Midwest Evaluation of
the Adult Functioning of
Former Foster Youth:
Outcomes at Age 26
Mark E. Courtney
Amy Dworsky
Adam Brown
Colleen Cary
Kara Love
Vanessa Vorhies
2011

 Midwest Evaluation of
the Adult Functioning
of Former Foster Youth:
Outcomes at Age 26
Mark E. Courtney, School of
Social Service Administration
at the University of Chicago
Amy Dworsky, Chapin Hall at
the University of Chicago
Adam Brown, School of Social
Service Administration at the
University of Chicago
Colleen Cary, School of Social
Service Administration at the
University of Chicago
Kara Love, School of Social
Service Administration at the
University of Chicago
Vanessa Vorhies, School of
Social Service Administration
at the University of Chicago
Recommended Citation
Courtney, M., Dworsky, A.,
Brown, A., Cary, C., Love,
K., & Vorhies, V. (2011).
Midwest evaluation of the adult
functioning of former foster
youth: Outcomes at age 26.
Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall at
the University of Chicago
ISSN: 1097-3125
© 2011 Chapin Hall
at the University of Chicago
Chapin Hall
at the University of Chicago
1313 East 60th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
773-753-5900 (phone)
773-753-5940 (fax)
www.chapinhall.org

 Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank our three state partners, the Illinois Department of Children and Family
Services, the Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Services, and the Iowa Department of Human
Services. The study would not have been possible without their ongoing cooperation and early financial
support. We also want to acknowledge the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which funded the fifth
wave of survey data collection and analysis, as well as the Annie E. Casey Foundation, Casey Family
Programs, the Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, the Stuart Foundation, the Walter S. Johnson
Foundation, the W.T. Grant Foundation, and the National Institute for Justice, all of which have
previously provided funding for the Midwest Study. Finally, we would like to thank the University of
Wisconsin Survey Center in Madison, Wisconsin for all of their hard work.

 Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
The Midwest Study: Background and Overview .......................................................................................... 3
Demographic Characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 7
Living Arrangements..................................................................................................................................... 9
Relationships with Family of Origin........................................................................................................... 13
Social Support ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Education..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Employment and Earnings .......................................................................................................................... 28
Income ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
Economic Hardships ................................................................................................................................... 39
Receipt of Government Benefits ................................................................................................................. 43
Physical Health and Access to Health Care Services.................................................................................. 46
Mental Health: Symptoms and Service Utilization..................................................................................... 51
Marriage, Cohabitation, and Relationships ................................................................................................. 62
Sexual Orientation, Sexual Behaviors, and Sexually Transmitted Infections............................................. 67
Pregnancy .................................................................................................................................................... 74
Parenthood................................................................................................................................................... 80
Illegal Behavior and Criminal Justice System Involvement ....................................................................... 90
Victimization ............................................................................................................................................... 94
Civic Participation....................................................................................................................................... 96
Mentoring .................................................................................................................................................... 98
Life Satisfaction and Future Orientation ................................................................................................... 100
Connectedness ........................................................................................................................................... 103
Change Over Time .................................................................................................................................... 104
Discussion and Next Steps ........................................................................................................................ 113
References ................................................................................................................................................. 115

 List of Figures
Figure 1. Trends in Young Women’s Educational Attainment................................................................. 105
Figure 2. Trends in Young Men’s Educational Attainment ...................................................................... 106
Figure 3. Trends in Young Women’s School Enrollment......................................................................... 107
Figure 4. Trends in Young Men’s School Enrollment .............................................................................. 107
Figure 5. Trends in Current Employment by Gender................................................................................ 108
Figure 6. Trends in Family Formation among Females ............................................................................ 109
Figure 7. Trends in Family Formation among Males................................................................................ 110
Figure 8. Trends in Criminal Justice System Involvement among Females............................................. 111
Figure 9. Trends in Criminal Justice System Involvement among Males ................................................ 111
Figure 10. Trends in Connectedness among Females ............................................................................... 112
Figure 11. Trends in Connectedness among Males................................................................................... 112

 List of Tables
Table 1. Data Collection and Response Rates at Waves 1 to 5..................................................................... 4
Table 2. Months Since Most Recent Interview ............................................................................................. 5
Table 3. Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants Interviewed at Wave 5 .................................. 7
Table 4. Demographic Characteristics at Baseline: Full Sample Compared with Wave 5 Sample .............. 8
Table 5. Current Living Arrangements: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study ..................... 10
Table 6. Number of Other People in Household ........................................................................................ 10
Table 7. Time in Current Residence............................................................................................................ 11
Table 8. Perceptions of and Experiences in Neighborhood ........................................................................ 11
Table 9. Ever Lived with Parent or Relative Since Exiting Foster Care..................................................... 11
Table 10. Homelessness and Couch Surfing Since Most Recent Interview .............................................. 12
Table 11. Closeness to Biological Family Members................................................................................... 14
Table 12. Frequency of Contact with Biological Family Members ............................................................ 15
Table 13. Perceived Social Support ............................................................................................................ 18
Table 14. Adequacy of Social Support Network......................................................................................... 19
Table 15. Highest Grade Completed by Gender ......................................................................................... 20
Table 16. Highest Grade Completed: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study......................... 21
Table 17. Friends’ Attitudes towards Education ......................................................................................... 21
Table 18. Current and Prior School Enrollment.......................................................................................... 22
Table 19. College Major ............................................................................................................................. 23
Table 20. Ways of Paying for Postsecondary Education ............................................................................ 23
Table 21. Progress Paying Back Student Loans.......................................................................................... 24
Table 22. Dropping Out of Postsecondary Education................................................................................. 25
Table 23. Reason No Longer Enrolled in School........................................................................................ 25
Table 24. Barriers to Continuing Education by Gender.............................................................................. 26
Table 25. Plans to Return to School ............................................................................................................ 26
Table 26. Education Needed to Achieve Career Goals ............................................................................... 27
Table 27. Receipt of Job Training ............................................................................................................... 27
Table 28. Reason No Longer Receiving Job Training ................................................................................ 27
Table 29. Employment: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study .............................................. 28
Table 30. Hours Worked Per Week at Current Job..................................................................................... 29

 Table 31. Main Reason for Working Part-Time ......................................................................................... 29
Table 32. Hourly Wages at Current Job ...................................................................................................... 30
Table 33. Months at Current Job ................................................................................................................. 30
Table 34. Joblessness during the Past Year................................................................................................. 31
Table 35. Benefits Provided by Current Employer ..................................................................................... 31
Table 36. Job Satisfaction ........................................................................................................................... 32
Table 37. Employment by Gender .............................................................................................................. 32
Table 38. Hours Worked Per Week and Hourly Wages at Current Job by Gender .................................... 33
Table 39. Gender Difference in Hours Worked by Parenting Status .......................................................... 33
Table 40. Ability and Desire to Work if Not Currently Employed............................................................. 34
Table 41. Recent Job Search Activities....................................................................................................... 34
Table 42. Length of Current Job Search ..................................................................................................... 35
Table 43. Earnings during the Past Year: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study................... 36
Table 44. Income from Other Sources during the Past Year ...................................................................... 37
Table 45. Asset Accumulation: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study .................................. 37
Table 46. Debts ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Table 47. Economic Hardships during the Past Year: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study 39
Table 48. Non-USDA Measures of Food Insecurity................................................................................... 40
Table 49. USDA Measures of Food Insecurity ........................................................................................... 41
Table 50. Food Insecurity Scale Scores for Households With and Without Children................................ 42
Table 51. Receipt of Government Benefits during the Past Year by Gender ............................................. 44
Table 52. Current Receipt of Government Benefits by Gender .................................................................. 45
Table 53. Physical Health Status: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study............................... 46
Table 54. Physical and Mental Health Conditions by Gender .................................................................... 47
Table 55. Emergency Room Visits and Hospitalizations during the Past Year .......................................... 48
Table 56. Insurance Coverage: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study................................... 49
Table 57. Access to Health Care: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study ............................... 50
Table 58. Symptoms of Social Phobia during the Past Year ...................................................................... 51
Table 59. Symptoms of Social Phobia during the Past Year by Gender..................................................... 52
Table 60. Symptoms Associated with Social Avoidance during the Past Year by Gender ........................ 52
Table 61. Symptoms of Depression during the Past Year by Gender......................................................... 53

 Table 62. Exposure to Traumatic Events by Gender .................................................................................. 54
Table 63. Most Stressful Traumatic Event Experienced by Gender ........................................................... 55
Table 64. PTSD Symptoms during the Past Year by Gender ..................................................................... 56
Table 65. Alcohol Use during the Past Year by Gender ............................................................................. 57
Table 66. Symptoms of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence during the Past Year by Gender ....................... 58
Table 67. Substance Use during the Past Year by Gender.......................................................................... 59
Table 68. Symptoms of Substance Abuse or Dependence during the Past Year by Gender ...................... 60
Table 69. Mental and Behavioral Health Care Services Utilization ........................................................... 61
Table 70. Marriage and Cohabitation by Gender: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study...... 62
Table 71. Other Intimate Partner Relationships by Gender ........................................................................ 63
Table 72. Intimate Partner Violence by Gender.......................................................................................... 64
Table 73. Intimate Partner Violence: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study Females ........... 65
Table 74. Intimate Partner Violence: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study Males............... 66
Table 75. Sexual Orientation....................................................................................................................... 67
Table 76. Sexual Orientation: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study by Gender................... 68
Table 77. Sexual Behavior by Gender ........................................................................................................ 68
Table 78. Young Women’s Sexual Behavior: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study............ 70
Table 79. Young Men’s Sexual Behavior: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study ................. 71
Table 80. Age at First Sexual Intercourse by Gender: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study72
Table 81. Sexually Transmitted Infections by Gender................................................................................ 72
Table 82. Sexually Transmitted Infections among Young Women: Midwest Study Compared with Add
Health Study ................................................................................................................................................ 73
Table 83. Sexually Transmitted Infections among Young Men: Midwest Study Compared with Add
Health Study ................................................................................................................................................ 73
Table 84. Young Women’s Pregnancy History .......................................................................................... 74
Table 85. Characteristics of Most Recent Pregnancy: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study 76
Table 86. Pregnancy History of Young Men’s Partners: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study
..................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Table 87. Characteristics of Most Recent Pregnancy: Males in the Midwest Study Compared with Males
in the Add Health Study .............................................................................................................................. 78
Table 88. Parenthood by Gender................................................................................................................. 80
Table 89. Motherhood: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study ............................................... 80
Table 90. Fatherhood: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study ................................................ 81

 Table 91. Number of Resident and Nonresident Children by Gender of Parent: Midwest Study Compared
with Add Health Study ................................................................................................................................ 82
Table 92. Total Number of Resident and Nonresident Children by Gender of Parent: Midwest Study
Compared with Add Health Study .............................................................................................................. 83
Table 93. Current Residence of All Nonresident Children by Gender of Parent: Midwest Study Compared
with Add Health Study ................................................................................................................................ 83
Table 94. Frequency of Visitation with All Nonresident Children during the Past Year ........................... 84
Table 95. Parents of Resident and Nonresident Children with Health Problems and Disabilities: Midwest
Study Compared with Add Health Study .................................................................................................... 84
Table 96. Health Problems and Disabilities among Resident and Nonresident Children: Midwest Study
Compared with Add Health Study .............................................................................................................. 84
Table 97. Parenting Resources and Role Models........................................................................................ 85
Table 98. Parenting Stress ........................................................................................................................... 86
Table 99. Disciplinary Actions Taken during the Past Year by Gender ..................................................... 88
Table 100. Indicators of Neglect during the Past Year by Gender ............................................................. 89
Table 101. Illegal Behaviors during the Past Year by Gender.................................................................... 91
Table 102. Criminal Justice System Involvement Since Last Interview by Gender................................... 92
Table 103. Cumulative Criminal Justice System Involvement by Gender ................................................. 92
Table 104. Cumulative Criminal Justice System Involvement by Gender: Midwest Study Compared with
Add Health Study ........................................................................................................................................ 93
Table 105. Criminal Victimization by Gender............................................................................................ 94
Table 106. Sexual Victimization by Gender ............................................................................................... 95
Table 107. Organization or Group for which Volunteer or Community Service Work Was Performed
during the Past Year .................................................................................................................................... 96
Table 108. Voting Behavior and Political Participation ............................................................................. 97
Table 109. Political Beliefs and Party Identification: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study 97
Table 110. Mentoring Relationships ........................................................................................................... 98
Table 111. Life Satisfaction ...................................................................................................................... 100
Table 112. Optimism................................................................................................................................. 100
Table 113. Future Expectations................................................................................................................. 101
Table 114. Life Orientation ....................................................................................................................... 101
Table 115. Mastery.................................................................................................................................... 102
Table 116. Self-Esteem ............................................................................................................................. 102
Table 117. Connectedness......................................................................................................................... 103

 Introduction
For most young people, the transition to adulthood is a gradual process (Furstenberg, Rumbaut, &
Settersten, 2005). Many continue to receive financial and emotional support from their parents or other
family members well past age 18. This is in stark contrast to the situation confronting youth in foster
care. Too old for the child welfare system, but often not yet prepared to live as independent young adults,
the approximately 28,000 foster youth who “age out” of care each year (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2011) are expected to make it on their own long before the vast majority of their peers.
The federal government has recognized the need to help prepare foster youth for this transition to
adulthood since Title IV-E of the Social Security Act was amended in 1986 to create the Independent
Living Program. For the first time, states received funds specifically intended to provide their foster
youth with independent living services. Federal support for foster youth making the transition to
adulthood was enhanced in 1999 with the creation of the John Chafee Foster Care Independence Program.
This legislation doubled available funding to $140 million per year, expanded the age range deemed
eligible for services, allowed states to use funds for a broader range of purposes (e.g., room and board),
and granted states the option of extending Medicaid coverage for youth who age out of foster care until
age 21. Vouchers for postsecondary education and training have also been added to the range of federally
funded services and supports potentially available to current and former foster youth making the transition
to adulthood.
More recently, there has been a fundamental shift toward greater federal responsibility for supporting
foster youth during the transition to adulthood. The Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing
Adoptions Act of 2008 amended Title IV-E to extend the age of Title IV-E eligibility from 18 to 21.
States are now able to claim federal reimbursement for the costs of foster care maintenance payments
made on behalf of Title IV-E eligible foster youth until they are 21 years old.
To qualify for reimbursement, Title IV-E eligible foster youth age 18 and older must be either completing
high school or participating in an equivalent program; enrolled in postsecondary or vocational school;
participating in a program or activity designed to promote or remove barriers to employment; employed
for at least 80 hours per month; or incapable of doing any of these activities due to a medical condition.
They can be living independently in a supervised setting as well as placed in a foster home or group care

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

1

 setting, but the protections afforded to foster children under age 18 (e.g., judicial or administrative case
review every 6 months) still apply. State child welfare agencies are also required to help young people
develop a youth-directed transition plan during the 90 days immediately before they exit care.
This change in federal policy was informed by findings from the Midwest Evaluation of the Adult
Functioning of Former Foster Youth (the “Midwest Study”), the largest longitudinal study of young
people aging out of foster care and transitioning to adulthood since the passage of the John Chafee Foster
Care Independence Act in 1999.

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2

 The Midwest Study: Background
and Overview
The Midwest Study is a collaborative effort among the public child welfare agencies in the three
participating states (Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin), Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago, and the
University of Wisconsin Survey Center. Its purpose is to provide states with the first comprehensive view
of how former foster youth are faring as they transition to adulthood since the John Chafee Foster Care
Independence Act of 1999 became law. Planning for this project began in early 2001 when the public
child welfare agencies in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin agreed to use some of their federal Chafee funds
to study the outcomes for youth who age out of care. Chapin Hall assumed primary responsibility for
overseeing the project, constructing the survey instruments, analyzing the data, and preparing reports for
the participating states. Each state provided Chapin Hall with a list of all youth who met the study’s
eligibility criteria (see below), and the University of Wisconsin Survey Center was contracted to conduct
the in-person interviews.
Youth were eligible to participate in the study if they were in the care of the public child welfare agency
at age 17, if they had entered care prior to their 16th birthday, and if the primary reason for their
placement was not delinquency. Youth with developmental disabilities or severe mental illness that made
it impossible for them to participate in the initial interviews and youth who were incarcerated or in a
psychiatric hospital were excluded from participation. Youth were also ineligible to participate if they
were on run or otherwise missing from their out-of-home care placement over the course of the field
period for the initial interviews, or if they were in a placement out of state. The final sample of 732
included all of the Iowa and Wisconsin youth as well as two-thirds of the Illinois youth who fit the study
criteria.1
Baseline interviews were conducted with 732, or 96 percent, of the eligible youth (63 from Iowa, 474
from Illinois, and 195 from Wisconsin) between May 2002 and March 2003. Among the reasons eligible
youth were not interviewed were the care provider’s refusal to participate, the youth’s refusal to

1

This was done because Illinois has a much larger out-of-home care population than either Wisconsin or Iowa.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

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 participate, or inability to make contact with the youth. All of the youth were 17 or 18 years old when
they were interviewed, and the results were reported in Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of
Former Foster Youth: Conditions of Youth Preparing to Leave Care (Courtney et al., 2004).
Four additional waves of survey data have since been collected (see Table 1). Eighty-two percent (n =
603) of the baseline sample were re-interviewed between March and December 2004 when most of the
study participants were 19 years old, 81 percent (n = 591) were re-interviewed between March 2006 and
January 2007 when nearly all of the study participants were age 21, and 82 percent (n = 602) were
interviewed between July 2008 and April 2009 when the study participants were either 23 or 24 years old.
Findings from the second, third, and fourth waves of data collection were reported in Midwest Evaluation
of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth: Outcomes at Age 19 (Courtney et al., 2005), Midwest
Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth: Outcomes at Age 21 (Courtney et al., 2007)
and Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth: Outcomes at Age 23 or 24
(Courtney et al., 2010).
Table 1. Data Collection and Response Rates at Waves 1 to 5
Wave Last Interviewed
Wave Dates

N

Age

1
2
3
4
5

732
603
591
602
596

17-18
19
21
23-24
25-26

5/02–3/03
3/04–12/04
3/06–1/07
7/08–4/09
10/10–5/11

Response
Rate
—
82% a
81% b
82% c
83% d

Wave 1 Wave 2

Wave 3

Wave 4

—
603
78
26
6

—
—
—
532
29

—
—
—
—
541

—
—
513
44
20

a

Because one respondent had died by the 2nd wave of data collection, the response rate at wave 2 was computed based on a
sample of 731.
b

Because one respondent had died by the 3rd wave of data collection, the response rate at wave 3 was computed based on a
sample of 731.
c

Because seven respondents had died by the 4th wave of data collection, the response rate at wave 4 was computed based on
a sample of 725.
d

Because 12 respondents had died by the 5th wave of data collection, the response rate at wave 5 was computed based on a
sample of 720

This report is based on the fifth wave of survey data. These data were collected between October 2010
and May 2011 from 596 of the 732 young adults who comprise the baseline sample.2 The interviews
were conducted when most of the study participants were 26 years old. Because 12 of the original study
participants are known to be deceased, the response rate for wave five is 83 percent.

2

Unless otherwise noted, any discrepancies between the sample sizes reported in the tables and the overall sample size are due to
missing data on particular survey items.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

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 Because data were collected from 91 percent of these young adults during the fourth wave of data
collection, a majority had last been interviewed less than 27 months before and another quarter had been
interviewed at least 27 but less than 30 months before (see Table 2). The mean length of time since their
most recent interview was 29.9 months, or almost 2.5 years.
Table 2. Months Since Most Recent Interview
(N = 596)

#

%

Less than 24 months
At least 24 but less than 27 months
At least 27 but less than 30 months
At least 30 but less than 33 months
At least 33 but less than 36 months
At least 36 months

135
215
146
45
0
55

22.7
36.1
24.5
7.6
0
9.2

The report describes what we learned about how these young adults were faring across a variety of
domains, including living arrangements, relationships with family of origin, social support, education,
employment, economic well-being, receipt of government benefits, physical and mental well-being,
health and mental health service utilization, sexual behaviors, pregnancy, marriage and cohabitation,
parenting, and criminal justice system involvement. In some cases, results are reported separately for
females and for males.
As in the earlier reports, we make comparisons between the 596 young adults in our sample of former
foster youth and a nationally representative sample of 890 25- and 26-year-olds who participated in the
fourth wave of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (henceforth referred to as the “Add
Health Study”).3 However, due to changes in the Add Health survey instrument between waves 3 and 4,
we had comparable data for fewer outcomes than had previously been the case.
Where appropriate, we conducted tests of statistical significance. For categorical variables, we used chi
squared as our test statistic and for continuous variables we used a t-statistic. All of the statistical tests
were done using a significance level of p < .05. Unless otherwise noted, statistically significant
differences are indicated by a single asterisk.

3

Add Health is a federally funded study designed to examine how social contexts (families, friends, peers, schools,
neighborhoods, and communities) influence the health-related behaviors of adolescents and how those health-related behaviors
are related to young adult outcomes. A nationally representative sample of 7th through 12th graders completed in-home
interviews in 1994. These young people were interviewed a second time in 1996 and a third time in 2001–2002. A fourth wave
of Add Health data was collected in 2007–2008, when study participants were 24 to 34 years old. Although the wave 1 sample
included oversamples of several groups (i.e., African American youth with a college-educated parent), the 890 Add Health Study
participants in our comparison group belonged to the core sample. The Add Health Study is directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris,
and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill. Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle assisted with the original design. The study is funded by NICHD grant P01HD31921, which did not provide direct support for this analysis, as well as 23 other federal agencies and foundations.
Information about obtaining Add Health data is available at www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/DSDR/studies/21600.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

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 The picture that emerges from the following chapters is disquieting, particularly if we measure the
success of the young people in our study in terms of self-sufficiency during early adulthood. Across a
wide range of outcome measures, including postsecondary educational attainment, employment, housing
stability, public assistance receipt, and criminal justice system involvement, these former foster youth are
faring poorly as a group. As we discuss in the conclusion of the report, our findings raise questions about
the adequacy of current efforts to help young people make a successful transition out of foster care.

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 Demographic Characteristics
Most of the 596 young adults who completed an interview at wave 5 were 26 years old (mean = 26.1). As
has been the case at each follow-up interview, the young women outnumbered the young men (see Table
3). Seventy percent of these young adults identified themselves as nonwhite, including 55 percent who
identified themselves as African American.
Table 3. Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants Interviewed at Wave 5
(N = 596)
Age
25
26
27
Gender
Male
Female
Race/Ethnicity
White
African American
Hispanic or Latino
Native American
Asian or Pacific Islander
Multiracial
Other
Don’t know/Refused
State
Illinois
Wisconsin
Iowa

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

#

%

20
512
64

3.4
85.9
10.7

264
332

44.3
55.7

177
328
22
5
4
52
7
1

29.7
55.0
3.7
0.8
0.7
8.7
1.2
0.2

375
168
53

62.9
28.2
8.9

7

 These 596 young adults represent 81 percent of the 732 foster youth who completed a baseline interview.4
Table 4 compares their demographic characteristics to the demographic characteristics of the full baseline
sample of 732.5 None of the differences between the young adults who were interviewed at wave 5 and
the full sample was statistically significant.
Table 4. Demographic Characteristics at Baseline: Full Sample Compared with Wave 5 Sample

Gendera
Male
Female
Race
White
African American
Multi-racial
Other
Don’t know/
Refused
Hispanic Origin
Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Don’t know
State
Illinois
Wisconsin
Iowa

Full Baseline Sample
(N = 732)
#
%

Wave 5 Sample
(N = 596)
#
%

Sample Not Interviewed at
Wave 5 (N = 136)
#
%

354
378

48.4
51.6

267
329

44.8
55.2

87
49

64.0
36.0

226
417
71
14

30.9
57.0
9.7
1.9

190
338
55
10
3

31.9
56.7
9.2
1.7

36
79
16
4

26.5
58.1
11.8
2.9

4

0.5

0.5

1

0.7

666
63
3

91.0
8.6
0.4

546
47
3

91.6
7.9
0.5

120
16
0

88.2
11.8
0.0

474
195
63

64.8
26.6
8.6

375
168
53

62.9
28.2
8.9

99
27
10

72.8
19.9
7.4

a

Three respondents who had identified themselves as male at baseline identified themselves as female at wave 5. Because
the figures in this table are based on the data collected at baseline, the gender distribution is different from the gender
distribution shown in Table 3.

4

As noted in Table 1, 12 of the 732 original respondents were deceased by wave 5.
This comparison uses the race/ethnicity data collected at baseline. Seventy-six respondents identified themselves as belonging
to one racial group at baseline and a different racial/ethnic group at wave 5. Twenty-two of these discrepancies can be explained
by the fact that baseline survey did not give respondents the option of identifying their race as “Latino/Hispanic.” Instead, a
separate question was asked about ethnicity. Another 26 were respondents who had initially identified themselves as belonging
to a single race but now identified themselves as multiracial. Conversely, 26 respondents who now identified themselves as
belonging to one racial or ethnic group had previously identified themselves as multiracial.
5

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 Living Arrangements
Just under one-third of the young adults in the Midwest Study described themselves as living in their
“own place” compared with nearly one-half of their Add Health counterparts (see Table 5). Conversely,
more than one-third of the Midwest Study participants reported that they were living with a spouse or
partner compared with just over one-quarter of the young adults in the Add Health Study. Although only
4 percent of the young adults in the Midwest Study were living with a biological parent, compared with
17 percent of the Add Health Study peers, 18 percent of the Midwest Study participants were living with
a biological parent or other relative.
About 5 percent of the Midwest Study participants were interviewed while they were incarcerated,
compared with less than 1 percent of their counterparts in the Add Health Study. All of the incarcerated
young adults in the Midwest Study were male, which means that 12 percent of the young men were
currently in jail or prison.

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 Table 5. Current Living Arrangements: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study
Midwest Study
(N = 595)
#
%
185
31.1
23
3.9
82
13.8
11
1.8
—
—
213
35.7
26
4.4
8
1.3
31
5.2
8
1.3
9
1.5

Own place
With biological parent(s)
With other relative
With nonrelative foster parent(s)
In another person’s homec
With spouse/partnerb
With a friend
Group quarters (e.g., dormitories; barracks)
Jail or prison
Homeless
Other

Add Health Studya
(N = 890)
#
%
431
48.4
153
17.2
—
—
—
—
57
6.4
232
26.1
—
—
7
.7
5
.5
0
0
6
.6

a

Add Health Study participants had fewer response options from which to choose to describe their current living arrangements
than young adults in the Midwest Study. In some cases, answers to the household roster questions or the “prison interview”
flag were used to determine the current living arrangements of Add Health Study participants.
b

“In another person’s home” was not one of the response option from which Midwest Study participants could choose.

c

122 Midwest Study participants who described themselves as living in their “own place” also reported that they were living
with a spouse or a partner in response to the questions about marriage and cohabitation. Those respondents are included in the
“with spouse/partner” category.

Forty-five percent of the Midwest Study participants reported that they were living with three or more
other people, and only 13 percent reported living alone (see Table 6).
Table 6. Number of Other People in Household a
(N = 538)
Zero
One
Two
Three
Four
Five or more

Number of Other People
#
%
69
12.8
96
17.8
131
24.3
105
19.5
70
13.0
67
12.6

Number of Adults
#
%
141
26.2
230
42.8
115
21.4
33
6.1
12
2.2
7
1.4

Number of Children
#
%
210
39.0
116
21.6
117
21.7
59
11.0
18
3.3
18
3.3

a

Respondents were not asked about the size of their household if they were currently homeless (n = 8), currently incarcerated
(n = 31), living in group quarters (n = 8), or in a treatment facility (n = 1).

Thirty-seven percent of the Midwest study participants had lived in their current residence for less than
one year compared with only 20 percent who had lived there for three years or more (see Table 7).

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10

 Table 7. Time in Current Residencea
(N = 537)
Less than 6 months
At least 6 months but less than 1 year
At least 1 but less than 2 years
At least 2 but less than 3 years
At least 3 but less than 4 years
4 years or more

#
37
163
152
77
35
73

%
6.9
30.4
28.3
14.3
6.5
13.6

a Data are missing for the 8 currently homeless respondents, the 31 currently incarcerated respondents, and the 20
respondents who did not know the month that they moved in.

Although only 37 percent of the Midwest study participants reported knowing most of the people in their
neighborhood, nearly nine in ten reported feeling safe and two-thirds reported feeling happy living there
(see Table 8).
Table 8. Perceptions of and Experiences in Neighborhood
Know most people in their neighborhood
Have stopped on the street to talk with someone in their neighborhood
Believe people in their neighborhood look out for one another
Usually feels safe in their neighborhood
Feel very or somewhat happy to be living in their neighborhood

N
557
557
484
553
556

#
205
354
313
476
369

%
36.8
63.6
64.7
86.1
66.4

Nearly one-quarter of the Midwest Study participants reported that they had lived with one or both of
their birth parents since exiting foster care and nearly one-third reported that they had lived with another
relative (see Table 9). Those who had lived with a relative were most likely to have lived with a sibling.
Table 9. Ever Lived with Parent or Relative Since Exiting Foster Care
(N = 596)
Ever lived with one or both birth parents
Ever lived with former foster parents
Ever lived with another relativea
Aunt or uncle
Grandmother or grandfather
Brother or sister
Cousin
Other
a

#
128
29
173
74
42
93
39
14

%
21.5
4.9
29.0
42.8
24.3
53.8
22.5
8.1

Some respondents reported having lived with more than one type of relative.

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11

 Only 1 percent of these young adults were interviewed while they were homeless, but 15 percent reported
being homeless for at least one night since their most recent interview (see Table 10).6 One-quarter
reported that they had couch surfed.7 Thirty-one percent of the Midwest Study participants reported
having couch surfed or been homeless, including 7 percent who had experienced episodes of both.
Unfortunately, repeated episodes of homelessness were not uncommon. Almost half of the Midwest
Study participants who had been homeless since their most recent interview had been homeless more than
once, including nearly one-quarter who had been homeless four or more times. Even more common were
repeated episodes of couch surfing. Over 60 percent of the young adults who had couch surfed since their
most recent interview had done so more than once, including 35 percent who reported at least four
episodes.
Equally troubling was the amount of time some Midwest Study participants spent homeless or couch
surfing. One-third of the young adults who had been homeless reported an episode of homelessness that
lasted at least one month and nearly 40 percent of those who had couch surfed reported an episode of
couch surfing that lasted a month or more.
Table 10. Homelessness and Couch Surfing Since Most Recent Interview a

#
85

%
14.5

Couch
Surfed
#
%
144
24.5

45
11
8
20
1

52.9
12.9
9.4
23.5
1.2

49
21
16
51
7

Homeless
(N = 588)
Ever since last interview
Number of times since most recent interview
1
2
3
4 or more
Don’t know

34.0
14.6
11.1
35.4
4.9

Either
#
182

%
31.0

73
27
12
66
4

40.1
14.8
6.6
36.3
2.2

Longest episode of homelessness since most recent
interview
1 night
12
14.1 9
6.3
15
2 to 7 nights
25
29.4 32
22.2 40
8 to 30 nights
17
20.0 41
28.5 46
31 to 90 nights
13
15.3 30
20.8 38
More than 90 nights
16
18.8 25
17.4 36
Don’t know
2
2.4
7
4.9
7
a
The 8 respondents for whom data are missing had been incarcerated for at least two years.

8.2
22.0
25.3
20.9
19.8
3.8

6

If some of the 124 young adults who did complete an interview during this wave of data collection could not be located because
they were homeless, homelessness would be more common among the Midwest Study participants than Table 6 suggests.
7
Homeless was defined as “sleeping in a place where people weren’t meant to sleep, or sleeping in a homeless shelter, or not
having a regular residence in which to sleep.” Couch surfing was defined as “moving from one temporary housing arrangement
provided by friends, family or strangers to another.”
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12

 Relationships with Family of
Origin

Despite having been removed from home and placed in foster care, almost all of the Midwest Study
participants had maintained family ties and, in many cases, those ties were quite strong. Seventy-four
percent reported feeling very close, and another 20 percent reported feeling somewhat close, to at least
one biological family member (see Table 11). These young people were most likely to report feeling
close to their siblings and least likely to report feeling close to their fathers.

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13

 Table 11. Closeness to Biological Family Members
(N = 596)
Biological mother
Very Close
Somewhat Close
Not Very Close
Not at All Close
Not living
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Biological father
Very Close
Somewhat Close
Not Very Close
Not at All Close
Not living
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Grandparents
Very Close
Somewhat Close
Not Very Close
Not at All Close
Not living
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Siblings
Very Close
Somewhat Close
Not Very Close
Not at All Close
No siblings
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Close to any other relative

#

%

161
149
55
115
97
17
2

27.0
25.0
9.2
19.3
16.3
2.9
0.3

83
101
39
160
124
88
1

13.9
16.9
6.5
26.9
20.8
14.8
0.2

172
103
35
68
195
21
2

28.9
17.3
5.9
11.4
32.7
3.5
0.3

331
145
28
65
20
2
5
231

55.5
24.3
4.7
10.9
3.4
0.3
0.8
38.8

Another measure of family ties is frequency of contact. Eighty-one percent of these young adults
reported having contact with a biological family member at least once a week (see Table 12). Contact
was most frequent with siblings and least frequent with fathers, the same family members to whom they
reported feeling the most and least close.

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14

 Table 12. Frequency of Contact with Biological Family Members
(N = 596)
Biological mother
Every day
At least once a week but not everyday
At least once a month but not once a week
At least once a year but not once a month
Less than once a year
Never
Not living
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Biological father
Every day
At least once a week but not everyday
At least once a month but not once a week
At least once a year but not once a month
Less than once a year
Never
Not living
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Grandparents
Every day
At least once a week but not everyday
At least once a month but not once a week
At least once a year but not once a month
Less than once a year
Never
Not living
Don’t know if alive
Missing
Siblings
Every day
At least once a week but not everyday
At least once a month but not once a week
At least once a year but not once a month
Less than once a year
Never
No siblings
Don’t know if alive
Missing
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#

%

144
136
68
51
12
69
97
17
2

24.2
22.8
11.4
8.5
2.0
11.6
16.3
2.9
0.3

44
70
78
58
20
113
124
88
1

7.4
11.7
13.1
9.7
3.4
18.9
20.8
14.8
0.2

73
91
70
68
35
42
195
21
1

12.2
15.3
11.8
11.4
5.9
7.0
32.7
3.5
0.2

177
187
92
56
17
42
20
2
4

29.7
31.3
15.4
9.2
2.9
7.1
3.4
0.3
0.7
15

 Other relative (n = 231)
Every day
At least once a week but not everyday
At least once a month but not once a week
At least once a year but not once a month
Less than once a year
Never

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78
94
41
12
1
5

33.8
40.7
17.7
5.2
0.4
2.2

16

 Social Support
Social support can play an important role during the transition to adulthood. However, relatively little is
known about the availability of social support among young adults who have exited foster care. We
measured perceptions of social support among young adults in the Midwest Study using the Medical
Outcomes Study (MOS) Social Support Survey (Sherbourne & Stewart, 1991). This 19-item measure
contains subscales for four types of social support: emotional/informational, tangible, positive social
interaction, and affectionate. In this sample, Cronbach’s alphas were acceptable for the full measure (α=
.97) and each of the subscales (α .86). For each item, respondents rate how often a specific type of
support is available to them using a 5-point scale that ranges from 1 = none of the time to 5 = all of the
time.
Table 13 shows the mean scores for each of the four subscales as well as for each of the individual items.8
The mean scores for affectionate support and positive social interaction were higher than the mean scores
for emotional/informational support or tangible support. The mean score across all items was 3.8,
indicating that these young adults perceived themselves as having social support some or most of the
time.

8

The mean subscale scores and total score were computed for respondents with no missing values.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

17

 Table 13. Perceived Social Support
Emotional/Informational Support
Someone to listen to you when you need to talk
Someone to give you information to help you understand a
situation
Someone to give you good advice about a crisis
Someone to confide in or talk to about yourself or your problems
Someone to give you advice you really want
Someone to share your most private worries and fears with
Someone to turn to for suggestions for dealing with a personal problem
Someone who understands your problems
Emotional/Informational Scale Score
Tangible Support Items
Someone to help you if you were confined to a bed
Someone to take you to the doctor
Someone to prepare your meals if you were unable to do it yourself
Someone to help you with daily chores if you were sick
Tangible Support Scale Score
Positive Social Interaction Support Items
Someone to have a good time with
Someone to get together with for relaxation
Someone to do something enjoyable with
Someone to do things with to help you get your mind off things
Positive Social Interaction Scale Score
Affectionate Support Items
Someone to show you love and affection
Someone to love and make you feel wanted
Someone who hugs you
Affectionate Support Scale Score
Total MOS Scale Score

N

Mean

SD

595

3.81

1.21

595
594
595
595
595
595
595
594

3.86
3.80
3.82
3.51
3.49
3.68
3.59
3.70

1.16
1.18
1.26
1.29
1.46
1.28
1.31
1.09

591
594
595
593
590

3.47
3.74
3.64
3.58
3.61

1.30
1.29
1.35
1.34
1.12

595
595
595
595
595

3.98
3.75
3.85
3.86
3.82

1.18
1.34
1.22
1.26
1.13

595
595
595
595
589

4.06
3.99
3.98
4.01
3.76

1.23
1.27
1.31
1.16
1.03

We also asked these young adults about the adequacy of their social support network. In other words, did
they have enough people to whom they could turn for help with different types of needs? Depending on
the specific type of support, those reporting that they had enough people to whom they could turn ranged
from slightly less than half to roughly two-thirds (see Table 14).

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18

 Table 14. Adequacy of Social Support Network

People to listen to you
People to help with favors
People to loan you money
People to help you meet goals

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N
595
594
594
595

Enough
#
379
330
254
360

%
63.7
55.6
42.8
60.5

Too few
#
180
212
238
181

%
30.3
35.7
40.1
30.4

No one
#
36
52
102
54

%
6.1
8.8
17.2
9.1

19

 Education
The educational deficits that were observed among Midwest Study participants at each of the first four
waves of data collection (Courtney, Terao, & Bost, 2004; Courtney, Dworsky, Ruth, Keller, Havlicek, &
Bost, 2005; Courtney, Dworsky, Cusick, Havlicek, Perez, & Keller, 2007) have persisted into their midtwenties. One-fifth of these 25- and 26-year-olds did not have a high school diploma or a GED (see Table
15).9 Moreover, although 40 percent of these young adults had completed at least one year of college,
only 8 percent had a postsecondary degree from either a 2- or 4-year school.
Also evident were the gender differences in educational attainment that we had observed at prior waves.
Specifically, young men in the Midwest Study continued to lag behind their female counterparts.
Twenty-three percent of the young men had no high school credential compared with only 17 percent of
the young women. Conversely, 45 percent of the young women had completed at least one year of
college compared with only one-third of the young men. Young women were also more than twice as
likely as their male counterparts to have a 2- or 4-year degree.
Table 15. Highest Grade Completed by Gender

No high school diploma or GEDa
High school diploma only
GED only
At least one year of college, but no degree
2-year college degree
4-year college degree
One or more years of graduate school
a

Total
(N = 593)
#
%
118
19.9
182
30.7
56
9.4
188
31.7
26
4.4
15
2.5
8
1.3

Females
(n = 330)
#
%
57
17.3
96
29.1
27
8.2
114 34.5
18
5.5
12
3.6
6
1.8

Males
(n = 263)
#
%
61
23.2
86
32.7
29
11.0
74
28.1
8
3.0
3
1.1
2
0.8

Includes 10 respondents (2 males and 8 females) who had received a certificate of completion.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

20

 Equally persistent was the gap in educational attainment between these young adults who aged out of
foster care and their peers in the general population. Compared with their Add Health counterparts,
Midwest Study participants were three times more likely not to have a high school diploma or GED (see
Table 16). Conversely, Add Health Study participants were almost six times more likely to have a
postsecondary degree (46% vs. 8%), and 9 times more likely to have a degree from a four-year school
than their counterparts in the Midwest Study (36% vs. 4%).
Table 16. Highest Grade Completed: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

No high school diploma or GEDa
High school diploma only
GED onlyb
One or more years of college, but no degree
2-year college degree
4-year college degree
One or more years of graduate school
a

Midwest Study
(N = 593)
#
%
118
19.9
182
30.7
56
9.4
188
31.7
26
4.4
15
2.5
8
1.3

Add Health Study
(N = 890)
#
%
54
6.1
161
18.1
34
3.8
231
26.0
87
9.8
209
23.5
114
12.8

Midwest Study figure includes 10 respondents who had received a certificate of completion.

b

Five Add Health participants who reported having a college degree were recoded as having only a high school diploma (n =
4) or having neither a high school diploma nor a GED based on their responses to other questions.

Although relatively few young adults in the Midwest Study had either a 2- or 4-year degree, 90 percent
reported that “graduating from college” is something their friends expect or are impressed by (see Table
17). At the same time, only half reported that most or nearly all of their high school friends studied hard.
Table 17. Friends’ Attitudes towards Education
(N = 596)
How would you describe your friends in high school?
Nearly all of them studied hard in school
Most of them studied hard in school
Only a few of them studied hard in school
Don’t know
Graduating from college is something my friends are
Really impressed by
Something they look down on
Something routine and expected
Don’t know

#

%

50
255
277
14

8.4
42.8
46.5
2.3

311
34
227
24

52.2
5.7
38.1
4.0

Seventeen percent of the Midwest Study participants were currently enrolled in school (see Table 18).
Another 28 percent had been enrolled since their most recent interview. Two-year colleges accounted for

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

21

 a majority of both the current and former enrollment. Given that 20 percent of the Add Health Study
participants were currently enrolled in school, it seems unlikely that the gap in educational attainment
between the young adults who aged out of foster care and their peers in the general population will close
any time soon.
Table 18. Current and Prior School Enrollment
(N = 593)
Currently enrolled in school
Full time
Part-time
Not currently enrolled but enrolled since most recent
interview
Ever enrolled since most recent interview
Type of school currently enrolled in (n = 102)
GED program
2-year college
4-year college
Graduate school
Type of school formerly enrolled in (n = 138)
High school
GED program
2-year college
4-year college
Graduate school

#
102
57
45
138

% of sample
17.2
9.6
7.6
28.1

% of enrolled
—
55.9
44.1

240

45.3

—

11
57
28
4

1.9
9.6
4.7
0.7

10.8
55.9
27.5
3.9

2
25
80
23
5

0.3
4.2
13.5
3.9
0.8

1.4
18.1
58.0
16.7
3.6

—

Midwest Study participants who were currently enrolled in college or graduate school and those who had
been enrolled in college or graduate school since their most recent interview were asked about their major
and their need for remediation during their first year of college (see Table 19). They were most likely to
have majored in the field of nursing or health care, followed by criminal justice or business. Thirty-one
percent (n = 54) reported that they had taken remedial courses; another 4 percent did not know.10

10

Twenty-five study participants who were currently enrolled in college but who had not yet completed at least one year of
school were not asked the remediation question.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

22

 Table 19. College Major a
(N = 170)
Business Administration/Accounting/Marketing/Economics/Finance
Education/Early Childhood Education/Child Care
Nursing/Health Care
Computer Science/ Information Technology/ Engineering
Social Sciences/Psychology
Criminal Justice/Criminology
Culinary Arts
Communication
Social Work
Othera

#
17
14
33
10
10
22
5
5
10
44

%
10.0
8.2
19.4
5.9
5.9
12.9
2.9
2.9
5.9
25.9

a

Twenty-five study participants who were currently enrolled in college but who had not yet completed at least one year of
school were not asked about their major.
b

The following majors were reported by two or fewer respondents: agriculture, fine or performing arts, cosmetology, law
and environmental studies.

These same young adults were also asked how they were paying for their education. The two most
common funding sources were scholarships and loans (see Table 20). Nearly three-quarters of those
currently enrolled and two-thirds of those formerly enrolled had a scholarship. Approximately two-thirds
of those currently enrolled and 46 percent of those formerly enrolled had taken out student loans. Using
earnings from employment was a distant third. Not surprisingly, perhaps, very few reported that their
parents or other relatives were helping them pay for school.
Table 20. Ways of Paying for Postsecondary Educationa
(N = 173)
Scholarships or grants
Partner/spouse
Birth parent/relative
Foster or adoptive parent
Loans
Employment
Savings
Independent living program
Education or training voucher
Other
More than one funding source

Currently Enrolled (n = 65)a
#
%
48
73.8
2
3.1
1
1.5
1
1.5
44
67.7
17
26.2
3
4.6
1
1.5
2
3.1
8
12.5
44
67.7

Formerly Enrolled (n = 108)
#
%
73
67.6
2
1.9
4
3.7
1
0.9
50
46.3
21
19.4
6
5.6
4
3.7
4
3.7
4
3.7
54
50.0

a

Twenty-five study participants who were currently enrolled in a 2- or 4-year college but who had not yet completed at least
one year of school were not asked how they were paying for their postsecondary education.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

23

 Half of the Midwest Study participants who had taken out student loans reported that they have a long
way to go before their loans were paid off (see Table 21). Another 42 percent predicted that their loans
would be paid off within a few years.
Table 21. Progress Paying Back Student Loans
(N = 93)
Not responsible for paying off any loans
Long way to go before my loans are paid off
Loans will be paid off in the next few years
Loans are already paid off

#
2
47
39
5

%
2.2
50.5
41.9
5.4

Just over one-third of the Midwest Study participants reported that they had ever dropped out of a
postsecondary educational program (i.e., a vocational or technical school, a 2-year college, a 4-year
college, or graduate school) (see Table 22). By far, those who dropped out were most likely to have
dropped out of a 2-year school. The most common reason for dropping out (for the most recent time they
dropped out if they dropped out more than once) was needing to work. However, females were more
likely than males to cite childcare responsibilities and males were more likely than females to cite family
emergencies.

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24

 Table 22. Dropping Out of Postsecondary Education
(N = 596)
Ever dropped out of a postsecondary educational programa
Vocational/technical school
2-year college
4-year college
Graduate school
Type of program dropped out of most recently (n = 210)
Vocational/technical school
2-year college
4-year college
Graduate school
Most recent reason for dropping outb (n = 211)
Pregnancy
Child care responsibilities
Needed to work
Family emergency
Couldn't afford tuition and fees
Too many required classes were not useful
Some classes were too difficult
Returned to program most recently dropped out of (n = 211)
a

Respondents could report dropping out of more than one type of program.

b

Respondents could cite more than one reason for dropping out.

#
211a
49
151
51
7

% of sample
35.4
8.2
25.3
8.6
1.2

% of dropouts
—
23.2
71.6
24.2
3.3

33
133
35
2

15.7
63.3
16.7
1.0

30
78
129
46
93
56
54
23

14.2
37.0
61.1
21.8
44.1
26.5
25.6
10.9

Midwest Study participants who were not enrolled in school were asked why they were not enrolled (see
Table 23). The three most commonly cited reasons were graduating, becoming employed and becoming a
parent/caring for children.
Table 23. Reason No Longer Enrolled in Schoola
(N = 488)
Graduated
Could no longer afford to attend
Academic difficulties
Lost interest in my studies
Became employed
Became a parent/caring for children
No transportation
Discouraged by significant other
Other
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#
131
93
40
75
127
105
41
6
123

%
26.8
19.1
8.2
15.4
26.0
21.5
8.4
1.2
25.2
25

 a

Respondents could report more than one reason for not being enrolled.

These same young adults were also asked if any barriers were preventing them from continuing their
education. Half identified at least one (see Table 24). Regardless of gender, the most commonly cited
barrier, by far, was being unable to pay for school. The second most common barrier cited by young men
was needing to work full time; the second most common barriers cited by young women were needing to
care for children and needing to work full time.
Table 24. Barriers to Continuing Education by Gender

Any barrier to continuing education
Biggest barrier to continuing education
Cannot pay for school
Need to work full time
Need to care for child(ren)
No transportation
Don't think any college would accept me
Classes near me don’t fit my schedule
Criminal record
Don't know how to enroll in school

Total
(N = 488)
#
%
245
49.9

Female
(n = 260)
#
%
136
52.3

Male
(n = 228)
#
%
109
47.8

145
105
82
38
22
14
23
10

73
64
64
19
11
11
7
6

72
41
18
19
11
3
16
4

59.4
42.9
33.5
15.5
9.0
5.7
9.4
4.1

54.1
47.1
47.1
14.0
8.1
8.1
5.1
4.4

66.1
37.6
16.5
17.4
10.1
2.8
14.7
3.7

A majority of those who were not currently enrolled in school had given a lot of thought to returning.
Most of those who had given going back to school some or a lot of thought had either seriously looked
into a specific school or were planning to look at schools soon (see Table 25).
Table 25. Plans to Return to School
Amount of thought given to going back to school (n = 488)
A lot of thought
Some thought
No thought at all
Steps taken to return to school (n = 444) a
Seriously looked into a specific school
Have not yet looked but plan on doing so soon
No plans to look
Already chosen/accepted into a school

#

%

288
159
41

59.0
32.6
8.4

196
171
72
5

44.1
38.5
16.2
1.1

a

Three respondents who had given some or a lot of thought to going back to school did not know what steps they had
taken.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

26

 Nearly 80 percent of the Midwest Study participants believed they need additional education to achieve
their career goals (see Table 26).
Table 26. Education Needed to Achieve Career Goals
(N = 592)

Total

Have just the right amount of education
Need additional educationa
Have more education than needed

#
102
465
25

a

%
17.1
78.7
4.2

Currently
Enrolled
(n = 105)

Not Currently
Enrolled
(n = 487)

#
14
90
1

#
88
375
24

%
13.3
85.7
1.0

%
18.1
77.0
4.9

Four respondents did not know if they were currently enrolled in school.

Only 9 percent of these young adults were currently participating in a job training program; another 17
percent had received job training since their most recent interview (see Table 27). Sixty-one percent of
those who had participated or were participating in job training had obtained a license or certificate.
Table 27. Receipt of Job Training
(N = 596)
Currently receiving
Received since most recent interview, but not currently receiving
Resulted in a certificate or license (n = 155)

#
54
101
94

%
9.1
16.9
60.6

A majority of those who had received job training since their most recent interview but who were not
currently receiving it reported that they had graduated from their program (see Table 28). Other
commonly cited reasons for no longer receiving job training were becoming employed, or becoming a
parent or caring for children.
Table 28. Reason No Longer Receiving Job Training
(N = 101)
Graduated, received license or certificate
Could no longer afford to attend
Academic difficulties
Lost interest in my studies
Became employed
Became a parent or was caring for children
No transportation
Discouraged by significant other
Other

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#
54
7
8
3
16
11
5
2
20

%
53.4
6.9
7.9
3.0
15.8
10.9
5.0
2.0
19.8

27

 Employment and Earnings
Nearly all of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported that they had some prior work experience
(see Table 29). However, only 46 percent were currently employed. This rises to 48 percent if the 31
young men who were incarcerated at the time they were interviewed are excluded. Another 25 percent
were not currently employed but had worked during the past year. By comparison, 80 percent of the Add
Health Study participants currently had a job.
Table 29. Employment: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Ever held a job
Currently employed
Currently employed (nonincarcerated only)
Not currently employed
Worked within the past year a
Last worked more than a year ago a

Midwest Study
(N = 596)
#
%
557
93.6
273
45.8
273
48.3
279
46.8
141
24.7
138
23.2

Add Health Study
(N = 890)
#
%
874
98.2
708
79.6
708
79.9
—
—

p

*
*

—
—

a

Add Health Study participants were asked about the year but not the month in which their last job ended so it was not
possible to compute how long ago they had last worked.

Currently employed Midwest Study participants reported working a mean of 36 and a median of 40 hours
per week (see Table 30). Although Add Health Study participants also worked a median of 40 hours per
week if they were employed, their average workweek was nearly five and a half hours longer than the
average work week of their Midwest Study counterparts.

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28

 Table 30. Hours Worked Per Week at Current Job

Hours worked per week
Less than 20 hours
20 – 34 hours
35 – 40
More than 40 hours
Mean
Median

Midwest Study
(N = 273)
#
%

Add Health Study
(N = 708)
#
%

22
66
141
44
36.16
40.0

30
73
356
249
41.46
40.0

8.1
24.2
51.6
16.1
—
—

p

4.2
10.3
50.3
35.2
—
—

*

The most common reasons for working part-time (i.e., less than 35 hours per week) were being unable to
find full-time work and slack work or business conditions (see Table 31). Nearly three-quarters of those
who were employed part-time (n = 65) reported that they wanted full-time work.
Table 31. Main Reason for Working Part-Time
(N = 88)
Slack work or business conditions
Could only find part-time work
Seasonal work
Child care problems
Other family obligations
Health problems
School or training
Full time work is less than 35 hrs a week
Only want to work part-time
Other

#
15
18
1
4
12
1
13
6
3
15

%
17.0
20.5
1.1
4.5
13.6
1.1
14.8
6.8
3.4
17.0

Midwest Study participants who were currently employed earned a mean of $10.73 and a median of
$10.00 per hour (see Table 32).11

11

Add Health Study participants were not asked about their hourly wages at Wave 4.

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29

 Table 32. Hourly Wages at Current Joba
(N = 212)
Less than $8.00
$8.00 to $8.99
$9.00 to $9.99
$10.00 to $10.99
$11.00 to $11.99
$12.00 or more
Mean hourly wage
Median hourly wage

#
26
35
34
34
21
62
$10.73
$10.00

%
12.3
16.5
16.0
16.0
9.9
29.2
—
—

a

Sixty-one currently employed respondents were either not paid by the hour (n = 55) or did not report their hourly wage
(n = 6).

Almost half of the employed Midwest Study participants had been working at their current job for less
than one year, but nearly one-quarter had held that job for 3 years or more (see Table 33).
Table 33. Months at Current Joba,b
(N = 270)
Less than 6 months
At least 6 but less than 12 months
At least 12 but less than 24 months
At least 24 but less than 36 months
At least 36 months
Mean number of months
Median number of months
a

#
87
44
39
34
66
23.5
13.3

%
32.2
16.3
14.4
12.6
24.4
—
—

Three currently employed respondents did not report when they had started working at their job.

b

Add Health only asks about the year but not the month their current job began so length of time
at current job cannot be calculated.

Sixty-nine percent of those who had been working at their current job for less than one year had
experienced a period of joblessness during the past 12 months (see Table 34). The mean number of
months they had been jobless was 5.3.

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30

 Table 34. Joblessness during the Past Yeara
(N = 131)
Currently employed, but out of work sometime during the past year
Length of time without a job during the past year (n = 90)
None of the time
0 to 3 months
4 to 6 months
7 to 9 months
10 to 12 months
Mean number of months
Median number of months
a

#
90

%
68.7

1
30
32
13
14
5.3
5.0

1.1
33.3
24.4
9.9
10.7
—
—

If working at current job for less than one year.

Seventy percent of the currently employed Midwest Study participants were eligible for at least one of
eight employer-provided benefits (see Table 35). The only two benefits for which a majority was eligible
were paid vacation days and health insurance. Although 52 percent of those currently employed were
custodial parents, only 14 percent reported that their employer provided assistance with childcare.
Table 35. Benefits Provided by Current Employer

Paid vacation daysa
Health insurance
Dental insurance
Paid sick daysa
Family medical leave
Retirement plan
Maternity leave
Childcare
Employer provides at least one
a

Midwest Study
(n = 273)
#
%
142
52
140
51.3
132
48.4
111
40.7
119
43.6
106
38.8
107
39.2
39
14.3
190
70.4

Add Health Study
(n = 708)
#
%
543
76.7
556
78.6
—
—
543
76.7
—
—
508
71.8
—
—
—
—
—
—

p
*
*
*
*

Add Health data reports employer provided paid vacation days and paid sick days combined.

Although most of the employed Midwest Study participants were earning less than $12 per hour and
many were not receiving benefits from their employer, 69 percent reported being satisfied or extremely
satisfied with their current job (see Table 36). By comparison, 78.5 percent of employed Add Health
Study participants reported being satisfied or extremely satisfied with their current job.

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 Table 36. Job Satisfaction

Satisfied or extremely satisfied
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Dissatisfied or extremely dissatisfied
Don’t know

Midwest Study
(n = 273)
#
%
188
68.9
56
20.5
28
10.3
1
0.4

Add Health Study
(n = 708)
#
%
556
78.5
103
14.5
49
6.9
0
0.0

p

There was no gender difference in the likelihood of ever having held a job (see Table 37). Although
young women were more likely than young men to be currently employed, the gender difference was not
quite statistically significant (p = .053). Excluding the young men who were currently incarcerated
(11.7% of the males) from the analysis reduces the gender difference even more.
Table 37. Employment by Gender

Ever held a job
Currently employed
Currently employed (nonincarcerated)
Not currently employed, but worked in the last year
Not currently employed, worked more than a year ago

Females
(n = 332)
#
%
312
94.0
171
51.5
171
51.5
76
22.9
69
20.8

Males
(n = 263)
#
%
245
93.2
102
38.8
102
43.8
65
24.6
69
26.1

p

On average, employed young women in the Midwest Study worked significantly fewer hours per week
and were paid less per hour than employed young men (see Table 38).

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32

 Table 38. Hours Worked Per Week and Hourly Wages at Current Job by Gender

Hours worked per week
Less than 20 hours
20-34 hours
35-40 hours
More than 40 hours
Mean hours worked per week
Median hours worked per week
Hourly wagesa
Less than $8.00
$8.00 to $8.99
$9.00 to $9.99
$10.00 to $10.99
$11.00 to $11.99
$12.00 or more
Mean hourly wages
Median hourly wages

Females
(n = 171)
#
%

Males
(n = 102)
#

%

12
51
92
16
34.3
38

7.0
29.8
53.8
9.4
—
—

10
15
49
28
39.3
40.0

9.8
14.8
48.0
27.5
—
—

17
26
24
18
11
36
$10.30
$9.70

9.9
15.2
14.0
10.5
6.4
21.1
—
—

9
9
10
16
10
26
$11.40
$10.00

8.8
8.8
9.8
15.7
9.8
25.5
—
—

p

*

a

Hourly wage data were missing for 22 employed males and 39 employed females who were not paid by the hour or did
not report their hourly wage.

One possible explanation for the gender difference in hours worked per week is that employed young
women were more likely to have parenting responsibilities than employed young men. However, and
contrary to this hypothesis, employed mothers living with one or more of their children worked
significantly more hours per week, on average, than nonparenting young women (i.e., not parents or
parents not living with their children) (see Table 39). Also contrary to the hypothesis, employed
nonparenting young women worked significantly fewer hours per week, on average, than employed
nonparenting young men.
Table 39. Gender Difference in Hours Worked by Parenting Status

Male
Female

Living with children
n
Mean hours worked
36
42.8
107
35.6

Not living with children
n
Mean hours worked
66
37.3
64
32.1

Most of the Midwest Study participants who did not currently have a job reported that they were
physically able to work, and more than 90 percent of those able to work reported wanting to do so (see
Table 40).

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 Table 40. Ability and Desire to Work if Not Currently Employed
(N = 322)
Able to worka
Not able to work due to a disability
Not able to work due to incarceration
Not able to work due to another reason
Don’t know

#
256
21
31
12
2

%
79.5
6.5
9.6
3.7
0.6

Want to work if physically able (n = 256)

236

92.2

a

This includes 5 men and 2 women who were currently serving in the military.

Two-thirds of those physically able to work but not currently employed had actively looked for a job
during the past 4 weeks (see Table 41). Nearly all of these young adults had completed at least one job
application. Other common job search activities included contacting employers, responding to help
wanted signs, sending resumes, soliciting help from friends and contacting employment agencies.
Table 41. Recent Job Search Activities
(N = 256)
Actively sought work during the past 4 weeks
Type of job search activitiesa (n = 171)
Completed job application
Contacted employers
Responded to a help-wanted sign
Solicited help from friends
Contacted employment agency
Sent resume
Job interview
Contacted school employment center
Attended job training
Other
a

#
171

%
66.8

160
114
106
103
96
106
70
34
37
18

93.6
66.7
62.0
60.2
56.1
62.0
40.9
19.9
21.6
10.5

Respondents could report more than one job search activity.

On average, Midwest Study participants who were looking for a job had been searching for 5.3 months
(see Table 42). More than 20 percent had been searching for a year or more.

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 Table 42. Length of Current Job Searcha
(N = 157)
Less than 1 month
At least one but less than 6 months
At least 6 but less than 12 months
At least 12 but less than 24 months
At least 24 months

#
51
64
16
24
9

%
32.5
40.8
10.2
15.3
5.7

Mean length of current job search
Median length of current job search

5.3
2

—
—

a

Seven respondents did not report the length of their job search.

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35

 Income
Seventy percent of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported having any income from employment
during the past year compared with 94 percent of their Add Health counterparts (see Table 43).
Moreover, when Midwest Study participants did have any income from employment, they had earned
significantly less than their Add Health Study peers. In fact, the difference in median annual earnings
between the groups was more than $18,000.
Table 43. Earnings during the Past Year: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Any income from employment during the past year a
Amount of income from employment (if any)b
$5,000 or less
$5,001 to $10,000
$10,001 to $25,000
$25,001 to $50,000
More than $50,000
Missing
Mean
Standard Deviation
Median

Midwest Study
N
#
%
580 408 70.3
408
155 38.0
67
16.4
102 25.0
70
17.2
10
2.5
4
1.0
$ 13,989
$ 15,413
$ 8,950

Add Health Studyc
N
#
%
881
824
93.5
824
63
7.6
66
8.0
240
29.1
341
41.4
104
12.6
10
1.2
$32,312
$36,277
$27,310

p
*

*

a

The 14 respondents who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked the income questions

b

Midpoint of categories was used in the calculation of means, medians, and standard deviations if an income range rather than
a specific value was reported.
c

Because the data were collected in 2007 and 2008, Add Health Study participant earnings were adjusted for inflation using
the CPI. The values shown are in 2010 real dollars.

Many of these young adults reported income from sources other than their own employment. Nearly twothirds of those who were married or cohabiting reported income from their spouse or partner’s
employment and more than half of those who had earnings from their own or a spouse or partner’s

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36

 employment reported income from the EITC (see Table 44).12 By contrast, only 9 percent of those who
were the custodial parent of a child whose other parent lived elsewhere reported receiving any child
support.
Table 44. Income from Other Sources during the Past Year
N
225
119
403
190

a

Any income from spouse’s employment past year
Any income from child support during the past yearb
Any income from the EITC during the past yearc
Reason did not receive the EITC
Not eligible
Not aware
Other
Received money from a family member
Received money from a friend
Received money from a social service agency

595
595
595

#
146
11
210

%
64.9
9.2
52.1

82
50
58
156
101
5

43.2
26.3
30.5
26.2
17.0
0.8

a

Limited to young adults who were currently married or cohabiting. Eight married or cohabiting respondents did not
answer this question.
b

Limited to young adults who were with the custodial parent of at least one child whose other parent was not in the
household.
c

Limited to young adults who had earnings from their own or their spouse’s employment. Sixteen respondents who had
earnings from their own or their spouse’s employment did not know the answer to this question.

Asset accumulation is especially important for young people aging out of foster care who are less likely
than other young adults to be able to depend on their parents or other family members for financial
support in times of need. However, less than half of the Midwest Study participants reported having a
checking or savings account (see Table 45). About the same percentage owned a motor vehicle and only
9 percent owned a home compared with 30 percent of their Add Health Study peers.
Table 45. Asset Accumulation: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Any savings/checking account
Owns a vehicle
Owns a residencea
a

Midwest Study
N
#
593
277
595
288
564
53

%
46.7
48.4
9.4

Add Health Study
N
#
—
—
—
—
889
271

p
%
—
—
30.4

*

Midwest Study respondents who were incarcerated were not asked this question.

12

Although most EITC recipients are parents, very-low-income workers with no children are also eligible for a much smaller
EITC.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

37

 Not only did many of the Midwest Study participants lack assets, but in addition, they often had incurred
debt. Although only 12 percent reported borrowing at least $200 from family or friends, more than onethird reported having other debt, excluding student, home, or auto loans (see Table 46).
Table 46. Debts
Borrowed at least $200 from relative or friend since most recent interview
Any other outstanding debts
a

a

N
594
593

#
70
211

%
11.8
35.6

Does not include money borrowed for school or to purchase a home

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

38

 Economic Hardships
The precarious economic situation faced by many of these young adults was also reflected in the material
hardships they reported. Forty-five percent reported experiencing at least one of five material hardships
during the past year compared with fewer than one-fifth of their Add Health Study peers (see Table 47).
However, both samples were most likely to report “not having enough money to pay a utility bill.”
Midwest Study participants reported a mean of 2.4 hardships; their Add Health Study peers reported a
mean of 1.7.
Table 47. Economic Hardships during the Past Year: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health
Study

Not enough money to pay rent
Not enough money to pay utility bill
Gas or electricity shut off
Phone service disconnectedb
Evicted
At least one hardship
Mean number of hardships

Midwest Studya
N
#
581
162
582
183
582
78
582
166
582
60
581
269
2.4

%
27.9
31.4
13.4
28.5
10.3
45.1

Add Health Study
N
#
%
886
52
5.9
888
116
13.1
889
37
4.2
890
72
8.1
889
7
0.8
890
164
18.4
1.7

a

The 14 respondents who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked the economic hardship questions.

b

Add Health Study participants were asked if they had been without phone service for any reason.

p
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

Another indicator of economic hardship is food insecurity. Food insecurity was measured using a set of
19 items, including 15 items taken from the USDA’s measure of food insecurity (Bickel, Nord, Price,
Hamilton, & Cook, 2000). Approximately one-quarter of these young adults put off paying a bill in order
to buy food and nearly as many received emergency food from a pantry (see Table 48).

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39

 Table 48. Non-USDA Measures of Food Insecuritya
Got food or borrowed money for food from friends or family
Put off paying a bill to buy food
Received emergency food from a pantry
Received a meal from a soup kitchen
a

N
581
582
581
582

#
120
150
134
37

%
20.7
25.8
23.1
6.4

The 14 respondents who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked the food security questions.

The 19-item USDA food insecurity measure was developed by researchers at the National Center for
Health Statistics in collaboration with Abt Associates, Inc. (Blumberg, Bialostosky, Hamilton, & Briefel,
1999). All of the Midwest Study participants were asked the first 11 items. The other 8 items were only
asked if the respondent was a parent living with at least one child.
Two items (i.e., “worried about running out of food” and “food didn’t last and could not afford more”)
were responded to affirmatively by at least one-third of the Midwest Study participants (see Table 49).
Another two (i.e., “could not afford to eat balanced meals” and “relied on only a few kinds of low-cost
food to feed children”) received affirmative responses from at least one-fifth.

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 Table 49. USDA Measures of Food Insecuritya
All households
Sometimes or often not enough food in the household during the past monthb
Sometimes or often worried about running out of food
Sometimes or often food didn't last and could not afford more
Sometimes or often could not afford to eat balanced meals
Cut size of meals because could not afford more
Cut size of meals almost every month
Not enough money for food so didn’t eat as much as should have
Hungry but didn't eat because could not afford food
Lost weight because didn't have enough food
Not enough money for food so didn’t eat for a whole day
Didn’t eat for a whole day almost every month
Households with childrenc
Sometimes or often relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed children
Sometimes or often couldn't feed my children a balanced meal
Sometimes or often couldn't afford enough food so children didn’t eat
Cut the size of children's meals because there was not enough money for food
Children skipped meals because there was not enough money for food
Children skipped meals almost every month
Couldn't afford more food so children went hungry
Not enough money for food so children didn’t eat for a whole day

N

#

%

580
581
581
581
581
581
581
582
582
581
581

38
221
198
125
89
15
101
85
42
29
2

6.6
38.0
34.1
21.5
15.3
2.6
17.4
14.6
7.2
5.0
0.3

254
254
254
254
254
254
254
254

61
24
6
8
1
0
2
1

24.0
9.4
2.4
3.1
0.4
0.0
0.8
0.4

a

The 14 respondents who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked the food security questions.

b

The first item is a screener and not used to compute the composite food security score.

c

Twenty-five respondents with at least one resident child were not asked the food insecurity questions due to a problem with
the programming of the survey instrument.

The first 11 items were used to compute a food insecurity composite score for young adults who were not
parents or young adults who were parents but not living with any of their children. These items plus eight
additional items were used to compute a food insecurity composite score for young adults who were
parents living with at least one child. Based on the number of affirmative responses that they gave, 28
percent of the young adults with no resident children and one-quarter of the young adults with at least one
resident child would be categorized as having low or very low food security (see Table 50).

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 Table 50. Food Insecurity Scale Scores for Households With and Without Children

Households with no resident child present (N = 317)
High food security
Marginal food security
Low food security
Very low food security
Households with at least one resident child (N = 279)
High food security
Marginal food security
Low food security
Very low food security

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# of affirmative
responses

n

%

Zero
One or two
Three to five
Six or more

159
56
42
46

50.2
17.7
13.2
14.5

Zero
One or two
Three to seven
Eight or more

142
67
56
14

50.9
24.0
20.1
5.0

42

 Receipt of Government Benefits
Many of the young adults in the Midwest Study had relied on government benefits to help support
themselves during the past year.13 Food stamp receipt was especially common. Two-thirds of the young
women and 42 percent of the young men reported that they had been food stamp recipients.
Where gender differences were found, young women were more likely than young men to report
receiving benefits. During the past year, three-quarters of the young women compared with less than half
of the young men had received benefits from at least one means-tested program (i.e., TANF, Food
Stamps, SSI, WIC or housing assistance) (see Table 51). Among custodial parents, 86 percent of mothers
compared with only 40 percent of fathers received benefits from one or more means-tested programs
during the past year.

13

Comparable data were not collected from Add Health Study participants. They were only asked if any member of their
household had received government benefits over a period of several years.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

43

 Table 51. Receipt of Government Benefits during the Past Year by Gendera

Unemployment Insurance
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
Food Stamps
Public Housing/Rental Assistance
TANFb
Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,
Infants and Children (WIC)c
Any means-tested program
Any means-tested program except WIC
Any means-tested program (custodial parents only)
Any means-tested program except WIC (custodial
parents only)

Females
n
#
332
43
332
55
332
225
332
48
217
42

%
13.0
16.6
67.8
14.5
19.4

Males
n
250
250
249
250
62

217

p
#
38
29
104
6
1

%
15.2
11.6
41.8
2.4
1.6

96

34.4

—

—

—

332
332
217

254
241
188

76.5
72.6
86.6

250
250
62

119
119
25

47.6
47.6
40.3

217

177

81.6

62

25

40.3

a

The 13 respondents who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked about government benefit receipt.

b

Only custodial parents were asked about TANF receipt.

c

Only female custodial parents were asked about receipt of WIC.

*
*
*

*
*
*
*

Gender differences were also observed when these young adults were asked about their current receipt of
government benefits. Seventy-one percent of the young women compared with 40 percent of the young
men were receiving benefits from one or more means-tested programs (see Table 52).14 Among custodial
parents, 77 percent of the mothers but less than one-third of the fathers were receiving benefits from at
least one means-tested program.

14

It is not surprising that almost all of the young adults who had received SSI during the past year were currently
receiving SSI because individuals must have a “physical or mental impairment that keeps [them] from performing
any ‘substantial’ work and is expected to last 12 months” in order to qualify (Social Security Administration, 2001).
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44

 Table 52. Current Receipt of Government Benefits by Gendera

Unemployment insurance
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
Food stamps
Public housing/rental assistance
TANFb
Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants
and Children (WIC)c
Any means-tested program
Any means-tested program except WIC
Any means-tested program (custodial parents only)
Any means-tested program except WIC (custodial
parents only)

Females
n
#
332 21
332 54
332 208
332 36
217 24

%
6.3
16.3
62.7
10.8
11.1

Males
n
232
232
232
232
62

217

p
#
11
27
79
3
0

%
4.7
11.6
34.1
1.3
0.0

78

28.0

—

—

—

332
332
217

238
226
178

71.7
68.1
82.0

232
232
59

93
93
18

40.1
40.1
30.5

217

168

77.4

59

18

30.5

a

The 31 respondents who identified as currently incarcerated were not asked about government benefit receipt.

b

Only custodial parents were asked about TANF receipt.

c

Only female custodial parents were asked about receipt of WIC.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

45

*
*
*

*
*
*
*

 Physical Health and Access to Health
Care Services
More than four-fifths of the Midwest Study participants described their health as good to excellent and
fewer than one in five reported having a chronic health condition (see Table 53). However, they were
twice as likely as their Add Health counterparts to describe their health as fair or poor and nearly twice as
likely to report that a health condition or disability limits their daily activities.
Table 53. Physical Health Status: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study
Midwest Study
(N = 596)
#
%
Description of general health
Excellent
Very good
Good
Fair
Poor
Any chronic medical condition
Health condition or disability limits daily activitiesa
a

Add Health Study
(N = 890)
#
%

*
154
175
161
93
13
91
88

25.8
29.4
27.0
15.6
2.2
15.3
14.8

165
357
291
67
10

18.5
40.1
32.7
7.5
1.1

72

8.1

Add Health Study participants were asked whether any health condition limits their ability to engage in moderate activities.

Twelve percent of the Midwest Study participants reported having at least one of eight health conditions
or disabilities that limit their daily activities (see Table 54). Attention deficit hyperactive disorder and
asthma were the most common health conditions or disabilities they reported having. Only 7 percent
reported that they were currently taking medication or receiving treatment for their health condition or
disability.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

p

46

*

 Table 54. Physical and Mental Health Conditions by Gender
Total
(N = 596)
#
%

Males
(n = 264 )
#
%

Females
(n = 332)
#
%

Epilepsy
High cholesterol/lipids
High blood pressure/hypertension
Diabetes/high blood sugar
Asthma/reactive airways disease
Eating disorder
Attention deficit hyperactive disorder

10
6
27
5
37
12
42

1.7
1.0
4.5
0.8
6.2
2.0
7.0

3
4
13
1
14
3
21

1.1
1.5
4.9
0.4
5.3
1.1
8.0

7
2
14
4
23
9
21

2.1
0.6
4.2
1.2
6.9
2.7
6.3

Polycystic ovarian syndrome/irregular, heavy, or
absent periods

13

2.2

—

—

13

3.9

70
28
12
63

11.7
4.7
2.0
10.6

27
9
6
22

10.2
3.4
2.3
8.3

43
19
6
41

13.0
5.7
1.8
12.3

43

7.2

13

4.9

30

9.0

Any of the above
Two or more of the above
Developed condition in past year
Took prescription medication in past year
Currently takes daily medications or receives
treatment for medical condition

p

Over half of the Midwest Study participants reported at least one emergency room visit during the past
year, and one-fifth reported being hospitalized at least once (see Table 55). The reasons cited for their
most recent hospitalization varied by gender. Young women were most likely to cite pregnancy or
illness; young men were most likely to cite injuries or accidents.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

47

*

 Table 55. Emergency Room Visits and Hospitalizations during the Past Year
Number of ER visits during the past year
0
1
2 or more
Number of hospitalizations during the past year
0
1
2 or more
Reason for most recent hospitalization
Illness
Injury or accident
Alcohol or other drug problem
Emotional or mental health problem
Pregnancy-related
Other

N
595

#

%

290
130
175

48.7
21.8
29.4

472
81
43

79.2
13.6
7.2

40
17
1
12
36
16

32.8
13.9
0.8
9.8
29.5
13.1

596

122

Nearly 6 in 10 Midwest Study participants reported having health insurance, and almost half reported
having insurance for dental care (see Table 56). Approximately two-thirds of the young adults who had
health insurance, and just over 60 percent of those who had dental insurance, were covered by a
government program (e.g., Medicaid or S-CHIP).
Young adults in the Midwest Study were significantly less likely to report having health insurance than
their Add Health counterparts. Moreover, among those young adults who did have health insurance,
Midwest Study participants were more likely than their Add Health counterparts to report be covered by
Medicaid and less likely than their Add Health counterparts to report being covered by insurance
provided by an employer.

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48

 Table 56. Insurance Coverage: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Has health insurance
Source of health insurance
Parents’ insurance
Spouse’s insurance
Employer provided insurance
School provided insurance
Purchase own private insurance
Medicaid or medical assistance
State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP)
Other
Don’t know type of insurance
Has dental insurance
Source of dental insurance
Parents’ insurance
Spouse’s insurance
Employer provided insurance
School provided insurance
Purchase own private insurance
Medicaid or medical assistance
State Children’s Health Insurance Program
(S-CHIP)
Other
a

Midwest Study
N
#
%
596 347 58.7
347
4
1.2
22
6.3
70
20.2
3
0.9
4
1.2
165 47.6

589
279

68

19.6

11
0
279

3.2
0
47.4

1
23
77
2
2
124

0.4
8.2
27.6
0.7
0.7
44.4

45

16.1

5

1.8

Add Health Study
N
#
%
890 700 78.0
701
14
2.0
75
10.7
465a 66.3
26
3.7
27
3.9
66
9.4
—

p
*

*

*

—

16
12
—

2.3
1.7
—

—
—
—
—
—
—
—

—
—
—
—
—
—
—

—

—

—

This includes 11 respondents who had health insurance through their union.

Approximately two-thirds of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported having had a physical exam
during the past year (see Table 57). Although this is very similar to what their Add Health counterparts
reported, their Add Health counterparts were more likely to have reported having had a dental exam.
Only 13 percent of the Midwest Study participants reported not receiving medical care when needed
during the past year, compared with one-quarter of the young adults in the Add Health Study.15 Midwest
Study participants who did not receive treatment cited the cost of care and not having insurance as the
primary reasons. Nearly one-fifth of the Midwest Study participants reported not receiving dental care
when needed during the past year. Again, the main reasons cited for not receiving treatment were not
having insurance and the cost of care.

15

Midwest Study participants who currently had insurance could still cite lack of insurance as a reason for not
receiving care during the past year.
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49

 Table 57. Access to Health Care: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Last physical exam
Less than a year ago
1 to 2 years ago
More than 2 years ago
Missing or don’t know
Did not receive needed medical care
Reason(s) did not receive medical care
Didn't know where to go
Cost too much
No transportation
Hours were inconvenient
Would lose pay for missing work
No insurance
Other
Last dental exama
Less than a year ago
1 to 2 years ago
More than 2 years ago
Don’t know
Did not receive needed dental care
Reason(s) did not receive dental care
Didn’t know where to go
Cost too much
No transportation
Hours were inconvenient
Would lose pay for missing work
No insurance
Other
a

Midwest Study
N
#
%
596
384
64.4
109
18.3
102
17.1
1
0.2
596
76
12.8
76
9
11.8
41
53.9
11
14.5
6
7.9
9
11.8
45
59.2
17
22.4
595
265
44.5
137
23.0
193
32.4
1
0.1
596
116
19.5
116
20
17.2
75
64.7
10
8.6
6
5.2
10
8.6
63
54.8
17
14.7

Add Health Study
N
#
%
870
550
63.2
138
15.9
182
20.9
—
—
—
889
225
25.3
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

—
—
—
—
—
—
—

481

54.0

890

*

*
46.0
—

—

—
—
—
—
—
—
—

—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Add Health participants were only asked if they had had a dental exam during the past year.

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p

50

 Mental Health: Symptoms and
Service Utilization
Mental Health Symptoms
Midwest Study participants were asked a series of questions taken from the World Health Organization’s
(1998) 12-month version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). The CIDI is a
highly structured interview, designed for use by nonclinicians, that generates psychiatric diagnoses
according to the criteria listed in the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV).
Each psychiatric diagnosis has its own module. Rather than administering the entire 12-month version of
the CIDI, we selected questions from the modules used to diagnosis social phobia, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and substance use disorders. In addition, instead of asking all of the questions in
each module, we selected questions pertaining to specific symptoms of each disorder.

Social Phobia
Over one-third of the Midwest Study participants reported having experienced unusually strong fears of
social situations during the past year (see Table 58). Just half of those who had experienced unusually
strong fears of social situations also reported avoiding the situations that they feared.
Table 58. Symptoms of Social Phobia during the Past Year
(N = 591)
Eating or drinking where someone could watch you
Talking to people because you might have nothing
to say or might sound foolish
Writing while someone watches
Taking part or speaking in a meeting or class
Going to a party or other social outing
Giving a speech or speaking in public
At least one of the above
a

Had an unusually strong
fear of the situation
#
%
26
4.4
90
15.2

Often avoided the
feared situationa
#
%
17
65.4
47
52.2

40
101
74
130
205

19
55
46
69
106

6.8
17.1
12.5
22.0
34.7

47.5
54.5
62.2
53.1
51.7

Of respondents who had a fear of the situation.

Compared to young men, young women were more likely to report having at least one unusually strong
fear of a social situation (see Table 59). They were also more likely to report having unusually strong
fears of two particular situations: taking part or speaking in a meeting or class and giving a speech or

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

51

 speaking in public. However, no significant gender differences were found in the percentage who reported
that they avoided any of the social situations that they had feared.
Table 59. Symptoms of Social Phobia during the Past Year by Gender
Had an unusually strong
Often avoided the
fear of the situation
feared situationa
Males
Females
p Males
Females
(n = 262)
(n = 329)
(n = 74)
(n = 105)
#
%
#
%
#
%
#
%
Eating or drinking where you could be
watched

7

2.7

19

5.8

3

4.1

14

13.3

Talking to people because you might have
nothing to say or might sound foolish
Writing while someone watches
Taking part or speaking in a meeting or class
Going to a party or other social outing
Giving a speech or speaking in public
At least one of the above

33

12.5

57

17.3

19

25.7

28

26.7

13
34
34
45
82

4.9
12.9
12.9
17.1
31.2

27
67
40
85
129

8.2
20.4
12.2
25.8
39.2

5
* 18
19
* 23
* 36

6.8
24.3
25.7
31.1
45.0

14
37
27
46
70

13.3
35.2
25.7
43.8
66.7

a

p

If respondent had a fear of the situation.

Thirty percent of the Midwest Study participants reported that they had often avoided social situations
where they could be the center of attention during the past year (see Table 60). Nearly half of those who
had often avoided social situations did so because they might show anxiety or act in a way that could be
humiliating. Almost as many had been very upset with themselves because of their fear, and females
were more likely to have been very upset with themselves than males.
Table 60. Symptoms Associated with Social Avoidance during the Past Year by Gender

Often avoided situations with potential to be center of
attention
Fear of situation where one might show anxiety or act in
a humiliating way
Excessive fear of situation with potential to be center of
attention
Unreasonable fear of situation with potential to be center
of attention
Very upset with self for fearing situations with potential
to be center of attention
Fear of situations with potential to be center of attention
interfered with life or activities a lot

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Total
(N = 591)
#
%

Males
(n = 262)
#
%

Females
(n = 329)
#
%

179

74

105

30.3

28.2

p

31.9

(n = 179)

(n = 74)

(n = 105)

83

46.4

30

40.5

53

50.5

62

34.4

21

28.0

41

39.0

62

34.4

22

29.3

40

38.1

79

43.9

26

34.7

53

50.5

36

19.9

12

16.0

24

22.6

52

*

 Depression
Nearly one in four Midwest study participants reported having experienced at least 2 weeks of feeling
sad, empty or depressed for most of the day during the past year, and more than one in five reported
having lost interest in most activities they usually enjoy (see Table 61). Approximately 6 percent
reported thinking about suicide within the past 12 months, including 2 percent who reported attempting
suicide. Compared to males, females were more likely to report feeling sad, empty, or depressed for most
of the day and more likely to report losing interest in activities they usually enjoyed.
Table 61. Symptoms of Depression during the Past Year by Gender

Felt sad, empty, or depressed for most of the day for
two weeks or longer
Told a doctor about feeling sad, empty, or depressed
Told other professional about feeling sad, empty, or
depressed
Took medication more than once for feeling sad,
empty, or depressed
Feeling sad, empty, or depressed interfered with life or
activities a lot
Lost interest in work, hobbies, or other things you
usually enjoyed for 2 weeks or longer
Told a doctor about loss of interest in most things
Told other professional about loss of interest in most
things
Took medication more than once for loss of interest in
most things
Loss of interest in most things interfered with life or
activities a lot
Felt so low you thought a lot about committing suicide
Made a plan as to how you might do it
Attempted suicide

Total
(N = 592)
#
%

Male
(n = 263)
#
%

Female
(n = 329)
#
%

p

141

23.8

50

19.0

91

27.7

*

51

36.2

10

20.0

41

45.1

*

27

19.1

8

16.0

19

20.9

40

28.4

9

18.0

31

34.1

78

55.3

26

52.0

52

57.1

123

20.8

49

18.6

74

22.5

39

31.7

6

12.2

33

44.6

*

20

16.3

6

12.2

14

18.9

*

32

26.0

6

12.2

26

66

53.7

22

44.9

44

59.5

36
17
13

6.1
48.6
37.1

13
5
4

4.9
38.5
30.8

23
12
9

7.0
54.5
40.9

35.1

*

*
*

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Over 60 percent of the Midwest Study participants reported being exposed to at least one of nine specific
types of traumatic events over the course of their lifetime (see Table 62). The traumatic events they were
most likely to report being exposed to were sexual molestation, witnessing someone being badly injured
or killed, and being seriously physically attacked or assaulted. An additional 17 percent reported being
exposed to some other extremely stressful or upsetting event not specifically mentioned. The average age
at time of first exposure was 16 years old.
Although males were as likely as females to report being exposed to at least one of the nine traumatic
events, females were younger, on average, than males when their first exposure occurred (14.3 vs. 17.8
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

53

 years old). We did find gender differences in the types of events to which study participants were
exposed. Males were more likely to report being involved in a life-threatening accident; witnessing
someone being badly injured or killed; being seriously physically attacked or assaulted; being threatened
with a weapon, held captive, or kidnapped; and having direct combat experience in a war. Conversely,
females were more likely than males to report being sexually molested or raped.
Three-quarters of the Midwest Study participants who were exposed to at least one of the nine extremely
stressful or upsetting events reported feeling terrified and helpless when the event occurred, and females
were significantly more likely than males to report feeling helpless and terrified.
Table 62. Exposure to Traumatic Events by Gender

Ever had direct combat experience in a war
Ever involved in a life-threatening accident
Ever involved in a fire, flood or other natural disaster
Ever witnessed someone being badly injured or killed
Ever raped
Ever sexually molested
Ever seriously physically attacked or assaulted
Ever threatened with a weapon, held captive, or
kidnapped
Ever tortured or the victim of terrorists
Exposed to any of the above
Exposed to more than one of the above
Mean number of events exposed to (SD)
Mean age at first exposure (SD)
Felt terrified when event happeneda
Felt helpless when event happeneda
Suffered great shock because an extremely stressful or
upsetting event happened to someone close
a

Total
(N = 592)
#
%
10
1.7
96
16.2
85
14.4
158 26.7
100 18.7
167 28.5
129 21.9

Male
(n = 263)
#
%
9
3.4
63
24.0
41
15.6
102 38.8
17
6.5
28
10.7
69
26.2

Female
(n = 329)
#
%
1
0.3
33
10.0
44
13.4
56
17.0
93
28.6
139 42.9
60
18.3

p

114

66

48

14.6

*

*
*
*

19.3

25.1

3
0.5
347 58.6
255 73.5
2.86 (1.7)
15.6 (7.3)
261 75.2
278 80.1

2
0.8
149 56.7
114 76.5
3.05 (1.8)
17.7 (6.9)
96
64.4
107 71.8

1
0.3
198 60.2
141 71.2
2.72 (1.67)
14.1 (7.2)
165 83.3
171 86.4

123

41

44

20.8

15.6

*
*
*
*
*
*

13.4

If exposed to at least one event.

Among those who had been exposed to more than one type of traumatic event, females were more likely
than males to identify rape or molestation as the most stressful whereas males were more likely than
females to identify witnessing someone being badly injured or killed as the most stressful (see Table 63).

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54

 Table 63. Most Stressful Traumatic Event Experienced by Gendera

Direct combat experienced in a war
Involved in a life-threatening accident
Involved in a fire, flood or other natural disaster
Witnessed someone being badly injured or killed
Raped
Sexually molested
Experienced serious physical attack or assault
Threatened with a weapon, held captive, or kidnapped
Tortured or victim of terrorists
Suffered a great shock because a traumatic event happened
to someone close to you.
Exposure to another traumatic event
a

Total
(N = 255)
#
%
7
2.7
18 7.1
10 3.9
36 14.1
46 18.0
40 15.7
13 5.1
18 7.1
0
0
33 12.9

Male
(n = 114)
#
%
6
5.3
12 10.5
4
3.5
23 20.2
5
4.4
7
6.1
7
6.1
12 10.5
0
0
19 16.7

Female
(n = 141)
#
%
1
0.7
6
4.3
6
4.3
13 9.2
41 29.1
33 23.4
6
4.3
6
4.3
0
0
14 9.9

34

19

15

13.3

16.7

p

*
*
*

10.6

Among respondents who experienced more than one type of traumatic event.

Nearly 60 percent of the Midwest Study participants who were exposed to an extremely stressful or
upsetting event reported experiencing at least one negative cognitive, emotional, or physical symptom
during the past 12 months when reminded of the event (see Table 64). Those who experienced at least
one negative cognitive, emotional, or physical symptom were most likely to report being much more
concerned about danger or being more careful and deliberately trying not to think or talk about the event.
No significant gender differences in PTSD symptoms were observed.

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55

 Table 64. PTSD Symptoms during the Past Year by Gender

a

Total
(N = 347)
#
%
156
45.0
Kept remembering the incident despite not wanting to
72
20.8
Kept having bad dreams or nightmares
55
15.9
Acted or felt as though the incident was happening again
141
40.6
Got very upset when reminded of the incident
26.9
Sweated, heart beat fast, or trembled if reminded of incident 93
200 57.6
Any of the above
(N = 200)a
106 53.0
Had trouble sleeping
115 57.5
Felt unusually irritable or lost your temper
115 57.5
Had difficulty concentrating
144 72.0
Much more concerned about danger or much more careful
64
32.0
Jumpy or easily startled by ordinary noises or movements
131 65.8
Deliberately tried not to think or talk about the incident
Avoided places, people or activities that might be reminders 100 50.0
of the incident
47
23.5
Memory blank for all or part of the time
79
39.5
Less interested in doing things that were once important
87
43.5
Felt more isolated or distant from other people
58
29.0
Had difficulty experiencing normal feelings
41
20.5
Felt that there was no point in thinking about the future

Males
(n = 149)
#
%
67 45.0
29 19.5
17 11.4
58 38.9
36 24.2
84 56.4
(n = 84) a
46 54.8
49 58.3
45 53.6
60 71.4
26 31.0
51 60.7
38 45.2

Females
(n = 198)
#
%
89
44.9
43
21.8
38
19.2
83
41.9
57
28.7
116 58.6
(n = 116) a
60
51.7
66
56.9
70
60.3
84
72.4
38
32.8
80
69.0
62
53.4

18
37
42
30
22

29
42
45
28
19

21.4
44.0
50.0
35.7
26.2

25.0
36.2
38.8
24.1
16.4

Respondents were only asked about the second set of symptoms if they reported having at least one of the first five.

Alcohol Use
Fifty-six percent of the Midwest Study participants reported consuming at least 12 alcoholic beverages
during the past year (see Table 65). Seventeen percent of those respondents reported drinking on 3 or
more days each week. On average, those who had at least 12 drinks during the past year consumed 5
drinks in a single day. Males were more likely than females to report having at least 12 alcoholic
beverages during the past year, but no gender difference in the frequency of drinking was observed
among those who had consumed at least 12 alcoholic beverages.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

56

p

*

 Table 65. Alcohol Use during the Past Year by Gender

Had at least 12 drinks of any alcoholic beverage
Frequency of having at least one drink
Almost everyday
3-4 days a week
1-2 days a week
1-3 days a month
Less than once a month
Average number of drinks in single day (SD)

Total
(N = 592)
#
%
330
55.7

Males
(n = 263)
#
%
164
62.4

Females
(n = 329)
#
%
176 53.5

19
5.8
37
11.2
79
23.9
108
32.7
96
29.1
4.9 (5.8)

11
6.7
24
14.6
40
24.4
45
27.4
44
26.8
5.6 (6.9)

8
4.6
13
7.4
39
22.2
63
35.8
52
29.5
4.2 (4.5)

p
*

Sixteen percent of those who reported having at least 12 drinks during the past year met the DSM-IV
criteria for alcohol abuse and 13 percent met the criteria for alcohol dependence.16 The most common
symptom of alcohol abuse was often being under the influence of alcohol in potentially harmful
situations. The two most common symptoms of dependence were having had more to drink than intended
and wanting to stop or cut down on drinking.
Several gender differences in the symptoms of alcohol abuse or dependence were observed. Compared to
females, males were significantly more likely to report being arrested due to alcohol intoxication, wanting
to cut back or quit drinking, and having to drink more alcohol to get the same effect (see Table 66).
Compared to males, females were significantly more likely to report wanting a drink so badly they
couldn’t think of anything else.

16

An individual meets the DSM-IV criteria for alcohol abuse if he or she experiences at least one of the following over a 12month period: (1) recurrent use resulting in failure to fulfill major role obligation at work, home, or school; (2) recurrent use in
physically hazardous situations; (3) recurrent alcohol related legal problems; or (4) continued use despite persistent or recurrent
social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of alcohol. An individual meets to the criteria for alcohol
dependence if he or she experiences at least three of the following over a 12-month period: (1) tolerance; (2) withdrawal; (3)
alcohol consumed in larger amounts or over longer periods than intended; (4) persistent desire or repeated unsuccessful attempts
to cut down or control use; (5) a great deal of time is spent obtaining, using, and recovering from the effects of alcohol; (6)
important social, occupational, or recreational activities given up or reduced; or (7) continued use despite knowledge of persistent
or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by alcohol (APA, 1994).

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57

 Table 66. Symptoms of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence during the Past Year by Gender
Total
(N = 339)
#
%
Symptoms of abuse
Drinking or being hung over frequently interfered with work
at school, job, or home
Frequently got into physical fights while drinking
Drinking frequently caused trouble between you and a
family member or friend
Arrested for disturbing the peace or driving while under the
influence
Often under the influence of alcohol in situations where you
could get hurt
Experienced at least one of the above
Symptoms of dependence
Had to drink much more than before to get the desired effect
Same amount of alcohol had less effect than it once did
Had to drink due to a strong desire or urge to drink
Couldn’t think of anything else due to wanting a drink so
badly
Often had more to drink than intended
Often kept drinking much longer than intended
Wanted to stop or cut down on drinking
Spent a great deal of time drinking or getting over its effects
Gave up or greatly reduced important activities due to
drinking
Experienced at least three of the above

Males
(n = 164)
#
%

Females
(n = 175)
#
%

p

20

5.9

11

6.7

9

5.1

21

6.2

13

7.9

8

4.6

24

7.1

13

7.9

11

6.3

13

3.8

11

6.7

2

1.1

28

8.3

16

9.8

12

6.9

53

15.6

29

17.7

24

13.7

34
18
26

10.0
5.3
7.7

17
13
14

10.4
7.9
8.5

17
5
12

9.7
3.2
6.9

*

8

2.4

1

0.7

7

4.3

*

114
12
89
27

33.6
3.5
26.3
8.0

61
5
56
15

37.2
3.0
34.1
9.2

56
7
33
12

32.0
5.7
18.9
6.9

15

4.4

9

5.5

6

3.4

44

13.0

26

15.9

18

10.3

*

*

Substance Use
Twenty-five percent of the Midwest Study participants reported using any of a long list of substances
during the past year, with marijuana being the most commonly used by far (see Table 67). Males were
more likely than females to report any substance use, primarily because they were almost twice as likely
to report using marijuana. No other significant gender differences in substance use were observed.

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58

 Table 67. Substance Use during the Past Year by Gender

Drug Class
Marijuana (Marijuana, Hashish, Bhang, Ganja)
Stimulants (Amphetamines, Khat, Betel nut)
Sedatives (Tranquilizers, Sleeping pills, Barbiturates,
Seconal, Valium, Librium, Xanax, Quaaldudes)
Opioids (Heroin, Codeine, Demerol, Morphine, Percodan,
Methadone, Darvon, Opium, Dilaudid)
Cocaine (Cocaine, Crack, Coca Leaves)
PCP
Psychedelics (LSD, Mescaline, Peyote, Psilocybin, DMT)
Inhalants/Solvents (Glue, Toluene, Gasoline)
Any of the above

Total
(N = 592)
#
%
132 22.2
3
0.5
20
3.4

Males
(n = 263)
#
%
79
30.0
2
0.8
8
3.0

Females
(n = 329)
#
%
53 16.1
1
0.3
12 3.6

9

1.5

1

0.4

8

2.4

6
2
1
0
146

1.0
0.3
0.2
0
24.6

3
2
1
0
81

1.1
0.8
0.4
0
30.7

3
0
0
0
65

0.9
0
0
0
19.6

p
*

*

Nearly 23 percent of the Midwest Study participants who reported using drugs during the past year met
the DSM-IV criteria for substance abuse and 20 percent met the criteria for substance dependence.17 The
most common symptom of substance abuse was drug use leading to problems with the police. The two
most common symptoms of substance dependence were wanting to stop or cut down on drug use and
experiencing withdrawal symptoms.
Significant gender differences in symptoms of drug abuse and dependence were observed. Males were
much more likely than females to report problems with the police due to drugs and three times more
likely to report that drugs were causing significant problems in their lives (see Table 68).

17

An individual meets the DSM-IV criteria for substance abuse if he or she experiences at least one of the following over a 12month period: (1) recurrent use resulting in failure to fulfill major role obligation at work, home, or school; (2) recurrent use in
physically hazardous situations; (3) recurrent substance related legal problems; and (4) continued use despite persistent or
recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the substance. An individual meets the DSMIV criteria for substance dependence if he or she experiences at least three of the following over a 12 month period: (1) tolerance;
(2) withdrawal; (3) substance used in larger amounts or over longer periods than intended; (4) persistent desire or repeated
unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control substance use; (5) a great deal of time spent on obtaining, using, or recovering from
the effects of the substance; (6) important social, occupational, or recreational activities given up or reduced; and (7) continued
use despite knowledge of a persistent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the
substance (APA, 1994).

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59

 Table 68. Symptoms of Substance Abuse or Dependence during the Past Year by Gender
Total
Males
(N = 151) (n = 83)
#
%
#
%
Symptoms of abuse
Drug use frequently interfered with work at school, job, or
home
Use of drugs ever led to problems with your family, friends, at
work, or at school
Drug use ever led to problems with the police
Used drugs in situations where you could get hurt
Experienced at least one of the above
Symptoms of dependence
Had to use much more drugs than before to get the desired
effect
Same amount of drugs had less effect than it once did
Had to use drugs due to a strong desire or urge to use
Couldn’t think of anything else due to wanting drugs so badly
Wanted to stop or cut down on drug use
Spent a great deal of time using drugs, getting them, or getting
over their effects
Used more drugs or used drugs for much longer periods than
intended
Often found it difficult to stop using drugs before becoming
intoxicated or high
Experienced withdrawal symptoms within a few hours or days
of stopping or cutting down on drug use
Used drugs just like it to keep from having any of these
problem
Medical problems as a result of using drugs
Experienced at least 3 of the above

Females
(n = 68)
#
%

9

6.0

8

9.6

1

1.5

12

7.9

9

10.8

3

4.4

17
14
34

11.3
9.3
22.5

16
10
27

19.3
12.0
32.5

1
4
7

1.5
5.9
10.3

20

13.2

12

14.5

8

11.8

22
17
10
50
11

14.6
11.3
6.7
33.1
7.3

16
10
6
33
9

19.3
12.0
7.2
39.8
10.8

6
7
4
17
2

8.9
10.3
5.9
25.0
2.9

11

7.3

7

8.4

4

5.9

11

73

3

3.6

8

11.8

37

24.5

19

22.9

18

26.5

11

7.3

6

7.2

5

7.4

2
30

1.3
19.9

0
19

0
22.9

2
11

2.9
16.2

p

*
*

Mental Health Service Utilization
One in five Midwest Study participants reported receiving mental or behavioral health care services
during the past year, with psychotropic medication being the most common and substance use treatment
being the least common (see Table 69). Twelve percent reported receiving psychological or emotional
counseling, which means that they were about as likely to report receiving counseling as their Add Health

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60

 Study peers (11.3%).18 Five percent reported being hospitalized for mental health problems since their
last interview.
Young women were significantly more likely to have received psychological or emotional counseling and
medication for emotional problems than young men. Four percent of these young adults reported not
receiving mental health care when they needed it during the past year. The most frequently cited reasons
for not receiving mental health care were similar to the most frequently cited reasons for not receiving
physical health care: treatment being too expensive and not having insurance.
Table 69. Mental and Behavioral Health Care Services Utilization

Received psychological or emotional
counselinga
Received substance use treatmenta
Received medication for emotional
problemsa
Any of the above
Hospitalized for mental health
problemsb
Timing of most recent mental health
related hospitalizationb
Within the past 3 months
4 to 6 months ago
7 to 9 months ago
10 to 12 months ago
> 1 but < 2 years ago
At least 2 years ago
Did not receive mental health carea
Reason didn’t receive careb
Didn’t know where to go
Cost too much
No transportation
Hours were inconvenient
No insurance
Other
a

In the past year

b

Since most recent interview

Total
N
#
595 71

%
11.9

Males
n
#
263 23

%
8.8

Females
n
#
332 48

%
14.5

*

596
595

25
86

4.2
14.5

264
263

15
24

5.7
9.1

332
332

10
62

3.0
18.7

*

596

116

19.5

263

40

15.2

332

76

22.9

595

30

5.0

263

8

3.0

332

22

6.6

10
3
4
1
2
1
9

47.6
14.3
19.0
4.8
9.5
4.8
2.7

3
2
1
3
1
3

33.3
22.2
11.1
33.3
11.1
33.3

29

596
22

8
11
5
5
2
4
2
22

37.9
17.2
17.2
6.9
13.8
6.9
3.7

4
8
3
5
5
8

18.2
36.4
13.6
22.7
22.7
36.4

264
13

p

21
1
2
1
1
2
1
13

12.5
25.0
12.5
12.5
25.0
12.5
4.9

1
6
2
2
4
5

77
46.2
15.4
15.4
30.8
38.5

332
9

18

The Add Health Study asked about receipt of emotional or psychological counseling during the past 12 months, but not about
substance use treatment, psychotropic medications, or psychiatric hospitalizations.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

61

 Marriage, Cohabitation, and
Relationships
Thirty-eight percent of the 25- and 26-year-old young women and 37 percent of the 25- and 26-year-old
young men in the Midwest Study were either married or cohabiting (i.e., living with a partner in a
marriage-like relationship) compared to 57 percent and 47 percent, respectively, of their Add Health
counterparts (see Table 70). Not only were the Midwest Study participants less likely to be currently
married or cohabiting than the young women and young men in Add Health, but they were also less likely
to ever have been married.
Although nearly all of the married Add Health Study participants were living with their spouse, more than
one-third of the married young women and 14 percent of the married young men in the Midwest Study
were not.
Table 70. Marriage and Cohabitation by Gender: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health
Study

Ever married (A, B)
Currently married (A, B)
Currently living with spousea (A, B)
Currently cohabiting (A, B)
Either married or cohabiting (A, B)
Very important to marry someday
(if never married)
a

Midwest Study
Female
Male
n = 332
n = 264
#
%
#
%
73
22.0 49
18.6
60
18.1 42
15.9
39
11.7 36
13.6
67
20.2 57
21.6
127
38.3 98
37.1

Add Health Study
Female
Male
n = 508
n = 382
#
%
#
%
181
35.6 108
28.3
157
30.9 91
23.8
148
29.1 84
22.0
135
26.6 92
24.0
288
56.7 180
47.1

105

—

31.6

92

34.8

—

—

—

Household roster data were used to determine the number of Add Health Study participants who were living with a spouse.

A = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study and Add Health Study males
B = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study and Add Health Study females

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62

 Regardless of gender, nearly one-third of the young adults in the Midwest Study who were neither
married nor cohabiting were involved in a relationship, and a majority of those young adults were dating
one partner exclusively (see Table 71).
Table 71. Other Intimate Partner Relationships by Gender

Currently involved in a relationship
Type of relationship
Dating exclusively
Dating frequently
Dating once in a while
Only having sex
Don’t know

Females
(n = 332)
#
108
82
14
9
3
0

%
32.5

Males
(n = 264)
#
81

%
30.7

75.9
13.0
8.3
2.8
0.0

53
16
7
4
1

65.4
19.8
8.6
4.9
1.2

The revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2) is commonly used to measure how dating, cohabiting, or
marital partners deal with conflict. (Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996). The 39 pairs of
items represent five subscales: negotiation, psychological aggression, physical assault, sexual coercion,
and partner-inflicted physical injury. One item in each pair asks about the frequency with which the
respondent has engaged in a particular behavior towards his or her partner; the other asks about the
frequency with which the partner has engaged in that behavior towards the respondent.
Midwest Study participants who were currently married, living with a partner, or in a dating relationship
were asked to respond to four pairs of items, with one pair representing each subscale except negotiation.
These items were either modified versions or composites of several items from the CTS2. They were the
only CTS2 items included in the most recent version of the Add Health survey instrument.
Approximately 20 percent of the young women and 17 percent of the young men who had a dating,
cohabiting, or marital partner reported that their partner had engaged in one or more of the four behaviors
towards them (see Table 72). Conversely, 21 percent of the young women and 10 percent of the young
men reported that they had engaged in one or more of the four behaviors towards their partner.
Although intimate partner violence is often thought of as something that is perpetrated by young men
against young women, the young women in the Midwest Study were more than twice as likely as young
men to report that they had been a perpetrator. This gender difference should be interpreted with caution
both because the complete CTS2 scale was not administered and because all of the items that were used

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

63

 involved “minor” acts. A different result may have been observed if more items or items involving
“severe” acts had been used.19
Table 72. Intimate Partner Violence by Gender

Partner
Threatened you with violence, pushed or shoved you, or
threw something at you that could hurt
Slapped, hit, or kicked you
Made you have sexual relations
Caused you to have an injury, such as a sprain, bruise,
or cut
Any of the above a
Respondent
Threatened your partner with violence, pushed or
shoved your partner, or threw something at your partner
that could hurt
Slapped, hit, or kicked your partner
Made your partner have sexual relations
Caused your partner to have an injury such as a sprain,
bruise, or cut
Any of the above a
a

Females
N
#
217

p

%

Males
N
#

%

38

17.5

165

20

12.1

216
216

24
9

11.1
4.2

166
165

20
6

12.0
3.6

216

16

7.4

166

13

7.8

216

43

19.9

164

27

16.5

216

35

16.2

166

10

6.0

*

216
216

33
3

15.3
1.4

166
166

8
7

4.8
4.2

*

216

7

3.2

166

6

3.6

216

45

20.8

165

17

10.2

*

Based only on respondents who answered all four questions.

Young women in the Midwest Study were more likely to report both that their partner had slapped, hit, or
kicked them and that they had slapped, hit, or kicked their partner than their Add Health counterparts (see
Table 73).

19

Strauss et al. (1996) characterize 4 of the 8 pairs of psychological aggression items, 7 of the 12 pairs of physical assault items,
4 of the 8 pairs of sexual coercion items, and 4 of the 6 pairs of physical injury items as involving “severe” acts. All of the other
items are characterized as involving “minor” acts, except for the six negotiation items, which are not characterized.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

64

 Table 73. Intimate Partner Violence: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study Females

Partner
Threatened you with violence, pushed or shoved you,
or threw something at you that could hurt
Slapped, hit, or kicked you
Made you have sexual relations
Any of the above a
Respondent
Threatened your partner with violence, pushed or
shoved your partner, or threw something at your
partner that could hurt
Slapped, hit, or kicked your partner
Made your partner have sexual relations
Any of the above a
a

Midwest Study
N
#
%

Add Health Study
N
#
%

217

38

17.5

489

61

12.5

216
216
216

24
9
42

11.1
4.2
19.4

491
490
489

21
16
73

4.3
3.3
14.9

216

35

16.2

489

59

12.1

216
216
216

33
3
44

15.3
1.4
20.4

489
489
491

40
4
70

8.2
0.8
14.3

p

*
*

*
*

Based only on respondents who answered all three questions.

Add Health Study participants were asked about their current (or most recent) partner. Also, they were only asked to respond
to the physical injury item if they answered affirmatively to the “slapped, hit or kicked” item.
a

Although young men in the Midwest Study were as likely as their Add Health counterparts to report that
they had engaged in any of these behaviors against their partner, the former were less likely to report that
their partner had engaged in any of these behaviors against them (see Table 74).

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65

 Table 74. Intimate Partner Violence: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study Males

Partner
Threatened you with violence, pushed or shoved you,
or threw something at you that could hurt
Slapped, hit, or kicked you
Made you have sexual relations
Any of the aboveb
Respondent
Threatened your partner with violence, pushed or
shoved your partner, or threw something at your
partner that could hurt
Slapped, hit, or kicked your partner
Made your partner have sexual relations
Any of the aboveb

Midwest Study
N
#
%

Add Health Studya
N
#
%

165

20

12.1

371

67

18.1

166
165
164

20
6
27

12.0
3.6
16.5

371
371
370

56
25
94

15.1
6.7
25.4

166

10

6.0

370

21

5.7

166
166
166

8
7
16

4.8
4.2
9.6

370
370
370

15
21
42

4.1
5.7
11.4

p

*

Add Health Study participants were asked about their current (or most recent) partner. Also, they were only asked to respond
to the physical injury item if they answered affirmatively to the ”slapped, hit, or kicked” item.
a

b

Based only on respondents who answered all three questions

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66

 Sexual Orientation, Sexual
Behaviors, and Sexually
Transmitted Infections
Although most Midwest Study participants identified themselves as 100 percent heterosexual, young
women were more likely than young men to identify themselves as something else (see Table 75). In
particular, young women were over five times more likely to identify themselves as bisexual or mostly
heterosexual as young men.
Table 75. Sexual Orientationa

100% heterosexual
Mostly heterosexual
Bisexual
Mostly homosexual
100% homosexual
Not sexually attracted to either gender
Don’t know

Female (n = 321)
#
%
233
72.6
41
12.8
22
6.9
3
0.9
9
2.8
6
1.9
7
2.2

Male (n = 251)
#
%
233
92.8
8
3.2
1
0.4
1
0.4
3
1.2
2
0.8
3
1.2

p
*
*
*

a

Three males and two females did not answer any of the questions about sexual behavior because they skipped the ACASI
section of the interview. Another young woman broke off the interview after answering the first question about sexual
behavior (i.e., “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?”). Five males and three females who either refused to answer or did not
know the answer to the first question about sexual behavior were not asked any of the subsequent sexual behavior questions.
Data were also missing for five males and five females who refused to answer the question about sexual orientation.

Young adults in the Midwest Study were as likely to describe themselves as 100 percent heterosexual as
their Add Health counterparts (see Table 76). However, young women in the Midwest Study were less
likely than young women in the Add Health Study to describe themselves as mostly heterosexual.

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67

 Table 76. Sexual Orientation: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study by Gender
Females
Midwest
Study
(n = 321) a

100% heterosexual
Mostly heterosexual
Bisexual
Mostly homosexual
100% homosexual
Not sexually attracted to either gender
Do not know

#
233
41
22
3
9
6
7

%
72.6
12.8
6.9
0.9
2.8
1.9
2.2

p
Add
Health
Study
(n = 507 ) b
#
%
369 72.8
99
19.5
22
4.3
7
1.4
8
1.6
2
0.4
0
0.0

*

Males
Midwest
Study
(n = 251) a
#
233
8
1
1
3
2
3

%
92.8
3.2
0.4
0.4
1.2
0.8
1.2

p
Add
Health
Study
(n = 381) b
#
%
359 94.2
10
2.6
2
0.5
5
1.3
5
1.3
0
0.0
0
0.0

a

Three males and two females did not answer any of the questions about sexual behavior because they skipped the ACASI
section of the interview. Another young woman broke off the interview after answering the first question about sexual
behavior (i.e., “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?”). Five males and three females who either refused to answer or did not
know the answer to the first question about sexual behavior were not asked any of the subsequent sexual behavior questions.
Data were also missing for five males and five females who refused to answer the question about sexual orientation.
b

One young man and one female in the Add Health Study refused to answer the sexual orientation question.

Almost all of the Midwest Study participants reported ever having had sexual intercourse, and most of
these young adults had been sexually active during the past year (see Table 77). Although young women
were as likely as young men to have had sexual intercourse, they did report having fewer sexual partners.
Young women and young men also reported similar rates of birth control and condom use but an alarming
percentage of these young adults were having unprotected sex.
Young women were nearly three times more likely than young men to report having a partner who had a
sexually transmitted infection (STI) during the past year. Although relatively few of these young adults
reported being paid by someone or paying someone to have sex, young men were significantly more
likely to report paying someone to have sex than young women.
Table 77. Sexual Behavior by Gender

Ever had sexual intercoursea
Number of partners everb
One or two
Three or four
Five or more
Had sexual intercourse during the past yearc,d

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Females
N
#
327 307
252
79
52
121
293 270

%
93.9
31.3
20.6
48.0
92.2

Males
N
#
256 245
194
44
31
119
222 204

p
%
95.7
*
22.7
16.0
61.3
91.9

68

 Number of partners during the past yeare
One or two
Three or four
Five or more
Used birth control
All or most of the time during the past yearf
At time of most recent sexual intercourseg
Used a condom
All or most of the time during the past yearh
At time of most recent sexual intercoursei
Any sexual partner had an STI during the past yearj
Ever paid by someone to have sexk
Paid by someone to have sex during the past yearl
Ever paid someone to have sexm
Paid someone to have sex during the past yearn
Ever had sex with injection drug usero
Had sex with an injection drug user during the past yearp

259

198
226
27
6

87.3
10.4
2.3

253
255

140
140

55.3
54.9

257
258
252
300
267
303
269
302
267

105
104
36
27
7
2
1
7
2

40.8
40.3
14.3
9.0
2.6
0.7
0.4
2.3
0.7

*
131
30
37

66.2
15.2
18.7

193
200

103
107

53.4
53.5

194
202
195
244
205
243
205
243
205

86
84
10
22
6
13
6
1
0

44.3
41.6
5.1
9.0
2.9
5.3
2.9
0.4
0.0

*

*
*

a

Three males and two females did not answer any questions about sexual behavior because they skipped the ACASI section of
the interview. One female broke off the interview after answering the first question (i.e., “Have you ever had sexual
intercourse?”) Five males and three females who either refused to answer or did not know the answer to the first sexual
behavior question were not asked any of the subsequent questions.
b

Four males and 4 females who answered yes to “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?” reported no sexual partners. Data
were missing for 19 males and 35 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question and for 28 males
and 16 females who were not asked this question.
c

The 13 males who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked any of the questions about sexual behavior
during the past 12 months.
d

Data were missing for 8 males and 13 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question, for 13
males who were had been incarcerated for at least 12 months, and for the one female who broke off the interview after
answering the first sexual behavior question..
e

Six males and 10 females who answered yes to “Have you had sexual intercourse during the past year?” reported no sexual
partners. Data were missing for 1 male and 1 female who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.
f

Data were missing for 11 males and 17 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

g

Data were missing for 5 males and 15 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

h

Data were missing for 10 males and 13 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

i

Data were missing for 4 males and 12 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

j

Data were missing for 3 males and 7 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

k

Data were missing for 1 male and 6 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

l

Data were missing for 3 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

m

Data were missing for 2 males and 3 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

n

Data were missing for 1 female who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

o

Data were missing for 4 males and 4 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

69

 p

Data were missing for 3 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

Young women in the Midwest Study were as likely to report having had sexual intercourse as their Add
Health counterparts (see Table 78). However, compared with young women in the Add Health Study,
young women in the Midwest Study were more likely to report having had a total of four or fewer
partners and less likely to report having had a total of five or more partners since they became sexually
active. Young women in the Midwest Study were also less likely to report having had anal sex.
Table 78. Young Women’s Sexual Behavior: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Ever had sexual intercoursea,b
Number of partners everc
One or two
Three or four
Five or more
Had sexual intercourse during the past year d
Number of partners past yeare,f
One or two
Three or four
Five or more
Ever had anal sex
Ever paid by someone or paid someone to have sexg

Midwest Study
n
#
%
327 307 93.9
252
79
31.3
52
20.6
121 48.0
293 270 92.2
259
226 87.3
6
2.3
27
10.4
262 74
28.2
304 8
2.6

Add Health Study
n
#
%
506 476 93.7
463
111 23.9
70
15.1
282 60.9
463 418 90.3
436
360 82.6
51
11.7
25
5.7
506 209 41.3
437 6
1.4

p

*

*

a

Two Midwest Study females did not answer any of the questions about sexual behavior because they skipped the ACASI
section of the interview. Three females who either refused to answer or did not know the answer to the first sexual behavior
question were not asked any of the subsequent questions. Another broke off the interview after answering the first question
about sexual behavior (i.e., “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?”)
b

Add Health Study females were asked specifically about vaginal sex and the number of partners they ever had vaginal sex
with. Midwest Study females had been asked specifically about vaginal sex at prior waves of data collection and so they may
have answered the question as if they were being asked about vaginal sex.
c

Four Midwest Study females who answered yes to “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?” reported that they had had no
sexual partners. Data were missing for 35 females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question and for
16 females who were not asked this question.
d

Data were missing for 13 Midwest Study females who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question and for
the one female who broke off the interview after answering the first sexual behavior question.
e

Midwest Study females were asked about the total number of sexual partners they had had during the past year whereas Add
Health Study females were asked one question about male sexual partners and one about female sexual partners.
f

Ten Midwest Study females who answered yes to “Have you had sexual intercourse during the past year?” reported that they
had had no sexual partners. Data were missing for1 female who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.
g

The Midwest Study survey instrument contained one question about being paid by someone to have sex and the another
about paying someone to have sex. The Add Health Study survey instrument combined these two events into a single
question.

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70

 Young men in the Midwest Study were as likely as their Add Health counterparts to report having had
sexual intercourse (see Table 79). Although they were less likely to report having had a total of five or
more partners since they became sexually active, they were more likely to report having had five or more
partners during the past year. Compared with young men in the Add Health Study, young men in the
Midwest Study were also less likely to report having had anal sex.
Table 79. Young Men’s Sexual Behavior: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Ever had sexual intercoursea,b
Number of sexual partners everc
One or two
Three or four
Five or more
Had sexual intercourse during the past yeard
Number of sexual partners during the past yeare,f
One or two
Three or four
Five or more
Ever had anal sex
Paid by someone or paid someone to have sexg

Midwest Study
N
#
%
256 245 95.7
194
44
22.7
31
16.0
119 61.3
222 204 91.9
197
130 66.6
30
15.2
37
18.8
204 34
16.7
244 10
4.1

Add Health Study
N
#
%
380 359 94.5
333
56
16.8
41
12.3
236 70.9
348 326 93.7
331
241 72.8
49
14.8
41
12.4
378 168 44.4
331 13
3.9

p

*

*

*

a

Three Midwest Study males did not answer any of the questions about sexual behavior because they skipped the ACASI
section of the interview. Five males who either refused to answer or did not know the answer to the first sexual behavior
question were not asked any of the subsequent questions.
b

Add Health Study males were asked specifically about vaginal sex and the number of partners they ever had vaginal sex
with. Midwest Study males had been asked specifically about vaginal sex at prior waves of data collection and so they may
have answered the question as if they were being asked about vaginal sex.
c

Four Midwest Study males who answered yes to “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?” reported that they had had no
sexual partners. Data were missing for 19 males who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question and for 28
males who were not asked this question.
d

The 13 males who had been incarcerated for at least one year were not asked about their sexual behaviors during the past 12
months.
e

Midwest Study males were asked about the total number of sexual partners they had had during the past year whereas Add
Health Study males were asked one question about male sexual partners and one about female sexual partners.
f

Data were missing for 11 Midwest Study males who refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

g

The Midwest Study survey instrument contained one question about being paid by someone to have sex and the another
about paying someone to have sex. The Add Health Study survey instrument combined the two events into a single question.

Among Midwest Study participants, young women were, on average, older than young men when they
first had sexual intercourse (see Table 80). Although young adults in the Midwest Study tended to be
younger, on average, than their Add Health Study counterparts the first time they had sexual intercourse,
only the difference between young women was statistically significant.

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71

 Table 80. Age at First Sexual Intercourse by Gender: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health
Studya

Midwest Study
Add Health Study

Female
n
269
473

Median
16
17

Male
n
215
351

Mean
15.7b,c
16.7c

Median
15
16

Mean
15.1b
16.5

a

Midwest Study participants were asked how old they were when they first had sexual intercourse; Add Health Study
participants were asked about the age at which they first had vaginal sex.
b

Difference between mean for Midwest Study females and Midwest Study males was statistically significant at p < .05.

c

Difference between mean for Midwest Study females and Add Health Study females was statistically significant at p < .05.

Young women in the Midwest Study were more than twice as likely their male counterparts to report ever
being diagnosed with an STI (see Table 81). Regardless of gender, the three most commonly reported
STIs were chlamydia, trichomoniasis, and gonorrhea.
Table 81. Sexually Transmitted Infections by Gender

Ever been told had an STI
Type of STI
Chlamydia
Gonorrhea
Trichomoniasis
Syphilis
Genital Herpes
Genital Warts
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
Cervicitis or Mucopurulent Certicitis (MPC)
Urethritis
Vaginitis
HIV or AIDS
Any other STI

Females
n
#
265
116

%
43.8

Males
n
#
199
38

264
265
265
265
265
265
264
265
265
265
264
265
264

27.3
11.7
13.6
0.8
5.7
3.9
8.7
4.9
1.1
0.4
7.2
0.8
0.4

199
199
198
199
198
199
198
—
—
199
—
199
199

72
31
36
2
15
8
23
13
3
1
19
2
1

p
%
19.1

31
15
3
1
0
0
1

15.6
7.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
0.5

1

0.5

0
1

0
0.5

*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*

Young women in the Midwest Study were almost twice as likely to report ever being diagnosed with an
STI as their Add Health Study peers (see Table 82). The most commonly reported STI among Midwest
Study females was chlamydia; the most commonly reported STI among their peers in Add Health was
human papillomavirus (HPV).

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72

 Table 82. Sexually Transmitted Infections among Young Women: Midwest Study Compared with
Add Health Study

Ever diagnosed with an STI
Type of STI
Chlamydia
Gonorrhea
Trichomoniasis
Syphilis
Genital Herpes
Genital Warts
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
Cervicitis or Mucopurulent Certicitis (MPC)
Urethritis
Vaginitis
HIV or AIDS
Any other STI

Midwest Study
n
#
%
265
116
43.8

Add Health Study
n
#
%
508
119 23.4

p

264
265
265
265
265
265
264
265
264
264
263
265
264

508
503
503
503
503
503
501
501
501
501
501
—
501

*
*
*

72
31
36
2
15
8
23
13
3
1
19
2
1

27.3
11.7
13.6
0.8
5.7
3.0
8.7
4.9
1.1
0.4
7.2
0.8
0.4

8
25
20
0
15
7
63
11
2
1
17
—
2

1.6
5.0
4.0
0
3.0
1.4
12.6
2.2
0.4
0.2
3.4
—
0.4

*

*
*
*
*
*

Young men in the Midwest Study were more likely than their Add Health Study peers to report ever
being diagnosed with an STI (see Table 83). The most commonly reported STI among Midwest Study
males was chlamydia; the most commonly reported STI among their peers in Add Health was gonorrhea.
Table 83. Sexually Transmitted Infections among Young Men: Midwest Study Compared with Add
Health Study

Ever diagnosed with an STI
Type of STI
Chlamydia
Gonorrhea
Trichomoniasis
Syphilis
Genital Herpes
Genital Warts
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
Cervicitis or Mucopurulent Certicitis (MPC)
Urethritis
Vaginitis
HIV or AIDS
Any other STI
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Midwest Study
n
#
%
207
38
18.4

Add Health Study
n
#
%
381
42
11.0

p

199
199
198
199
198
199
198
207
207
199
207
199
200

381
375
375
376
376
376
372
372
372
372
372

7
11
5
1
2
7
8
0
0
0
1

1.8
2.9
1.3
0.3
0.5
1.9
2.2
0
0
0
0.3

*
*

—

—

—

372

3

0.8

31
15
3
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1

15.6
7.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
0
0
0.5
0
0
0.5

73

*

*
*
*

 Pregnancy
Nearly 80 percent of the 25- and 26-year-old young women in the Midwest Study had ever been pregnant
(see Table 84) compared with only 55 percent (n = 276) of their Add Health Study counterparts (not
shown). Nearly one-third of the young women in the Midwest Study had been pregnant before age 18,
and 44 percent had been pregnant since their most recent interview.
Table 84. Young Women’s Pregnancy History
Ever pregnant
Ever pregnant before age 18
Ever pregnant since most recent interviewa
Number of pregnancies since most recent interview
One
Two or more
a

n
327
327
325
144

#
259
105
144

%
79.2
32.1
44.3

105
39

72.9
27.1

Two young women either refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.

Nearly 90 percent of the young women in the Midwest Study who had been pregnant since their last
interview had received prenatal care during their most recent pregnancy compared with almost all of the
peers in the Add Health Study (see Table 85). Although three-quarters of the young women in the
Midwest Study who received prenatal care began doing so during their first trimester, their prenatal care
was less likely to begin during the first trimester and more likely to begin during the third trimester than
the prenatal care their Add Health Study counterparts received.
Compared with the young women in the Add Health Study who had been pregnant, young women in the
Midwest Study who had been pregnant since their most recent interview were less likely to report using
birth control, less likely to report being married to their partner, and less likely to report wanting to

Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

74

 become pregnant the last time they conceived.20 In fact, nearly three-quarters of the young women in the
Midwest Study reported that this last pregnancy had been unplanned compared with just over half of their
peers in the Add Health Study.
Although most of the young women in both samples reported that their last pregnancy had ended in a live
birth, young women in the Midwest Study were more likely to report that they were still pregnant and less
likely to report that their pregnancy had been terminated than their Add Health Study counterparts.

20

At least some of these differences may be due to differences in the wording of the questions. First, the Midwest Study
question asked about birth control use at the time of conception, whereas the Add Health Study question asked about birth control
use in the month before conception. Second, the Midwest Study question asked about marital status at the time of conception
whereas the Add Health Study question asked about marital status at the time of birth for those whose pregnancy had ended in a
live birth or about current marital status for those who were still pregnant. Third, the Midwest Study question asked about
wanting to become pregnant whereas the Add Health Study question asked about wanting to have a child.
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75

 Table 85. Characteristics of Most Recent Pregnancy: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health
Studya

Received prenatal care b, c
Trimester first received prenatal care d
First
Second
Third
Using birth control at time of conceptione, f
Married at time of conceptiong,h
Definitely or probably wanted to become
pregnant i,j
Outcome of pregnancy
Still pregnant
Live birthk
Stillbirth or miscarriagel
Abortion

Midwest Study
n
#
%
142 124 87.3
109
83
76.1
12
11.0
14
12.8
139 22
15.8
144 22
15.3

Add Health Study
n
#
%
192
187
97.4
182
153
84.1
23
12.6
6
3.3
272
66
24.3
274
83
30.3

143
136

271
273

38
22
93
12
9

26.6
16.2
68.4
8.8
6.6

132
13
179
39
42

p
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

48.7
4.8
65.6
14.3
15.4

*
*

*

a

Young women in the Midwest Study were asked about the most recent pregnancy since their last interview; young
women in the Add Health Study were asked about their most recent pregnancy.
b

Two young women in the Midwest Study who had been pregnant since their most recent interview either refused to
answer or did not know the answer to the question about prenatal care.
c

Young women in the Add Health Study were not asked about prenatal care if their pregnancy had been ectopic or if
it had ended in an abortion, miscarriage, or stillbirth.
d

Fifteen young women in the Midwest Study who had been pregnant either refused to answer or did not know the
answer to the question about when they first received prenatal care.
e

Five young women in the Midwest Study who had been pregnant either refused to answer or did not know the
answer to this question.
f

Young women in the Add Health Study were asked about birth control use in the month before they became
pregnant. Two young women who had conceived their child via artificial insemination were counted as not using
birth control.
g

Two young women in the Midwest Study who had been pregnant refused to answer this question.

h

Young women in the Add Health Study whoser pregnancy had ended in a live birth were asked if they had been
married at the time of birth whereas those who were still pregnant were asked if they were currently married.
i

The 24 young women in the Midwest Study who had been married at the time of conception were not asked if they
had wanted to become pregnant and two young women who had been pregnant since their most recent interview
either refused to answer or did not know the answer to this question.
j

Young women in the Add Health Study were asked if they had wanted to have a child whereas young women in the
Midwest Study were asked if they had wanted to become pregnant.
k

Six young women in the Midwest Study who had been pregnant since their most recent interview either refused to
answer or did not know the answer to the question about the outcome of their pregnancy.
l

Ectopic or tubal pregnancies reported by young women in the Add Health Study were counted as stillbirths or

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76

 miscarriages.

Two-thirds of the 25- and 26-year-old young men in the Midwest Study reported that they had ever gotten
a partner pregnant (see Table 86) compared with 39 percent (n = 148) of their Add Health Study peers
(not shown). Fifteen percent of the young men in the Midwest Study had gotten a partner pregnant before
age 18 and 38 percent had gotten a partner pregnant since their most recent interview. In fact, young men
in the Midwest Study were about as likely to have gotten a partner pregnant since their most recent
interview as young men in the Add Health Study to have ever gotten a partner pregnant.
Table 86. Pregnancy History of Young Men’s Partners
Any partner ever became pregnanta
Number of partners who became pregnant ever
1
2
3 or more
Any partner ever became pregnant before age 18b
Any partner become pregnant since last interviewc
Number of partners who became pregnant since most recent interview
1
2 or more

N
250
160

249
249
98

#
168

%
67.2

93
41
26
37
98

58.1
25.6
16.3
14.9
39.4

79
19

80.6
19.4

a

Three young men did not answer the pregnancy questions because they did not complete the ACASI section of the
interview.
b

One young man who had ever gotten a partner pregnant did not answer this question.

c

Four young men who had ever gotten a partner pregnant refused to answer this question.

Although most of the young men in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant since their
most recent interview reported that their last pregnant partner had received prenatal care, they were less
likely to report that their partner had received prenatal care than their Add Health Study counterparts (see
Table 87). They were also less likely to report that her prenatal care began during the first trimester.
Young men in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant since their most recent interview
were less likely to report that they had been married to their partner and less likely to report that they had
been using birth control around the time of conception than their peers in the Add Health Study. 21
However, they were no less likely to report that they had wanted their partner to become pregnant. In

21

At least some of these differences may be due to differences in the wording of the questions. First, the Midwest Study
question asked about birth control use at the time of conception, whereas the Add Health Study asked about birth control use in
the month before conception. Second, the Midwest Study question asked about marital status at the time of conception, whereas
the Add Health Study question asked about marital status at the time of birth for those who reported live births and current
marital status for those whose partners were still pregnant. And third, the Midwest Study question asked about wanting their
partner to become pregnant whereas the Add Health Study question asked about wanting to have a child.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

77

 fact, young men in both groups reported that nearly 60 percent of their partner’s pregnancies had been
unplanned.
Although about two-thirds of the young men in both groups reported that their partner’s most recent
pregnancy had ended in a live birth, young men in Midwest study were more likely to report that their
partner was still pregnant and less likely to report that their partner’s pregnancy had been terminated.
Table 87. Characteristics of Most Recent Pregnancy: Males in the Midwest Study Compared with
Males in the Add Health Studya

Pregnant partner received prenatal care b,c
Trimester first received care d,e
First
Second
Third
Using birth control at time of conceptionf,g
Married to partner at time of conceptionh,i
Definitely or probably wanted partner to
become pregnantj,k
Outcome of pregnancyl
Still pregnant
Live birth
Stillbirth or miscarriage m
Abortion

Midwest Study
n
#
%
93
82
88.2
57
54
94.7
2
3.5
1
1.8
95
13
13.7
96
17
17.7

Add Health Study
n
#
%
95
90
94.7

96
90

39
12
59
12
7

40.6
13.3
65.6
13.3
7.8

—

—
—
—

—
—
—

144
145

42
33

29.2
22.8

144
145

62

43.1

3
93
21
28

2.1
64.1
14.5
19.3

p
*

*
*

*
*

*

a

Young men in the Midwest Study were asked about the most recent time a partner became pregnant since their last
interview; young men in the Add Health Study were asked about the most recent time a partner became pregnant.
b

Five young men in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant since their most recent interview either
refused to answer or did not know the answer to the question about prenatal care.
c

Young men in the Add Health Study were not asked about prenatal care if their partner’s pregnancy had been
ectopic or if it had ended in an abortion, miscarriage, or stillbirth.
d

Twenty-five young women in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant either refused to answer or did
not know the answer to the question about when their partner first received prenatal care.
e

Young men in the Add Health Study were not asked about the trimester in which their partner first received
prenatal care.
f

Three young men in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant either refused to answer or did not know
the answer to the question about their use of birth control.
g

Young men in the Add Health Study were asked about birth control use in the month before their partner became
pregnant. The partner of one young man whose child was conceived via artificial insemination was counted as not
using birth control.
h

Two young men in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant refused to answer this question.

i

Young men in the Add Health Study whose partner’s pregnancy had ended in a live birth were asked if they had
been married at the time she gave birth, whereas those whose partners were still pregnant were asked if they were
currently married.

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78

 j

The young men in the Midwest Study who had been married at the time of conception were not asked if they had
wanted their partner to become pregnant and two young men who had gotten a partner pregnant either refused to
answer or did not know the answer to this question.
k

Young men in the Add Health Study were asked if they had wanted to have a child whereas young men in the
Midwest Study were asked if they had wanted their partner to become pregnant.
l

Eight young men in the Midwest Study who had gotten a partner pregnant either refused to answer or did not know
the answer to the question about the outcome of her pregnancy.
m

Ectopic or tubal pregnancies reported by young women in the Add Health Study were counted as stillbirths or
miscarriages.

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79

 Parenthood
At age 25 or 26, 72 percent of the young women and 53 percent of the young men in the Midwest Study
reported to be the birth parent of at least one living child (see Table 88). Sixty-five percent of the young
women, or 91 percent of the mothers, but only 24 percent of the young men, or 45 percent of the fathers,
reported to be living with at least one biological child. Conversely, 35 percent of the young men, or twothirds of the fathers, but only 14 percent of the young women, or 19 percent of the mothers, reported that
at least one biological child was living with someone else. All of these gender differences were
statistically significant.
Table 88. Parenthood by Gender
Female (n = 332)
#
%
% of parents
238
71.7
—
217
65.4
91.2
46
13.9
19.3

At least one living child
Living with any children
Any nonresident children

Male
#
139
62
92

(n = 264)
%
% of parents
52.7
—
23.5
44.6
34.8
66.2

p
*
*
*

Young women in the Midwest Study were 1.8 times more likely than their Add Health counterparts to
report being the birth mother of at least one living child (see Table 89). Although Midwest Study mothers
were about as likely to as their Add Health counterparts to report living with at least one biological child,
they were over six times as likely to report that at least one biological child was living with someone else.
Table 89. Motherhood: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

At least one living child
Living with any children
Any nonresident children

Midwest Study (n = 332)
#
%
% of mothers
238
71.7
—
217
65.4
91.2
46
13.9
19.3

Add Health Study (n = 508)
#
%
% of mothers
207
40.7
—
204
40.2
98.6
6
1.2
2.9

p
*
*

Young men in the Midwest Study were almost twice as likely as their Add Health counterparts to report
being the birth father of at least one living child (see Table 90). Compared with their Add Health
counterparts, Midwest Study fathers were less likely to report living with at least one biological child and
1.8 times more likely to report that at least one biological child was living with someone else.
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80

 Table 90. Fatherhood: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

At least one living child
Living with any children
Any nonresident
children

Midwest Study (n = 264)
#
%
% of fathers
139
52.7
—
62
23.5
44.6

Add Health Study (n = 382)
#
%
% of fathers
106
27.7
—
73
14.4
68.9

p

92

39

*

34.8

66.2

7.7

36.8

*
*

Midwest Study mothers reported having more living children, on average, than Midwest Study fathers
and the average number of biological children reported to be living with Midwest Study mothers was
more than double the average number of those reported to be living with fathers (see Table 91). By
contrast, the average number of nonresident children reported by Midwest Study fathers was three times
higher than the average number of nonresident children reported by mothers.
Birth mothers and birth fathers in the Midwest Study had more living children, on average, than their Add
Health counterparts. Although Midwest Study mothers reported having about the same number of
biological children living with them, on average, as mothers in the Add Health Study, Midwest Study
fathers reported having significantly fewer biological children living with them than fathers in the Add
Health Study. On average, both mothers and fathers in the Midwest Study also reported having more
biological children living with someone else than their Add Health counterparts.

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81

 Table 91. Number of Resident and Nonresident Children by Gender of Parent: Midwest Study
Compared with Add Health Study

Number of children
1
2
3 or more
Mean number of children (ABC)
Number of “resident” children
0
1
2
3 or more
Mean number of resident children (AB)
Number of “nonresident” children
0
1
2 or more
Mean number of nonresident children (ABC)

Midwest Study
Female
Male
#
%
#
%
(n = 238)
(n = 139)
74
31.1 66
47.5
99
41.6 42
30.2
65
27.3 31
22.3
2.1
1.9
(n = 238)
(n = 139)
21
8.8
77
55.4
81
34.0 44
31.7
90
37.8 10
7.2
46
19.3 8
5.7
1.8
0.7
(n = 238)
(n = 139)
192 80.7 47
33.8
22
9.2
45
32.4
24
10.1 47
33.8
0.3
1.2

Add Health Study
Female
Male
#
%
#
%
(n = 207)
(n = 106)
98
47.3 51
48.1
77
37.2 43
40.6
32
15.5 12
11.3
1.7
1.7
(n = 207)
(n = 105)
3
1.4
32
30.5
99
47.8 39
37.1
74
35.7 29
27.6
31
15.0 5
4.8
1.7
1.1
(n = 207)
(n = 105)
201
97.1 66
62.9
4
1.9 22
21.0
2
1.0 17
16.2
0.04
0.6

*The denominator used to compute the percentages is the number of parents.
A = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study males and females
B = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study and Add Health Study males
C = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study and Add Health Study females

The children whose birth parents were in the Midwest Study were much more likely than children whose
birth parents were in the Add Health Study to be living with someone other than that birth parent (see
Table 92). Sixteen percent of the children whose birth mothers and 65 percent of the children whose birth
fathers were in the Midwest Study were living with someone else compared with just 2 percent of the
children whose birth mothers and 37 percent of the children whose birth fathers were in the Add Health
Study.

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82

 Table 92. Total Number of Resident and Nonresident Children by Gender of Parent: Midwest
Study Compared with Add Health Study

Total number of children
Total number of “resident” children
Total number of “nonresident” children
Percentage of all children who are nonresident
a

Midwest Study
Female
Male
(n = 238)
(n = 139)
500
259
419
92
81
167
16.2
64.5

Add Health Study
Female
Male
(n = 207)
(n = 106)
357
182a
349
113
8
67
2.2
37.2

One Add Health Study father did not report whether his two biological children were living with him or with someone else.

Nonresident children of birth mothers in the Midwest Study were most likely to be living with foster or
adoptive parents, whereas nonresident children of birth mothers in the Add Health Study were most likely
to be living with maternal grandparents or other relatives (see Table 93). In fact, 8 percent (n = 42) of all
children of birth mothers in the Midwest Study were living with foster or adoptive parents. The
nonresident children of birth fathers in both studies were most likely to be living with their mother.
Table 93. Current Residence of All Nonresident Children by Gender of Parent: Midwest Study
Compared with Add Health Studya

Total children living with other parent (A)
Total children living with maternal grandparents
or other maternal relatives
Total children living with paternal grandparents
or other paternal relatives (A)
Total children living with adoptive parents (AB)
Total children living with foster parents (A)

Midwest Study
Female
Male
(n = 81 )
(n = 167 )
#
%
#
%
17 21.8
155 93.4

Add Health Study
Female b Male
(n = 8)
(n = 67)
#
%
#
%
0
0.0
56 87.5

10

12.8

12

7.3

5

71.4

3

4.7

7
20
22

9.0
25.7
28.2

0
0
6

0.0
0.0
3.6

1
1
0

14.3
14.3
0.0

2
3
0

3.1
4.7
0.0

a

The denominator used to compute the percentages is the number of nonresident children. Some nonresident children were
reported as living with both their other parent and with their maternal grandparent or other maternal relative.
b

Due to the small size of the Add Health female sample, the statistical difference between Midwest Study females and Add
Health females was not tested
A = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study males and females
B = Statistically significant difference between Midwest Study and Add Health Study males.

In the previous 12 months, between 40 and 50 percent of all children not living with their Midwest Study
parent visited with their Midwest Study parent at least once per week (see Table 94). Children of

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83

 nonresident fathers in the Midwest Study were more likely to be visited by their father than children of
nonresident mothers were to be visited by their mother.
Table 94. Frequency of Visitation with All Nonresident Children during the Past Yeara
Female
(n = 76)

Male
(n = 163)

#

%

#

%

Never

22

28.9

25

15.3

Once a month or less

18

23.7

41

25.2

Two or three times per month

4

5.3

20

12.3

Weekly

22

28.9

39

23.9

Daily

10

13.2

38

23.3

a

The denominator used to compute the percentages is the number of nonresident children.

Relatively few Midwest Study parents and even fewer Add Health Study parents reported that at any of
their children had a health problem or learning disability (see Table 95). However, Midwest Study
parents were significantly more likely than Add Health Study parents to report having at least one child
being in fair or poor health or having a learning disability.
Table 95. Parents of Resident and Nonresident Children with Health Problems and Disabilities:
Midwest Study Compared with Add Health Study

Any child in fair or poor health
Any child has learning disability
Any child’s disability limits activities

Midwest Study
n
#
%
375
21
5.6
370
47
12.7
373
20
5.4

Add Health Study
n
#
%
310
4
1.3
310
7
2.3

p
*
*

Similarly, relatively few children of birth parents in the Midwest Study and even fewer children of birth
parents in the Add Health Study were reported to have a health problem or learning disability (see Table
96). Nevertheless, children of birth parents in the Midwest Study were more likely to be in fair or poor
health and more likely to have a learning disability than children of birth parents in the Add Health Study.
Table 96. Health Problems and Disabilities among Resident and Nonresident Children: Midwest
Study Compared with Add Health Study

Any child has fair or poor health
Any child has a learning disability
Any child has a disability that limits activities

Midwest Study
n
#
%
745 26
3.5
739 54
7.3
748 48
6.4

Add Health Study
n
#
%
523
4
0.8
523
7
1.3

p
*
*

Despite having been placed in foster care, Midwest Study parents were most likely to identify their
biological mothers as a source of information about parenting and as someone who had taught them how
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84

 to be a good parent (see Table 97). They were least likely to identify their caseworker or a social worker
as a source of information or someone who had taught them how to be a good parent.
Table 97. Parenting Resources and Role Models

Biological mother
Biological father
Foster mother
Foster father
Grandparent
Other relative
Friend
Social worker/caseworker
Book/parenting magazine
Parenting class
Other
Refused

Provided information
about parenting
(n = 359)
#
%
90
25.1
12
3.3
35
9.7
7
1.9
42
11.7
54
15.0
52
14.5
4
1.1
7
1.9
9
2.5
34
9.5
9
2.5

Taught how to be
a good parent by
(n = 362)
#
%
70
19.3
11
3.0
55
15.2
6
1.7
50
13.8
51
14.1
22
6.1
3
0.8
8
2.2
21
5.8
51
14.1
10
2.8

Midwest Study parents who were living with one or more of their biological children completed a nineitem parenting stress measure. Each item asked parents to rate how frequently their child (or their oldest
child if they were living with more than one) caused them to feel a particular way using a five-point scale
that ranged from 1 = not at all true to 5 = very true.22 The five-point scale was reduced to a three-point
scale by combining moderately true with a little true (2) and mostly true with very true (3). Cronbach’s
alpha for this three-point scale equaled 0.80. 23
Overall, the Midwest Study parents reported relatively low levels of parenting stress (see Table 98).
Their mean total score was 11.8 (SD = 2.7) on a scale with a minimum score of 9 and a maximum score
of 27. Midwest Study mothers (M = 12.1, SD = 2.9) scored higher, on average, than Midwest Study
fathers (M = 11.4, SD = 2.5). Although the reported level of parenting stress was relatively low, a
majority of these parents agreed to some extent that being a parent was harder than they had expected.

22

This measure has been used in studies of low-income parents (Bos, Polit, and Quint, 1997; Huston et al., 2003; Courtney et al.,
2005; Dworsky et al., 2007).
23
The reliability and mean total score were computed based on data from the 264 parents who responded to all nine items.
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85

 Table 98. Parenting Stress
Feel I am giving up my life to meet my child’s needs
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Feel I am trapped by my responsibilities as a parent
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Taking care of my child is more work than pleasure
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Child seems much harder to care for than most
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Child does things that really bother me a lot
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Sometimes lose patience with child
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Often feel angry with my child
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Being a parent is harder than expected
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true
Child has been a lot of trouble to raise
Not at all true
Moderately or a little true
Mostly or very true

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N
270

#

%

166
77
27

61.5
28.5
10.0

212
54
8

77.4
19.7
2.9

182
72
19

66.7
26.4
7.0

238
27
9

86.9
9.9
3.3

193
72
8

70.7
26.4
2.9

199
68
4

73.4
25.1
1.5

235
38
2

85.5
13.8
0.7

109
115
50

39.8
42.0
18.2

235
32
6

86.1
11.7
2.2

274

273

274

273

271

275

274

273

86

 Midwest Study parents who were living with one or more of their biological children also completed the
revised Child Parent Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, Hamby, Finkelhor, Moore, & Runyan, 1998). The
CPCTS-R measures parents’ use of various modes of discipline (i.e., nonviolent discipline, psychological
aggression, minor physical assault, severe physical assault, and very severe physical assault).24 Parents
used a seven-point scale ranging from 1 = never to 7 = more than 20 times to rate how frequently they had
taken 22 disciplinary actions with their oldest child during the past year. 25 They used a similar scale to
rate how frequently they had engaged in five indicators of parental neglect. In this analysis, items were
re-coded into dichotomous variables indicating “never in the past year” or “at least once in the past year.”
Cronbach’s alpha equaled .91 for the discipline items and .88 for the neglect items.26
Midwest Study parents were most likely to report using nonviolent modes of discipline, followed by
psychological aggression and minor physical assault (see Table 99). By far, the most common type of
physical discipline parents reported using was spanking with a bare hand; nearly half of all parents
reported spanking their child. Relatively few parents reported using either severe or very severe physical
discipline.
A few gender differences were also observed. Mothers were more likely than fathers to report using
nonviolent discipline and psychological aggression. In addition, although there was no gender difference
in the overall use of severe physical assault, fathers were more likely than mothers to report having
thrown or knocked their child down.

24

Strauss et al. (1998) categorize 4 of the disciplinary actions as nonviolent, 5 as psychological aggression, 4 as minor physical
assault, 4 as severe physical assault and 4 as very severe physical assault. Shaking a child is categorized as either minor physical
assault or very severe physical assault depending on the age of the child (i.e., younger than 2 years old or at least 2 years old).
25
The seven categories were never, once, twice, three to five times, six to ten times, 11 to 20 times and more than 20 times.
26
Reliability for the discipline items was computed based on data from the 236 parents who responded to all 22 items.
Reliability for the neglect items was computed based on data from the 269 parents who responded to all 5 items.
Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago

87

 Table 99. Disciplinary Actions Taken during the Past Year by Gender

Nonviolent Discipline
Explained why something was wrong
Put child in a time-out or sent child to room
Took away privileges or grounded child
Gave child something else to do
Any of the above
Psychological Aggression
Threatened to spank or hit child but didn't do it
Shouted, screamed, or yelled at child
Swore or cursed at child
Called child dumb, lazy, or some other name
Threatened to send child away or kick child out of the
house
Any of the above
Minor Physical Assault
Spanked child on the bottom with a bare hand
Hit child on the bottom with a belt or hard object
Slapped child on the hand, arm, or leg
Pinched child
Shook child (≥ 2)
Any of the above
Severe Physical Assault
Slapped child on the face, head or ears
Hit child somewhere other than on the bottom with a belt
or hard object
Threw or knocked child down
Hit child with a fist or kicked the child hard
Any of the above
Very Severe Physical Assault
Beat child over and over
Grabbed child around the neck and choked him or her
Burned or scalded child on purpose
Threatened child with a knife or gun
Shook child (< 2)
Any of the above

Female
n
#
194
206
211
197
217

p

%

Male
n
#

%

163
182
166
153
203

84.0
88.3
78.7
77.7
93.5

56
59
61
58
62

39
43
36
47
52

69.6
72.9
59.0
81.0
83.9

210
206
207
211

102
153
57
18

48.6
74.3
27.5
8.5

60
59
61
61

28
28
13
2

46.7
47.5
21.3
3.3

211

13

6.2

61

2

3.3

217

163

75.1

62

33

53.2

208
208
209
211
204
217

93
49
55
22
15
121

44.7
23.6
26.3
10.4
7.4
55.8

61
61
61
61
43
62

30
9
17
5
5
32

49.2
14.8
27.9
8.2
11.6
51.6

212

6

2.8

61

2

3.3

212

7

3.3

61

4

6.6

212
210
217

2
7
15

0.9
3.3
6.9

61
61
62

3
2
5

4.9
3.3
8.1

212
210
213
212
11
217

2
3
2
2
0
3

0.9
1.4
0.9
0.9
0.0
1.4

61
61
61
61
19
62

2
2
2
2
1
3

3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
5.3
4.8

*
*
*
*

*

*

*

None of the five indicators of neglect was reported by more than 7 percent of the mothers or 7 percent of
the fathers, and only 10 percent of the mothers and 8 percent of the fathers reported at least one (see Table
100).
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88

 Table 100. Indicators of Neglect during the Past Year by Gender

Left child who needed adult supervision home alone
Unable to show or express love to child because caught up
with own problems
Unable to make sure child was fed
Unable to make sure child got to a doctor or hospital
Problem taking care of child due to being drunk or high
Any of the above

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Female
n
#
212 4
211
211
210
212
217

p

%
1.9

Male
n
#
61 2

%
3.3

15

7.1

61

3

4.9

7
8
4
21

3.3
3.8
1.9
9.7

61
60
61
62

4
3
2
5

6.6
5.0
3.3
8.1

89

 Illegal Behavior and Criminal
Justice System Involvement
One-third of the young men and 18 percent of the young women in the Midwest Study reported engaging
in at least one of 17 illegal behaviors during the past year.27 The most commonly reported illegal
behaviors were deliberately damaging property and participating in group fights (see Table 101).
Where statistically significant differences were found, young men were more likely to have engaged in
the illegal behavior than young women. Young men were also more likely than young women to report
ever belonging to a gang.

27

We will be updating the tables in this chapter with tables that compare illegal behavior among the Midwest Study participants
to illegal behavior among their Add Health counterparts. Those tables are not included here because of problems with the Add
Health data.

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90

 Table 101. Illegal Behaviors during the Past Year by Gender
Females

Males

p

(n = 329)

(n = 261)

%
7.6
3.4
2.4
0.3
2.1
1.8
1.2
0.3
3.8
6.3
2.5
3.4
0.6
2.8
1.6
0.3
17.6

#

%

Deliberately damaged someone’s property
Stole something worth < $50
Stole something worth > $50
Entered a house or building to steal something
Used or threatened to use a weapon to get something from someone
Sold marijuana or other drugs
Bought, sold, or held stolen property
Used someone’s credit or bank card without their permission
Deliberately wrote a bad check
Took part in a fight involving one group against another
Hurt someone so badly in a fight that medical treatment was required
Pulled a knife or gun on someone
Shot or stabbed someone
Used a weapon in a fight
Became so injured in a fight that medical treatment was required
Carried a hand gun to school or work
Any of the above

#
25
10
8
1
7
6
4
1
12
20
8
11
2
9
5
1
58

32
14
18
12
16
29
24
4
6
33
23
15
8
14
10
9
86

12.3
5.4
6.9
4.6
6.1
11.1
9.2
1.5
2.4
13.4
9.3
6.0
3.2
5.6
4.0
3.6
33.0

*

Ever belonged to a named gang
Currently own a handgun (other than for work)

16
4

4.9
1.2

45
24

18.1
9.4

*
*

*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*

*
*

The gender differences in criminal justice involvement observed at prior waves of data collection were
still evident at age 26 (see Table 102). Young men were more likely than young women to report having
been arrested, convicted, and incarcerated since their most recent interview. A majority of the young
women who had criminal justice involvement were arrested, convicted, or incarcerated for something
other than a property, violent, or drug-related crime. “Other” could include a violation of probation or a
serious traffic offense.28 By contrast, property, violent, and drug-related crimes did account for a majority
of the convictions and incarcerations among the young men.

28

Respondents could report being arrested, convicted, or incarcerated for more than one type of crime. They could also report
that the crime for which they were arrested, convicted, or incarcerated was not a property, violent, or drug-related crime.
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91

 Table 102. Criminal Justice System Involvement Since Last Interview by Gendera,b

Arrested since last interview
Arrested for violent crime
Arrested for property crime
Arrested for drug related crime
Convicted of a crime since last interview
Convicted of violent crime
Convicted of property crime
Convicted of drug related crime
Spent at least one night in jail or prison since last interview
Incarcerated for violent crime
Incarcerated for property crime
Incarcerated for drug related crime

Females
n
#
329 50
48
5
48
7
48
5
315 26
26
1
26
5
26
1
316 33
33
2
33
5
33
1

%
15.2
10.4
14.6
10.4
8.3
3.8
19.2
3.8
10.4
6.1
15.2
3.0

Males
n
261
93
94
92
242
52
53
52
235
91
92
91

p
#
99
8
9
30
54
6
8
18
93
20
10
29

%
37.9
8.6
9.6
32.6
22.3
11.5
15.1
34.6
39.6
22.0
10.9
31.9

*

*
*

*
*
*
*

a

Respondents could report being arrested, convicted, or incarcerated for more than one type of crime. They could also report
that the crime for which they were arrested, convicted, or incarcerated was not a property, violent, or drug-related crime.
b
Includes the 31 respondents who were incarcerated at the time of their wave 5 interview.

We used data from all five waves of data collection to determine the cumulative percentage of Midwest
Study participants who had ever been arrested, convicted, or incarcerated as well as the cumulative
percentage who had been arrested, convicted, or incarcerated since their baseline interview at age 17 or 18
(see Table 103).29 Although young men were more likely to have reported arrests, convictions and
incarcerations than young women, the cumulative percentages are very high for both genders. A majority
of the young women and more than four-fifths of the young men reported ever having been arrested.
Nearly one-third of the young women and almost two-thirds of the young men reported spending at least
one night in jail since they were 17 or 18 years old.
Table 103. Cumulative Criminal Justice System Involvement by Gender

Ever arrested
Arrested since baseline
Ever convicted
Convicted since baseline
Ever incarcerated
Incarcerated since baseline

Females (n =332)
#
%
196
59.0
138
41.6
99
29.8
72
21.7
142
42.8
108
32.5

Males (n = 264)
#
%
216
81.8
180
68.2
152
57.6
126
47.7
196
74.2
169
64.0

p
*
*
*
*
*
*

29

During the baseline interview, Midwest Study participants were asked if they had ever been arrested, convicted, or
incarcerated. At each subsequent wave of data collection, they were asked if they had been arrested, convicted, or incarcerated
since their most recent interview.
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92

 The cumulative percentage of young men and young women with criminal justice system involvement
was considerably higher among the Midwest Study participants than among their same-sex Add Health
Study counterparts (see Table 104). In fact, young women in the Midwest Study were more likely to have
ever been arrested, convicted, and incarcerated than young men in the Add Health Study.
Table 104. Cumulative Criminal Justice System Involvement by Gender: Midwest Study Compared
with Add Health Study

Ever arrested a
Arrested since age 18 b
Ever convicted a
Convicted since age 18 b
Ever incarcerated a
Incarcerated since age 18 b

Females
Midwest
Study
(n =332)
#
%
196 59.0
138 41.6
99
29.8
72
21.7
142 42.8
108 32.5

Add Health
Study
(n = 508)
#
%
75
14.8
25
4.9
22
4.3
16
3.1
29
5.7
15
3.0

p

*
*
*
*
*
*

Males
Midwest
Study
(n = 264)
#
%
216
81.8
180
68.2
152
57.6
126
47.7
196
74.2
169
64.0

Add Health
Study
(n = 376)
#
%
154
41.0
83
22.1
80
21.3
40
10.6
87
23.1
32
8.5

p

*
*
*
*
*
*

a

The Midwest Study figures include arrests, convictions or incarcerations reported at any of the five waves of data collection.
The Add Health figures are based only on data collected during the fourth wave.
b

The Midwest Study figures are based on arrests, convictions, or incarcerations reported after the baseline interview.
However, because 38 percent of the wave 5 sample were already 18 years old when the baseline data were collected, they may
underestimate the percentage arrested, convicted, or incarcerated since age 18.

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93

 Victimization
Young men in the Midwest Study were more than twice as likely as young women to report that they had
been the victim of a violent crime during the past 12 months (see Table 105).30 Alarmingly, the crime
that males reported being the victim of most frequently was having a gun or knife pulled on them. In
addition to reporting much lower rates of criminal victimization overall, females were almost as likely to
report having had a gun or knife pulled on them as they were to report having been beaten up.
Table 105. Criminal Victimization by Gender

Saw someone being shot or stabbed
Someone pulled a knife or gun on you
Shot or stabbed by someone
Beaten up
Any of the above
Any of the above except seeing someone being shot or stabbed

Females
(n = 329)a
#
%
11
3.3
12
3.6
3
0.9
13
4.0
27
8.2
22
6.7

Males
(n = 261)a
#
%
26
10.0
36
13.8
11
4.2
16
6.1
57
21.8
46
17.6

p

*
*
*
*
*

a

Data were missing for three male and three female respondents who did not complete the audio-CASI portion of the
interview.

We used seven items adopted from the Lifetime Experiences Questionnaire (Gibb et al., 2001) to measure
recent sexual victimization.31 No difference was observed between young women and young men in the
percentage who reported any type of sexual victimization; approximately 6 percent of both groups
reported being sexually victimized since their most recent interview (see Table 106). Nor were any
differences observed in the specific types of sexual victimization reported by young women and young
men.

30

We will be updating the tables in this chapter with tables that compare victimization among the Midwest Study participants to
victimization among their Add Health counterparts. Those tables are not included here because of problems with the Add Health
data.
31
Comparable data on sexual victimization were not collected from the Add Health Study respondents.

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94

 Table 106. Sexual Victimization by Gender

Male inserted sexual body part inside private sexual part, anus,
or mouth when not desired
Individual inserted fingers or objects inside private parts or
anus when not desired
Individual put their mouth on private parts when not desired
Individual touched private sexual parts when not desired
Coerced to touch an individual’s private sexual parts
Individual touched other private sexual parts when not desired
Female put private sexual part inside her body when not
desired (males only)
Experienced any of the above

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Females
n
#

%

Males
n
#

320

p
%

12

3.8

255

4

1.6

320

7

2.2

254

5

2.0

319
318
319
319

5
5
6
8

1.6
1.6
1.9
2.5

250
254
253
254

6
5
4
6

2.4
2.0
1.6
2.4

-

-

-

253

5

2.0

322

19

5.9

255

14

5.5

95

 Civic Participation
Nineteen percent of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported that they had performed volunteer or
community service work during the past 12 months compared with 38 percent of their Add Health Study
counterparts, a statistically significant difference. Midwest Study participants who performed unpaid
volunteer or community service work were most likely to have worked for a community center or an
educational organization (see Table 107).32
Table 107. Organization or Group for which Volunteer or Community Service Work Was
Performed during the Past Year
(n = 112)a
Youth organizations (e.g., scouts)
Service organizations (e.g., Big Brother/Big Sister)
Political clubs or organizations
Ethnic support groups (e.g., NAACP)
Church groups
Community centers
Hospitals or nursing homes
Educational organizations
Environmental groups (e.g., Sierra Club)
Foster care or child welfare organizations
Other

#
15
11
8
4
47
40
11
33
5
7
33

%
13.4
9.8
7.1
3.6
42.0
35.7
9.8
29.5
4.5
6.3
29.5

a

One respondent who reported performing volunteer or community service work did not report the type of
organization he or she worked for.

Nearly three-quarters of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported that they were currently
registered to vote and two-thirds had voted in the most recent presidential election (see Table 108).33
About 12 percent had engaged in at least one of the four political activities about which we asked.

32

The Add Health Study did not collect data on the types of organizations or groups for which volunteer or community service
work was performed.
33
Eight respondents who were not currently registered to vote voted in the last presidential election.
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96

 Table 108. Voting Behavior and Political Participation
Currently registered to vote
Voted in most recent presidential election
During the past year
Contributed money to political party or candidate
Contacted a government official
Ran for public office
Attended a political rally or march
Any of the above

N
587
442

#
434
293

%
73.9
66.3

594
594
595
595
596

20
40
2
35
71

3.4
6.7
0.3
5.9
11.9

Although a plurality of both samples described their political beliefs as “middle of the road,” Midwest
Study participants were significantly more likely to describe themselves as conservative or very
conservative or not to know what their political ideology was and significantly less likely to describe
themselves as liberal than their Add Health counterparts (see Table 109).
Almost 70 percent of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported no political party affiliation. Those
who did report being affiliated with a party were most likely to identify themselves as Democrats.
Finally, given that the government had, in essence, been their parent while they were in foster care, it is
also interesting to note that young adults in the Midwest Study did not, in general, trust the government.
Table 109. Political Beliefs and Party Identification: Midwest Study Compared with Add Health
Study
Midwest Study
n
#
Strongly agree or agree:
I trust the federal government
I trust my state government
I trust my local government
Political ideology
Very conservative
Conservative
Middle-of-the-road
Liberal
Very liberal
Don’t know
Political party affiliation
None
Democrat
Republican
Libertarian
Independent
Don’t know/Other

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592
591
590
589

210
209
216

%

Add Health
n
#

p
%

35.5
35.4
36.6
890

42
149
227
79
32
60

7.1
25.3
38.5
13.4
5.4
10.2

408
145
18
3
6
6

68.5
24.3
3.0
0.5
1.0
1.0

29
175
370
211
48
53

3.3
19.7
41.6
23.7
5.4
6.0

*
*
*
*

596

97

 Mentoring
A majority of the young adults reported having maintained a positive relationship with a caring adult
other than a parent since age 14 (see Table 110). Mentors were most often described as a family member
or friend. Of those who reported having a mentor, approximately half reported telephone or e-mail
contact with their mentor at least once weekly, while roughly 40 percent reported in-person contact at
least once weekly. With regard to closeness, nearly three-quarters felt very or quite close to his or her
mentor.
Table 110. Mentoring Relationships
(N = 596)

#

%

Ever maintained a positive relationship with a caring adult other than a
parent since age 14
Relationship to mentor
Sibling
Grandparent or uncle/aunt
Teacher, counselor, coach
Clergy member
Employer or co-worker
Friend
Neighbor or parent of friend
Volunteer (e.g., Big Brothers/Sisters)
Social worker
Other
Email or telephone contact with mentor
Not at all
Once a year or less
Every few months
Monthly or every few weeks
Weekly or more

405

68.0

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(n= 405)

20
110
32
12
9
89
16
7
20
90

4.9
27.2
7.9
3.0
2.2
22.0
4.0
1.7
4.9
22.2

(n= 405)

59
36
38
58
214

14.6
8.9
9.4
14.3
52.8

98

 In person contact with mentor
Not at all
Once a year or less
Every few months
Monthly or every few weeks
Weekly or more
Closeness to mentor
Not at all close
A little to somewhat close
Very or quite close

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(n= 405)

86
51
47
53
168

21.2
12.6
11.6
13.1
41.5

(n= 404)

32
78
294

7.9
19.3
72.8

99

 Life Satisfaction and Future
Orientation
Almost two-thirds of the young adults in the Midwest Study reported feeling satisfied or very satisfied
with their lives as a whole (see Table 111).
Table 111. Life Satisfaction
(N = 594)
Satisfaction with life as a whole
Satisfied or very satisfied
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Dissatisfied or very dissatisfied

#

%

373
111
110

62.8
18.7
18.5

An even higher percentage reported feeling fairly to very optimistic about their future (see Table 112).
Table 112. Optimism
(N = 594)
Very optimistic
Fairly optimistic
Not very or not at all optimistic
Missing

#
332
198
63
2

%
55.9
33.3
10.6
0.3

This sense of optimism is also reflected in their responses to two other sets of questions. The first was
adapted from the wave two Add Health survey instrument.34 Study participants were asked to rate their
chances of reaching a number of milestones using a five-point scale that ranged from almost no chance
(1) to almost certain (5), with 3 being a 50-50 chance (see Table 113). On average, unmarried Midwest
Study participants perceived themselves as having little more than a 50-50 chance of getting married
within the next 10 years. Those who were not already divorced thought their chances of divorcing by age

34

These questions were not included in the Add Health wave 4 survey instrument.

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100

 35 were relatively low. Overall, Midwest Study participants perceived themselves as having no more
than a 50-50 chance of having at least a middle class income by age 30. It is also quite telling that 13
percent thought that they had no more than a 50-50 chance of living until at least age 35.
Table 113. Future Expectations
Live to 35
Married within the next 10 years
Already happened (i.e., currently married)
Divorced by 35
Already happened
Middle class income by age 30
Already happened
More than middle class income by age 30
Already happened

N
594
491
102
583
24
592
13
591
5

Mean
1.53
2.76
—
4.34
—
2.64
—
2.98
—

SD
0.76
1.36
—
1.16
—
1.12
—
1.28
—

The second set of questions came from the revised version of the Life Orientation Test (LOT-R), a 10item measure designed to assess individual differences in generalized optimism versus pessimism
(Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). Study participants rated how much they agree or disagree with each
statement using a five-point scale that ranged from 1 = disagree a lot to 5 = agree a lot, with 3 being
neither agree nor disagree. Overall, these young adults were fairly optimistic (see Table 114). They
tended to agree with statements like “I'm always optimistic about my future” and “I expect more good
things to happen to me than bad,” while disagreeing with statements like “I hardly ever expect things to
go my way” and “I rarely count on good things happening to me.”
Table 114. Life Orientation
In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.
It's easy for me to relax.
If something can go wrong for me, it will. a
I'm always optimistic about my future.
I enjoy my friends a lot.
It's important for me to keep busy.
I hardly ever expect things to go my way. a
I don't get upset too easily.
I rarely count on good things happening to me. a
Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad.
Mean
a

N
594
595
595
592
594
595
595
595
595
595

Mean
3.66
3.44
2.89
4.07
4.05
4.35
3.15
3.13
3.24
4.07
3.60

SD
1.24
1.40
1.37
1.16
1.21
1.02
1.37
1.44
1.48
1.20

Items were reverse coded.

Study participants also completed two additional measures. The first included six items taken from the
Pearlin Mastery Scale (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978; Pearlin et al., 1981), a measure of the extent to which
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101

 individuals perceive themselves as being in control of the forces that have a significant impact on their
lives.35 Respondents rated how much they agreed or disagreed with each statement on a five point scale
ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree, with 3 being neither agree nor disagree. A
higher score indicates a greater sense of mastery over one's environment. Generally speaking, these
young adults felt in control of their lives (see Table 115). They tended to agree with statements like
“What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me,” and “I can do just about anything I really set
my mind to,” while disagreeing with statements like “I have little control over the things that happen to
me,” and “I often feel helpless in dealing with the problems of life.”
Table 115. Mastery
(N = 595)
I have little control over the things that happen to me.

Mean
3.64

SD
1.15

There is no way I can solve some of the problems I have.
I often feel helpless in dealing with the problems of life.
Sometimes I feel that I am being pushed around in life.
What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me. a
I can do just about anything I really set my mind to. a
Mean

3.07
3.58
3.36
4.49
4.42

1.21
1.17
1.25
0.71
0.79

a

3.76

Items were reverse coded

The second was a 4-item measure of self esteem taken from Rosenberg’s (1989) 10-item Self Esteem
Scale. Respondents rated how much they agreed or disagreed with each statement on a five point scale
ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree, with 3 being neither agree nor disagree.
Overall, Midwest Study participants felt positively about themselves, agreeing with statements such as “I
like myself just the way I am,” and “I have many good qualities” (see Table 116).
Table 116. Self-Esteem
(N = 595)
I have many good qualities.
I have a lot to be proud of.
I like myself just the way I am.
I feel I am doing things just about right.
Mean

Mean
1.48
1.58
1.92
2.15
1.78

SD
0.64
0.74
1.04
1.02

35

The Perlin Mastery scale is a seven-item measure. One item, “there is little I can do to change many of the important things in
my life,” was not included in the wave 5 survey instrument.
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102

 Connectedness
Finally, youth aging out of foster care have been identified as being at high risk of becoming disconnected
young adults (Levin-Epstein & Greenberg, 2003; Wald & Martinez, 2003; Youth Transition Funders
Group, 2004)—that is, young adults who are neither working nor enrolled in school (Haveman & Wolfe,
1994; Levin-Epstein & Greenberg, 2003; Sheehy, Oldham, Zanghi, Ansell, Correia, & Copeland, 2002;
Sum, Khatiwada, Pond, Trub’skyy, Fogg, & Palma, 2002; Wald & Martinez, 2003; Youth Transition
Funders Group, 2004). Thus, we looked at the percentage of males and females in the Midwest Study
who were connected to employment or to education. In addition, although many people who are parents
work or go to school, some forego education or employment to focus on parenting. Thus, we also
adopted a more expansive definition of connectedness that counted study participants as being connected
if they were living with one or more of their own children.
Female study participants were more likely than their male counterparts to be connected (i.e., working or
enrolled in school) at age 26 (see Table 117). Using the more inclusive definition that includes parenting
increased this gender difference because it had a larger effect on “connectedness” among young women
than on “connectedness” among young men. This reflects the fact that males were less likely than
females to be custodial parents even if they had a child.
Table 117. Connectedness

Employed or enrolled in school/training programa
Employed, enrolled in school/training program, or
parentingb

Females
N
#
331 206
331 271

%
62.2
81.6

Males
N
#
263 129
263 170

p
%
49.0
64.6

*
*

a

Data were missing for two nonemployed respondents who did not report if they were currently enrolled in school and one
respondent who did not complete the survey.
b

Data were missing for one nonemployed respondent who did not report if he or she was currently enrolled in school and
one respondent who did not complete the survey.

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103

 Change Over Time
Because we have been tracking the outcomes of the Midwest Study participants since they were 17 or 18
years old, we can examine how their circumstances have changed over time. Figures 1 through 11 show
these changes across a number of domains including education, employment, family formation, and
criminal justice system involvement. In the past, we have limited our “change over time” analysis to the
young adults who were interviewed at every wave of data collection. If we were to apply that same
criteria at wave 5, our analysis would be limited to 434 young adults or just 59% of the original sample.
Limiting our analysis to these 434 young adults is problematic because they represent a select subsample
of the original 732 Midwest Study participants. Consequently, the percentages shown in the figures
below are based on data for all of the young adults who were interviewed at a given wave.36 Because
gender differences were observed for some of the outcomes, the results for males and females are
presented separately.

Education
Not surprisingly, the percentage of study participants who had a high school diploma or GED rose
substantially between age 17 or 18 and age 21.37 It jumped several more percentage points between the
two most recent waves of data collection. Although young men were as likely as young women to have
completed high school when the study began, young women were more likely than young men to have
their high school diploma or GED at each post-baseline interview.38 By the time they were 26 years old,
83 percent of the young women had completed high school compared to 77 percent of the young men.
Given that many of these young people were at least a year behind in school, it is also not surprising that
the largest increase in the percentage of study participants who had completed at least one year of college

36

See Table 1 for the respective sample sizes
The percentage of Midwest Study participants with a high school diploma or GED declines between waves three and four
because the composition of the sample interviewed at the third wave was not the same as the composition of the sample
interviewed at the fourth wave..
38
Three young women and four young men who reported that they had a high school diploma or GED at wave 2 reported that
they had not completed high school at wave 3. Similarly, 6 young women and 15 young men who reported that they had a high
school diploma or GED at wave 3 reported that they had not completed high school at wave 4.
37

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104

 occurred between ages 19 and 21. Young women were more likely than young men to have completed a
year of more of college at each post-baseline interview.39 By age 26, 45 percent of the young women
compared with one-third of the young men had completed at least one year of college.
The percentage of study participants who had a two- or four-year college degree grew at a much slower
rate. By age 26, only 11 percent of the young women and 5 percent of the young men had graduated from
a 2- or 4-year school (see Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1. Trends in Young Women’s Educational Attainment
100%
Age 17 or 18
80% 79%

80%

83%

Age 19
Age 21
Age 23 or 24

66%

Age 26

60%
45%
35% 37%

40%

20%

15%

11%
1%

0%
High school diploma or At least one year of college
GED

8%

11%

0% 0% 2%
College degree

39

Two young men who reported that they had completed at least one year of college at wave 2 reported that they had only
completed high school at wave 3. Similarly, 23 young women and 9 young men who reported that they had completed at least
one year of college at wave 3 reported that they had only completed high school at wave 4.
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105

 Figure 2. Trends in Young Men’s Educational Attainment
100%

80%

74%

77%
71%

58%

60%

Age 17 or 18
Age 19
Age 21

40%

33%
23%

20%

Age 23 or 24

26%

Age 26

14%
8%
0%

0%
High school diploma or
GED

At least one year of
college

0% 0% 2%

5% 5%

College degree

Enrollment in school or training programs declined steadily over the first four waves of data collection
then leveled out at the most recent interview. The biggest drop occurred between the baseline interview
and the interview at age 19, when college enrollment peaked (see Figures 3 and 4). With the exception of
the baseline interview, when young men were about as likely to be enrolled in college as young women,
the percentage of young women enrolled in college was consistently higher than the percentage of young
men.

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106

 Figure 3. Trends in Young Women’s School Enrollment
100%

96%

80%

60%

Age 17 or 18

49%

Age 19
35%

40%

Age 21
24%

27%

26%

25%

Age 23 or 24
15%

20%

18%

Age 26

7%
0%
Enrolled in school or training
program

Enrolled in college

Figure 4. Trends in Young Men’s School Enrollment
100%

94%

80%

60%

Age 17 or 18
Age 19

42%
40%

Age 21
23%

20%

20%

Age 23 or 24

21%

19%
5%

14%

Age 26
10%

11%

0%
Enrolled in school or training
program

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Enrolled in college

107

 Employment
The percentage of young adults who were currently employed peaked at age 21(see Figure 5). The
difference between the percentage of young women who had jobs and the percentage of young men who
had jobs was larger at age 26 than it had been at any prior wave. In addition, although less than half of
the young men were employed at any given wave of data collection, a majority of the young women were
working at ages 21 and 26.
Figure 5. Trends in Current Employment by Gender
100%

80%

60%

54%
49%
38%

40%

41%

47%

52%

49%

39%

Males
39%

Females

32%

20%

0%
Age 17 or 18

Age 19

Age 21

Age 23 or 24

Age 26

Family Formation
Because most of the study respondents were still in foster care at age 17 or 18 and none reported being
married, our analysis of marriage and cohabitation begins at age 19. 40 The percentage of young men who
were married or cohabiting rose gradually over time, but the percentage of young women who were
married or cohabiting fell slightly between the two most recent interviews (see Figures 6 and 7). As a
result, the gender gap was less evident at wave 5 than it had been at prior waves, although the percentage
40

We do not have information about cohabitation at wave 1. However, the percentage of study participants who were cohabiting
at age 17 or 18 was probably very low because most of the young people were still in foster care.
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 of young women who were married or cohabiting was consistently higher than the percentage of young
men.
The percentage of young adults who were parents of at least one biological child increased steadily over
time, but young women were consistently more likely to be mothers than young men were to be fathers.
In fact, the young women were more likely to be mothers at age 21 than young men were to be fathers at
age 26. Young women were also far more likely to be living with a child to whom they had given birth
than young men were to be living with a child they had fathered at each wave of data collection.41
Figure 6. Trends in Family Formation among Females
100%

80%
68%

72%
61%

56%

60%

65%

51%

40%38%

40%

Age 19
Age 21

32%

31%

29%

Age 23 or 24
Age 26

21%
20%

Age 17 or 18

13%

0%
Married/Cohabiting

41

Any living children

Any resident children

Midwest Study participants were not asked if they were living with one or more of their own children at wave 1.

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 Figure 7. Trends in Family Formation among Males
100%

80%

60%

Age 17 or 18

53%

Age 19

45%
40%

33%

Age 21

37%

Age 23 or 24

30%
24%

22%
20%

18%

14%
7%

7%

Age 26

11%
3%

0%
Married/Cohabiting

Any living children

Any resident children

Criminal Justice System Involvement
Unlike the baseline interview, when study participants were asked if they had ever been arrested,
convicted, or incarcerated, study participants were asked about arrests, convictions, and incarcerations
that had occurred since their most recent interview at subsequent waves of data collection. For this
reason, we limit our analysis to criminal justice system involvement since age 19.
The percentage of young adults who reported an arrest declined over time, the percentage who reported a
conviction was fairly stable, and the percentage who reported an incarceration rose and then declined (see
Figures 8 and 9). Although similar trends were observed among young women and young men, young
men were at least twice as likely as young women to report being arrested, convicted or incarcerated at
each of wave of data collection.

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 Figure 8. Trends in Criminal Justice System Involvement among Females
100%
80%
60%

Age 19
Age 21

40%
20%

Age 23 or 24
20% 18% 17%
15%
7%

6% 8% 8%

11%

16% 17%

10%

Age 26

0%
Arrested since last
interview

Convicted since last
interview

Incarcerated since last
interview

Figure 9. Trends in Criminal Justice System Involvement among Males
100%

80%

60%
41% 43% 41%
40%

43% 44%

38%

40%

33%
19%

20%

Age 19
Age 21
Age 23 or 24
Age 26

22% 22% 22%

0%
Arrested since last
interview

Convicted since last
interview

Incarcerated since last
interview

“Connectedness”
No gender difference in “connectedness” was observed at the first two waves of data collection, but
young women were more likely than young men to report that they were working or in school at the three
most recent waves (see Figures 10 and 11). Although counting young adults who were parenting as
“connected” increased the percentage who were connected regardless of gender, the increase was
consistently bigger among young women than young men because young men were much less likely to be
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 living with a child they had fathered than young women were to be living with a child to whom they had
given birth.42
Figure 10. Trends in Connectedness among Females
100%

96%
80%

80%

68%

67%

60%

86%

87%

82%

60% 62%

Age 17 or 18
Age 19
Age 21

40%

Age 23 or 24
Age 26

20%
0%
Working or in school

Working or in school or parenting

Figure 11. Trends in Connectedness among Males
100%

95%

80%
66%
60%

66%
57%

60%

56%

61%

65%

49%

Age 17 or 18
Age 19
Age 21

40%

Age 23 or 24
Age 26

20%

0%
Working or in school

Working or in school or parenting

42

Midwest Study participants were not asked if they were living with one or more of their own children at wave 1. Consequently,
the second measure of connectedness was not calculated when participants were age 17.
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 Discussion and Next Steps
We began following this sample of young adults when they were just 17 or 18 years old and still in foster
care. We wanted to know what would happen as they transitioned out of foster care and into early
adulthood. Would they become economically self-sufficient or struggle to support themselves? Would
they be able to overcome the challenges often faced by former foster youth? And how would their
outcomes compare to those of their peers who had never been in foster care?
Although these 26-year-olds still have much of their lives ahead of them, they are now well into early
adulthood. Unfortunately, as a group, they are faring poorly. About four-fifths of these young adults have
a high school diploma or a GED, but only 11 percent of the young women and 5 percent of the young
men have even an associate’s degree. This is not much higher than the percentage of young women and
no higher than the percentage of young men who had graduated from college by age 23 or 24. Moreover,
it is considerably lower than the percentage of young adults who are college graduates in the general
population. Given that only 15 percent of the Midwest Study participants were still enrolled in school, it
seems unlikely that they will “catch up” with their peers in terms of educational attainment.
Equally troubling was their state of economic well-being. Fewer than half of these 26-year-olds were
currently employed, and most of those who had a job were not earning a living wage. Half of the young
adults who had worked during the past year reported annual earnings of $9,000 or less, and more than
one-quarter had had no earnings at all. This probably explains why nearly half the sample had
experienced at least one economic hardship and why one quarter had experienced food insecurity during
the past year. Their lack of self-sufficiency was also reflected in their receipt of means-tested benefits
from government programs. Two-thirds of the young women and two-fifths of the young men had
received food stamps during the past year.
No less disconcerting were some of the other outcomes we observed. Far too many of these young adults,
and especially the young men, have been or are currently incarcerated. Far too many of the young women
who cannot support themselves are raising children alone, and far too many of the young men have
children with whom they have little or no relationship.
At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that some of Midwest Study participants have managed
to “beat the odds” and made significant progress toward self-sufficiency (Courtney, Hook, & Lee, 2010).
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 They have graduated from college or are still enrolled in school. They have adequate earnings from a
steady job that provides employee benefits. They have stable housing and families they are able to
support. They have stayed out of trouble with the criminal justice system, and have maintained good
physical and mental health.
In addition to these seemingly “objective” measures of success, we also find less tangible evidence of
resiliency among this sample of former foster youth. Many expressed satisfaction with their lives and
optimism about their futures. Moreover, although the child welfare system failed to find them permanent
homes, most of these young people continue to have close ties to members of their family.
What, then, should we conclude from our data about current efforts to prepare young people aging out of
foster care for a successful transition to adulthood? The outcomes of the Midwest Study participants at
age 26 suggest that young people are aging out of foster care without the knowledge and skills they need
to make it on their own. Hence, more attention should be paid to evaluating the services and supports that
this population now receives, using methodologically sound research designs (Montgomery, Donkoh, &
Underhill, 2006).
Some states have responded to the older-youth provisions in the Fostering Connections Act by extending
foster care through age 21; others will do so over the coming years. The National Youth in Transition
Database will, over time, reveal whether these changes bear fruit in terms of improved foster youth
outcomes. Moving forward, we will continue to analyze the Midwest Study data to identify factors that
predict which young people are likely to struggle to make it on their own and which are likely to
experience a successful transition to adulthood.

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 About Chapin Hall
Established in 1985, Chapin Hall is an independent policy
research center whose mission is to build knowledge that
improves policies and programs for children and youth,
families, and their communities.
Chapin Hall’s areas of research include child maltreatment
prevention, child welfare systems and foster care, youth
justice, schools and their connections with social services
and community organizations, early childhood initiatives,
community change initiatives, workforce development,
out-of-school time initiatives, economic supports for
families, and child well-being indicators.

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