO
including saltwater
intrusion, siltation, rapid fluctuation ofwater levels and salinities, turbidity
increases, etc.
Article on St. Bernard meeting for citizens to express views on the MRGO. William
Lewis, planning coordinator for the Dock Board is quoted, "This parish and its people
stand in the most favorable economic and industrial position of any locality in the
United States."
Col. Lewis is quoted, "The tidewater channel has the same economic significance for
New Orleans

Fish and Wildlife Service
on Fish and Wildlife
Interim Report on Fish

Special Report
Resources,
and Wildlife
of Proposed

Seventh Biennial

WLFC.

Wild Life and Fisheries

U.S.

Comment
Report, article titled "River Basin Studies" expresses extreme
frustration and disappointment at the dismissal of environmental impacts ofMRGO
and emphasizes the importance of further study to assess trade-offs of the project.
Requests assistance detailing predicted environmental effects of the MRGO from

1956-1957

9-19-1973

Wild Life and Fisheries

Commission

12-10-1973

Wild Life and Fisheries

Commission

1-7-1975

and WLFC
staff to discuss pre- and post-construction study
Meeting held with USACE
results of the impacts of the MRGO.
letters between WLFC
and the Covington Daily News link the MRGO
Correspondence
as a primary contributing factor to declined primary
productivity, specifically white
shrimp landings due to changes in hydrology, sedimentology, and consequently
biology.
letter from St. Bernard Parish Planning Commission toWLFC
Correspondence
requesting assistance in detailing effects of proposed ship channel between the
MRGO and the Mississippi River.
WLFC toUSACE
disputing that all state agencies are in favor of expanding theMRGO,

detailing exacerbated environmental damages due to widening, expanding, or
deepening the MRGO.
on the
Correspondence memo from within WLFC
expressing frustration with USACE
Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity Project.
WLFC
internal memo discussing the MRGO effects on oysters. Ronald Dugas, Biologist
III suggests operating Industrial Locks to allow fresh water to enter and USACE
compensation to oyster fisherman. He also is quoted, "The Corp is correct in pointing
out the salinity increases in Lake Borgne, but less
willing to point out their
is truly distorting, discouraging, and demoralizing
responsibility in this matter....It
to have lost both directly and indirectly this vast amount of valuable marsh. We
won't ever retain any marsh if they continue to cost/benefit us to
death, for they have
not properly accessed the true value of the marsh. I have assumed a "militaristic"

defeatus attitude in the past and conceded everything above the Intracoastal as lost
to concentrate on estuarine problems, but the
Corp in this supreme undertaking has
lowered the Intracoastal on me several valuable miles. I believe this area needs a
"Protection Barrier Plan" against the Corp of Engineers."

Journal of Coastal

Research,

Special

Issue No. 54, 2009

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 Shaffer et al.

224

APPENDIX
Continued.
Reference Date Comment
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

2-22-1975

Wild Life and Fisheries

7-1-1975

U.S.

Fish and Wildlife

Commission

Service

St. Bernard Parish Council

Lake Pontchartrain Hurricane Protection Plan Public Meeting, WLFC
expresses
concern on dredge disposal areas and the need for the Seabrook Structure to control
increased salinities caused by the MRGO.
Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries

Commision letter to Colonel Heidberg from Director
J. Burton Angelle. Angelle emphasizes that the Commision truthfully predicted the
environmental impacts of theMRGO, while the USACE
dismissed the predictions as
of extortion and threatens to bring
speculation. Angelle further accuses the USACE

the information before the Governor, Legislators, and the press.
United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service provides the St.
Bernard Parish Planning Commission a detailed report of environmental impacts of
the MRGO
of impacts.
including details of correspondence warning USACE
St. Bernard Parish Council adopts resolution # 1336-12-98 to close the MRGO. The

5-31-1979

12-15-1998

resolution details

the environmental

and erosion leaving Plaquemines,
tropical storms.
* The Louisiana

Wildlife

and Fisheries

Commission

(WLFC)

is the predecessor

Journal of Coastal

Research,

of the current Department

Special

damages of hydrology, salinity, wetland
St. Bernard, and Orleans more vulnerable
ofWildlife

Issue No. 54, 2009

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and Fisheries.

loss

to