THE CONDOM QUANDARY:

A Study of the Impact of Law Enforcement Practices on
Effective HIV Prevention among Male, Female, and Transgender
Sex Workers in China

 Cover art: A woman carries a condom with a Chinese
inscription that reads, “Prevent HIV. Have a healthy life.”
Photography for this report by James Baum.

 THE CONDOM QUANDARY:
A Study of the Impact of Law Enforcement Practices
on Effective HIV Prevention among Male, Female, and
Transgender Sex Workers in China

Asia Catalyst
July 2016

PUBLISHED BY:

Asia Catalyst
1270 Broadway, Suite 1109
New York, NY 10001
www.asiacatalyst.org
info@asiacatalyst.org

  

THE CONDOM QUANDARY:
A Study of the Impact of Law Enforcement Practices on Effective HIV
Prevention among Male, Female, and Transgender Sex Workers in China
Executive Summary

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Chapter 1: Introduction

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1.1 The public health crisis

11

1.2 Enabling environment for effective HIV response

13

1.3 The purpose of this study

14

Chapter 2 Methodology

17

Chapter 3: The Legal Environment for Sex Work

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3.1 Sex work under Chinese law

21

3.2 Anti-prostitution Campaigns

23

3.3 The handling of “prostitution” cases

24

Chapter 4 HIV, Condoms, and Public Policy

27

4.1 HIV programs for sex workers

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4.2 Condoms in China’s HIV strategy

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4.3 The condom conundrum

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Chapter 5 Key Findings and Discussion

35

5.1 Interactions with the police and impact on condom behavior

35

5.2 Law enforcement actions relating to condoms as evidence

41

5.3 Impact on HIV response

48

Chapter 6 The “Probative Value” of Condoms
6.1 Case Studies: New York and San Francisco
6.2 Policy changes in Cambodia and Myanmar

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58
60

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations

63

Glossary

68

Acronyms
Acknowledgments
Annex 1 Best Practice on Meaningful Collaboration with Police
Annex 2 Raw Data from Tables in this Report

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71
72
76

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 Executive Summary
The State allows condoms to be brought into hotels, guest houses and
venues where high-risk sex occurs, and I feel that, in this respect, the State
has made progress. So then why do the police still use them [condoms] as
evidence of prostitution? I feel this runs counter to national policies and really
needs to change.
– Li Huixian, female sex worker
Sex work is illegal in China, and law enforcement practices that focus on condoms as
evidence of prostitution are having a negative impact on HIV prevention among sex workers.
When Lanlan, who runs a community based organization (CBO) and support group for sex
workers in northern China, introduced female condoms to the female sex workers she works
with as part of her CBO’s HIV and sexual and reproductive health (SRH) program, their
first reaction was: “The female condom is too big. We can’t swallow it if the police come!”
This story highlights the conundrum sex workers in China face when attempting to avoid
penalties by law enforcement and protect themselves from sexually transmitted diseases
and infections (STIs) and HIV.

Context
HIV and other STIs are one of the major public health concerns in China. Although the HIV
epidemic remains low prevalence in the general population, it is highly concentrated among
key populations, with increasing infections among men who have sex with men (MSM) and
sex workers. The primary mode for transmission of HIV is through sexual intercourse—both
heterosexual and male to male sex. Of the 104,000 new cases diagnosed in 2014, 92.2%
were through sexual contact. In addition, the expanding epidemics of STIs are increasing at
an alarming rate—in 2015, syphilis and gonorrhea were among the top five reported kinds of
transmitted infections in China.
In many ways, the Chinese government has adopted a pragmatic and often progressive
approach to HIV. China has strategically concentrated its efforts on key populations, such as
sex workers, people who inject drugs, and MSM.
Condoms play a crucial role in preventing the spread of HIV and other STIs. In 2004, led
by the Ministry of Health (MOH), six government departments in China jointly issued the
Views on the Promotion of Condom Use for HIV/AIDS Prevention, which makes explicit
the responsibilities of health, family planning, commercial and broadcasting departments
for the promotion of condom use. The government has devoted great efforts to promote
the use of condoms: in many provinces, entertainment venues are required to display
condoms publicly; and the central government allocates a specific amount of funds each
year to purchase condoms, which are then widely distributed to key populations, including

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 sex workers, by various levels of the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and
CBOs across the country.
It is therefore perplexing and problematic that, alongside these efforts, the Chinese
government has taken a punitive approach to sex work, and the system of public security
bureaus (PSB), China’s law enforcement departments, have been authorized to crack down
on sex work.
The conflicting policies and messages are undermining the government’s own efforts at
an effective HIV response, and the crackdowns on the sex industry have been positively
reaffirmed in several major HIV prevention policy documents. Chinese CBOs working on
HIV prevention report that it is a longstanding practice for police to specifically focus on
condoms and use possession of condoms as the main evidence of prostitution.

About this study
There is little public debate on the impact of law enforcement on the HIV response, in part
because of a lack of substantiated data on the issue in China. Little is known about law
enforcement operations in general; the extent to which the police are using condoms as
“evidence” of sex work in practice; what impact, if any, this is having on the safety and
health of sex workers; and how it is affecting China’s national HIV prevention strategy.
Between late 2014 and August 2015, Asia Catalyst and four community partners undertook
this study in three major Chinese cities with the support of UNFPA.
The purpose of this study is twofold: (1) to better understand how relevant laws and
law enforcement practices in China affect the ability of sex workers to access and carry
condoms and access HIV and SRH services and, (2) to provide recommendations to revise
laws and policies and to change law enforcement practices to improve the health and rights
of sex workers in China.
The study combined quantitative and qualitative methods, including 517 survey
questionnaires and 74 in-depth interviews with male, female, and transgender sex workers,
and 18 interviews with key informants. The report uses the terms “survey respondents” and
“interview respondents,” respectively.

Key Findings
1. Most sex workers experience interrogation by law enforcement officers.
More than half of the survey respondents reported that they had been interrogated by the
police since engaging in sex work, and 42.9% responded that they had been interrogated
during the past year.
Many of the survey respondents who had experienced police interrogation since engaging

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 in sex work also reported being subjected to various forms of penalties: 70.9% had been
taken to the police station for investigation, 47.2 % had been subjected to administrative
detention, and 26.8% had been fined. Female respondents (56.1%) were more likely to be
subject to administrative detention than male (9.1%) and transgender respondents (37.2%).
Male and transgender survey respondents were more likely to be fined.
2. Fear of police and client preference are the two main reasons reported by female
sex workers for not using and carrying condoms.
The overall percentage of sex workers using condoms with the most recent clients was
82.8 % (female 75.6%, male 93.2% and 92.3% transgender). For the 89 respondents who
did not use condoms with the most recent clients, 37% reported the reason was concern
over possible police searches and confiscation of condoms as evidence of prostitution. All
of these are female. Slightly more than 22% reported that their clients did not want to use
condoms and 17% reported that they trusted the clients and did not need to use condoms.
With respect to the frequency of carrying condoms in the past month, 63.8% survey
respondents reported always carrying condoms, with 46.5% for female, 89.5% for male and
84.6% for transgender sex workers. Two main reasons were cited for not always carrying
condoms: fear of police searches and confiscation of condoms as evidence of prostitution
(41.7%), and unwillingness of clients to use condoms (37.4 %).
Compared with male and transgender survey respondents, female respondents have lower
condom use rate and condom possession rate, and they are more likely to cite policing and
clients as the reason for not using or carrying condoms.
3. Police interrogation negatively impacts condom use and possession among sex
workers.
Among the respondents who had been interrogated by the police in the past year, 21.1%
said that they would now use condoms less often, and 36.5% said that they reduced the
number of condoms they carried after having contact with the police.
The research found that the consistent condom use rate (i.e., use of a condom 100% of
the time during every sex act) during the previous month was lower among respondents
who had been interrogated by the police (in the past year) than those who had no such
experience: the rate of consistent condom use is 47.7% and 67.8% respectively.
There were similar results for possession of condoms: 47.7% of survey respondents who
had been interrogated by the police (in the past year) always carried condoms, a much
lower rate than for those who carried condoms but had not been interrogated by the police
(75.9%, 224/295).
For both consistent condom use and possession of condoms, the discrepancy was most
evident among female respondents.

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 4. Police use two main methods for handling sex work cases: 1) attempting to catch
sex workers “in the act,” and (2) conducting inspections of sex work venues. Condoms
are the main focus of police action in both operations. Evidence of condoms was
also the deciding factor in whether or not the police would take the sex worker to the
police station for further action.
Over 35% of survey respondents reported that they had experienced searches for condoms
by the police. Among the 74 interview respondents, 47 reported that they had experienced
one or more police raids while in the process of engaging in or attempting to engage
in a commercial sexual transaction, or while soliciting clients. Twenty-nine experienced
“stop and search” operations by the police on the street, in parks, in rented rooms, or in
entertainment venues.
There is a common belief among police officers that merely possessing condoms is
“evidence” of selling sex. The police treat finding condoms as the determinative factor in
whether to take the sex worker back to the police station for further inquiries or penalty.
Among the 29 interview respondents who experienced police inspection in sex work venues,
when they were not involved in a sexual transaction and condoms were found, 69%were
taken to the police station where an administrative penalty was imposed, 13.8% were taken
to the police station for further inquiries without a penalty being imposed, and 17% had no
further action taken against them.
5. Police violence, abuse, and coercion was reported by sex workers of all gender
categories.
For survey respondents who experienced interrogation since engaging in sex work, 78%
had experienced verbal humiliation, 64.5% had experienced entrapment, and 50.9 % had
experienced physical violence.
The forms of violence and abuse include:
• Verbal humiliation: male and transgender female sex workers reported being subjected to
verbal abuse by police relating to their sexual orientation and gender expression.
• Physical violence: violence was reported during police questioning of sex workers and
clients at the scene, and in police stations. Interview respondents reported that police used
physical violence to coerce a confession and to sign the interview record.
• Extortion and corruption: Interview respondents reported that police extorted bribes in
exchange for release, receipts were not issued when a fine was imposed, and sex workers
paid police directly in cash as fines, though according to the law, fines should be paid at the
bank. Interview respondents also reported that the police confiscated their valuables once
condoms were found with them.

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 6. Police searches and confiscation of condoms have a negative impact on sex
workers’ decision to use and carry condoms, and decreased the overall availability
of condoms in sex work venues because entertainment venue staff did not want to
display condoms publicly.
Interview respondents reported that, in order to avoid being penalized, they would promptly
dispose of their condoms when encountering the police. Street-based sex workers threw
away their condoms as soon as they saw a police officer in the vicinity.
Interviews revealed that a fear of arrest drove sex workers to shorten their service time with
clients to the best of their ability, and made them more likely to agree to a client’s demand
to not use a condom. Law enforcement actions also decreased sex workers’ willingness
to carry a sufficient number of condoms, exposing sex workers to the risk of HIV and STI
infection.
The research found that venue owners were less willing to publicly display condoms
(despite MOH policy requiring them to do so) because police consider the existence of
condoms to be evidence that the location is likely a sex work venue.
7. Law enforcement actions did not result in sex workers leaving the industry, but
instead have had a negative impact on the credibility of government authorities among
sex workers.
Law enforcement actions did not result in sex workers leaving the sex industry. Instead, sex
workers continue to work: 21.2% of the survey respondents temporarily stopped engaging
in sex work, while 24.8% changed to more concealed venues, and another 24.8% changed
work venues frequently.
Law enforcement actions, and accompanying violence and abuse of power, have a
substantial effect on the image and credibility of public security authorities among sex
workers. When asked about their impression of the police, only 11.2% of the survey
respondents had a good impression of the police, while 49.5% had a poor impression.
Nearly half said that if they encountered a dangerous situation during work, they would not
report it to the police.
8. Law enforcement practices substantially reduce the ability of health departments
and CBOs to conduct HIV prevention work and distribute condoms to sex workers.
The problem is compounded by the limited communication and coordination between
health and public security departments.
Health officers and CBO staff reported that law enforcement activity is a factor that
always has to be considered in intervention work targeting sex workers as a group. Police
crackdowns, particularly during major holidays and other events, always bring a temporary
halt to HIV intervention work, and health workers reported they were unable to meet their

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 intervention targets: sex workers disappear, entertainment venues close temporarily, and no
one wants to accept condoms distributed by CBOs.
The problem is compounded by limited communication channels between health
departments and public security bureaus. Currently the health department does not have a
coordination mechanism with public security on intervention work for sex workers, though
such a mechanism exists for intervention work for people who uses drugs.

Recommendations
The research for this report, conducted in three major Chinese cities, found that coming
into contact with law enforcement actions is common for male, female and transgender sex
workers, and they are struggling to maintain their safety and health in such an environment.
Condoms, a tool that can protect sex workers from STIs/HIV, are categorized and targeted
as a “tool of offense” in police actions against sex workers. Law enforcement officers
search for and confiscate condoms, and use possession of condoms to pressure individuals
into a confession. Sex workers who are affected by these policies and actions are not
passive, they demonstrate agency in response to these actions and in efforts to resist and
circumvent the police actions. However, sex workers are still more likely to agree to clients’
demands to not use condoms, reduce the numbers of condoms they carry, not carry
condoms at all, or try various methods to hide condoms in concealed places. Entertainment
venues are also deterred from publicly displaying condoms in their establishments, despite
central government policies advising them to do so.
China is not the only country to use possession of condoms as evidence of prostitution.
However, the study finds a slow-growing movement to rethink and reform these practices. In
Cambodia and Myanmar, both governments have issued high-level directives to declare that
condoms should no longer be used as evidence to arrest sex workers. In both New York
City and San Francisco, authorities agreed that allowing the use of condoms as evidence
could increase the risk of the spread of HIV and that the value of condoms for HIV and
disease prevention far outweighed any utility in enforcement of anti-prostitution laws. In
2013 and 2014, San Francisco and New York City, respectively, decided condoms would no
longer be treated as evidence in prostitution cases.
Furthermore, experience has shown that police reform and community-police cooperation
is crucial to HIV prevention among criminalized groups such as sex workers, and should be
supported as a central part of HIV programming. China should therefore review and reform
current policies to ensure a coherent and coordinated approach that will lead to a more
effective response to the HIV epidemic that also protects the rights of sex workers.

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 To the Ministry of Public Security
Eliminate the police practice of searching for and confiscating condoms and using
possession of condoms as evidence of prostitution.
• Amend national and local guidelines on the handling of sex work cases and exclude
condoms as physical evidence of prostitution cases.
• Issue a directive to instruct all law enforcement officers to immediately cease using the
possession of condoms as evidence to detain, question, or arrest persons suspected of sex
work.
• Work together with the National Health and Family Planning Commission (NHFPC) to
organize trainings for law enforcement officers on the directive, and on the public health
importance of condoms for HIV prevention and sexual and reproductive health.
Put an end to police extortion, and abuse and violence against sex workers;
investigate and punish officers who abuse or extort sex workers.
• Establish a feedback and accountability mechanism in which sex workers and other
vulnerable groups can file complaints of misconduct by police. Respond to all incidents, and
conduct due diligence to investigate and punish law enforcement officers who abuse or
extort sex workers.
• Train law enforcement officials to recognize and uphold the human rights of sex workers,
invite sex worker representatives to these trainings to share their experiences.

To the National Health and Family Planning Commission
Address the legal and policy barriers that hamper the promotion of condom use
among sex workers; improve coordination and cooperation with other departments,
especially the public security bureaus.
• At national and local levels, establish a Working Group on Sexual and Reproductive
Health (SRH) and HIV for Sex Workers, which would consist of representatives from relevant
government departments including, but not limited to, public security, health authorities, the
All-China Women’s Federation, and CBOs working directly with sex workers. The working
group should meet regularly to coordinate and solve concrete issues that impeded sex
workers’ access to SRH and HIV health services, such as condom display in entertainment
venues, and police confiscation of condoms.
• Work together with to the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and
Television to end depictions of condoms as evidence of prostitution in news reports
disseminated through television, film, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, books, the
internet and other media. Train media and reporters on respecting sex workers’ dignity and
human rights in reporting.

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 • Work together with the State Administration for Industry & Commerce to formulate
supportive policies and provisions that encourage commercial and public service
advertisements promoting condom use.
Improve sex workers’ access to sexual and reproductive health and HIV services.
• HIV programs for sex workers should be designed and implemented in consultation with
sex workers. The negative impacts on health of current law enforcement practices should
be addressed in the design and evaluation of the programs. Programs should address the
issues most relevant to securing sex workers’ right to health.
• Support STI and HIV intervention programs led by sex workers and CBOs; provide
voluntary and rights-based outreach, peer education, counseling, testing and other services.

To the National People’s Congress
Reform punitive laws, policies and law enforcement practices to protect sex workers’
rights.
• Reform the punitive legal framework on sex work; move towards decriminalization of sex
work; withdraw laws and regulations that prohibit consenting and voluntary adults from
buying or selling sexual services; ensure safe working conditions for sex workers.
• Abolish articles in the Criminal Law relating to “intentionally spreading sexually transmitted
diseases,” and abolish phrases relating to “cracking down on prostitution” in HIV prevention
documents.

To the Chinese government
Strengthen sex workers’ access to justice and empower them with knowledge of their
rights.
• Implement community-led empowerment initiatives for sex workers, and create
mechanisms to enable local governments, sex worker organizations and other interested
civil society groups to create environments conducive to sex workers rights, including
network building among sex workers for peer support to prevent and mitigate the effects of
violence.
• Ensure sex workers’ access to legal literacy programs and legal aid services, including
through the training of legal aid providers on sex workers’ rights and establishing networks
of paralegal peers to provide legal support.
• Support sex worker-led organizations to conduct systematic documentation of human
rights violations and discrimination against sex workers, forging partnership with other
key population networks, local leaders, and the media for a stronger national advocacy to
protect the rights of sex workers.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 The public health crisis
Sexually transmitted infection diseases (STIs, or STDs) including HIV are a major public
health challenge in China today. According to government figures at the end of 2014, there
were 501,000 reported cases of people living with HIV in China, comprising 0.037% of
the country’s population.1 While the national prevalence remains low, HIV prevalence is
concentrated, and significantly higher, among key populations*2, including sex workers*. Sex
workers are more vulnerable to HIV and other STIs due to multiple factors, including large
numbers of sexual partners, unsafe work environments and barriers to the negotiation of
consistent condom use.
In China, sexual transmission is currently the primary mode for HIV transmission. Among
new cases diagnosed every year, the percentage of sexually transmitted cases increased
from 33.1% in 2006 to 92.2% in 2014.3 Sexual transmission of HIV in China is occurring
mainly through heterosexual contact, which accounted for 66.4% of newly detected
infections in 2014.4 In the latter half of 2014, the National Center for AIDS/STD Control and
Prevention (NCAIDS) of the CDC conducted a retrospective survey of 18,110 HIV cases
diagnosed between January and June 2014, in which the infection was transmitted through
heterosexual contact. The survey found that 59.3% of the surveyed males had become
infected through commercial sexual activity.5
According to Chinese government statistics, the rate of HIV infection among female sex
workers has remained relatively low in recent years, with a rate of 0.22% in 2014,6 although
some experts believe this rate to be an underestimation.7 One study estimates the infection
rate at 3.0%.8 National prevalence also masks high rates in specific geographical locations.
In five provinces (or autonomous regions)-- Yunnan, Xinjiang, Guangxi, Sichuan and
Guizhou, HIV prevalence among female sex workers is reported as greater than1%.9 Overall,
Chinese female sex workers face a risk of HIV infection that is 50 times higher than women
in the general population. Among women living with HIV in China, 48.6% of them are sex
workers.10

2015 Progress Report on AIDS Prevention in China

2015 Progress Report on AIDS Prevention in China

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 Furthermore, the sexual and reproductive health of female sex workers is a cause for
concern. A survey of 361 street-based female sex workers in Nanchang city, Jiangxi
province, revealed that the rate of syphilis infection was 43%.11 Another survey of female
sex workers aged 20 or under in Kunming city, Yunnan province, found that the survey
respondents lacked knowledge of reproductive health, and that STIs and abortions were
pervasive: 66% of the women surveyed had experienced symptoms of STIs in the past year,
and 44% had undergone an abortion.12 Evidence has shown that STIs significantly increase
the risk of HIV transmission.13
China does not report specific figures for HIV infection rates among male sex workers, but
does report on HIV among men who have sex with men (MSM). Of all new infections, male
to male transmission is showing a rapid increase: the percentage of male to male sexual
transmission increased from 2.5% in 2006 to 25.8% in 2014. In 2014, the National HIV
sentinel surveillance data demonstrated a 7.7% HIV infection rate among MSM.14 A study
conducted with 2,618 MSM in 2009 showed that the HIV infection rate among male sex
workers was slightly lower than non-sex worker MSM, with an HIV infection rate of 6.13%
and 7.59% respectively.15 The study also found a high rate of syphilis; the prevalence was
14.32% of the whole study population, with 10.73% for male sex workers (MSWs) and
14.72% for non-MSW MSM.16
China’s national surveillance system does not gather data on transgender* people
separately, but includes transgender women under the MSM category. As a result, HIV
prevalence specifically among transgender women is not known. Some research has found
that HIV infection among transgender sex workers is alarmingly high. A survey among 220
transgender female sex workers in Shenyang, Liaoning province in 2014 found that 25.9%
either self-reported or were tested/confirmed as HIV positive.17 Globally, transgender women
are disproportionately affected by HIV. A 2013 study showed that the pooled HIV prevalence
rate for transgender women is 19.1%, and they are 49 times more likely to acquire HIV than
the general adult population.18 In Asia, the disease burden was particularly high in India and
Indonesia, with a prevalence of 43.7% and 26% respectively.19

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 The value of addressing HIV in key populations is widely acknowledged and, strategically,
it is considered good practice to address both HIV and the sexual and reproductive health
needs of sex workers to increase the impact and cost-effectiveness of HIV prevention and
response efforts within this population.

1.2 Enabling Environment for an Effective HIV Response
The legal and policy environment has a profound impact on sex workers’ vulnerabilities
to HIV and their access to HIV and SRH-related services. In countries where sex work is
criminalized, the threat of violence, from both clients and police, is a daily reality. In 2011, a
research partnership among United Nations agencies, governments, sex worker community
groups and academics was formed to address gaps in knowledge regarding the links
between sex work, violence, and HIV in Asia. A multi-country qualitative study: The Rights(s)
Evidence: Sex Work, Violence and HIV in Asia was developed, with research carried out
in Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The objective of the study was to better
understand female, male, and transgender sex workers’ experiences of violence, the factors
that increase or decrease their vulnerability to violence, and how violence relates to risk of
HIV transmission. Key findings of the research include:
• Sex workers experienced specific types of violence because of their work, such as
sexual extortion and harassment by the police for carrying condoms.
• Police and clients were the most commonly cited people who used violence
against sex workers, across study sites and gender categories.
• Violence against sex workers greatly increased their risk of HIV infection.
Factors that increase sex workers’ exposure to violence include:
• The criminalization of various aspects of sex work and same-sex sex practices,
and existing law enforcement practices that exacerbate violence by police and
clients by giving the police broad powers to arrest and detain sex workers,
promoting impunity, pushing sex work underground, reducing sex workers’ ability
to negotiate safe work practices, and increasing stigma and discrimination.
• A culture of impunity in which perpetrators of violence are not held accountable,
undermining sex workers’ access to justice and creating an environment in which
violence against sex workers is normalized and justified.
• The stigma and discrimination associated with sex work, which allows for violence
against sex workers.
• Gender inequality, whereby violence is used to uphold and reinforce harmful
gender norms and maintain existing power relations.

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 Therefore, providing HIV services alone is not enough; it is also crucial to have an enabling
legal, policy and law enforcement environment for an effective HIV response. World Health
Organization (WHO) recommends comprehensive condom and lubricant programming for
sex workers, as it has been found that consistent and correct use of male condoms reduces
sexual transmission of HIV and other STIs by up to 94%.20 At the same time, in recognizing
that sex workers often face power imbalances that limit their ability to use condoms
with clients, WHO also recommends the creation of an enabling environment. Specific
recommendations to address the legal barriers for sex workers include decriminalization
of sex work; the elimination of the unjust application of non-criminal laws and regulations
against sex workers; and an end to the police practice of using possession of condoms as
evidence of prostitution and grounds for arrest.21
Sex Work and the Law in Asia and Pacific is a review of the laws of 48 countries in the
region to assess the legal and policy framework and law enforcement practices that affect
the human rights of sex workers and impact on the effectiveness of HIV responses. The
review concludes that confiscation of condoms by police as evidence of illegal conduct or
to justify harassment and extortion is a widespread problem in the region. Countries where
sex workers report condom confiscation or police harassment for possessing condoms
include China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, the
Philippines, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam.22

1.3 The purpose of this study
Since the discovery of the first HIV cases in China in 1985, the Chinese government’s HIV
response has made impressive progress. Condoms are an effective tool in preventing HIV,
and the government has actively promoted their widespread use among key populations,
including sex workers. However, because sex work is illegal in China, sex workers also
regularly face law enforcement actions. Research has found that police use the presence
of condoms as supportive evidence of prostitution, directly undermining other government
policies and programs that are designed to distribute condoms to sex workers for HIV and
other STI prevention.23
However, public debate on the impact of law enforcement on the HIV response is rare, and
limited by a lack of substantiated data on the issue. Little is known about law enforcement
operations in general; the extent to which the police are confiscating condoms as

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 “evidence” in practice what impact, if any, this conduct is having on the safety and health of
sex workers; and how it is affecting China’s national HIV prevention strategy.
In November 2014, United Nations agencies, Chinese government representatives, sex
workers, CBOs, scholars, and lawyers came together at a conference on “Women and HIV
in the Context of Commercial Sex,” which focused its discussion on the HIV risk faced by
female sex workers in China, and the effect the legal environment has had on their ability
to access HIV services. Sex worker representatives attending the conference articulated
some of the challenges they face in using condoms, notably that possession of condoms
is regularly used as grounds to detain and punish sex workers during law enforcement
operations. The conference recommended further research and analysis to better
understand how laws and law enforcement practices are affecting sex workers’ ability to
access and carry condoms and access HIV and SRH services. In addition to other research,
the primary data gathered for this study makes an important contribution to understanding
the impact of law enforcement practices on HIV/STI efforts and on the health, lives and
rights of sex workers.
This study was undertaken by four community partners who have been engaged for many
years in HIV prevention work with female, male, and transgender female sex workers. They
provide a broad range of services, including outreach, education, counseling, and testing
for STIs and HIV. To protect the identities of their members, the four community partners
decided not to name their organizations or the cities where they work.
The study was supported by UNFPA, which also engaged three experts with extensive
(“technical advisors”) experience in conducting quantitative and qualitative research on the
social and economic impact of HIV in China to provide technical assistance to this study.

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Chapter 2: Methodology
The research was conducted from December 2014 to August 2015 in three major Chinese
cities; one each in the southwest region of China, the eastern region, and northern region.
The research combined quantitative and qualitative methods.
The quantitative component consisted of a survey questionnaire, completed by 518 sex
workers, and yielding 517 valid responses.
The qualitative component was 74 in-depth interviews with male, female and transgender
sex workers and 18 interviews with key informants including staff of CBOs and local health
authorities, managers of sex work venues, and PSB officers. This data was supplemented
by a significant desk review of published and grey literature, with input and advice from our
technical advisors in China. All names appearing in this report, with the exception of one key
informant, are pseudonyms.
All of the field research, including questionnaires and interviews were conducted by staff
and volunteers from the four community partners, who also led the process of defining
the research topic, developing the research plan, and drafting the survey questionnaire
and interview outline. Asia Catalyst provided training on study methodology for the four
community partners over a 6-month period. UNFPA and the technical advisors provided
technical assistance and input throughout the process.
All of the survey questionnaires and interviews were carried out one-on-one, and largely in
the offices of the community partners or at the locations where sex workers worked, such
as in massage parlors, in parks, in public squares or on the street. Survey respondents24
and interview respondents25 received a small gift as appreciation of their time. Informed
consents were obtained and all people who participated in the research signed informed
consent forms.
For the survey questionnaire, the four community partners carried out convenience
sampling with sex workers during regular outreach services*. The main content of the survey
included questions regarding the demographic information of the sex worker, their use of
condoms, their experience with sex work, and their contact with law enforcement officers.
Trained community interviewers asked respondents the questions, and then filled in the
questionnaire according to the answers given by the sex worker.

17

 For those survey respondents who reported experience with police searching for or seizing
condoms, the survey questionnaire interviewers then invited them to conduct a further indepth interview to gain a more detailed understanding of the specific nature of the police
search and seizure process, and how this law enforcement behavior had affected their
possession and use of condoms. A total of 74 sex workers agreed and participated in the
follow-up in-depth interview.
Each community partner numbered and entered the survey questionnaire findings into
a database according to a unified standard, after which the UNFPA experts examined
and verified the data. The experts used SPSS 13.0 and Microsoft Excel software to
conduct statistical analysis of the data and identify trends. All of the in-depth interviews
were recorded using digital voice recorders. The recordings were then transcribed by the
community partners, and Asia Catalyst documented and analyzed the information from
them.
This report was drafted by Asia Catalyst in consultation with the four community partners.
The UNPFA experts and a group of external reviewers also provided valuable contributions
to the report. Names of the reviewers can be found in the Acknowledgments section at the
end of the report.
The Demographics of the Study Population
Table 1: Survey Questionnaire Sample
Sample Total

Average
Age

Marital Status
Unmarried

Married

Divorced / Widowed

Female

303 （59%）

36.9

57

169

77

Male

162 （31%）

25

133

19

10

52（10%）

31.4

34

5

13

517（100%）

32.6

224

193

100

Transgender
Female
Total

Sex workers who responded to the survey questionnaire worked in a variety of venues. Male
sex workers mainly worked in clubs, hotels and saunas (93) and in rented apartments (62).
Female sex workers worked mainly in small establishments such as foot reflexology shops
and massage parlors (107), as well as on the streets, in parks and other outdoor venues
(194). Transgender female sex workers mostly worked on the street (39).
Female interview respondents were on average the oldest, with an average age of 36.9
years; whereas males were relatively younger, with an average age of 25 years; transgender
interviewees had an average age of 31.4 years.

18

 Most of the survey respondents had a primary, middle or high school education. Among
them, female respondents had lower education levels. Female respondents had on average
a primary (105) or middle school (90) education, and 58 were illiterate. Male and transgender
respondents had on average a middle (69) or high school (85) education.
Most of the female respondents were married; some, however, were divorced or widowed.
Most of the male and transgender respondents were unmarried, with a small number who
were married, divorced, or widowed.
For the 74 sex workers who participated in the in-depth interviews, 35 are female (47%,
35/74), 17 are male (23%, 17/74), and 22 are transgender female (30%, 22/74).
Another 18 interviews were conducted with key informants, including two public security
officers, four staff from CBOs, seven health department staff, four venue owners and one
lawyer.

19

 3: The Legal .. 
nment for Sex Work

I,

 

Chapter 3: The Legal Environment for Sex Work
3.1 Sex work under Chinese law
In China, providing or purchasing sexual services is illegal under the Public Security
Administrative Punishment Law of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and subject to
administrative penalties of up to 15 days in detention and/or a fine of up to 5,000 yuan
(US$761).26 Inducing, sheltering or introducing people to engage in sex work is also
an administrative offense and subject to the same penalties.27 For these administrative
penalties, including detention and fines, police are authorized to mete out these
punishments directly and without oversight; no court proceedings or involvement of a judge
is required.
Under the PRC Criminal Law, organizing or coercing people into engaging in sex work
is considered a criminal offense and subject to five to ten years imprisonment, fines and
confiscation of assets.28 Furthermore, knowingly transmitting HIV/STIs is criminalized, but
only for sex workers and clients. They can be sentenced to up to five years for “intentionally
spreading a venereal disease,”29 but all reported cases have only been for female sex
workers.30
For female sex workers, in addition to the penalties mentioned above, the “Custody and
Education” (C&E) system also authorizes police to detain, without judicial oversight, female
sex workers and male clients for a term of six months to two years in C&E centers. The
primary stated purpose of C&E is education and behavioral correction; detainees in C&E
centers are subjected to compulsory education in law and morality, forced labor, and
compulsory testing and treatment of STIs.31
The C&E system authorizes extra-judicial detention and incarceration of female sex workers
and violates the right of citizens to liberty of the person as safeguarded in Chinese law. It

21

 also constitutes arbitrary detention and violates the right to a fair trial, in contravention of
international human rights law.32
The C&E system was first implemented in the 1980s33 and, as of 2014, according to the
Ministry of Public Security, China had 116 C&E centers nationwide.34 From 1987 to 2000, a
total of more than 300,000 people were held in such centers.35 At present, the C&E system
is gradually shrinking, and many localities have stopped implementing it,36 within the
parameters of a larger debate on whether to maintain, abolish, or revise the entire system.37
Male sex workers are also regularly detained and penalized. In addition to the penalties
mentioned above, the crime of “assembling a crowd for licentious activity”38 can also be
used against male sex workers—it targets group sex involving three or more people.39 In
practice this has meant that for male sex workers providing sexual services involving two
or more participants at the same time, they are more likely to be penalized for this crime
than for sex work. The law has also been used to target gay men in general. For example, in
February 2014, the Guangzhou city PSB raided a gay club and detained the organizers for
the criminal offense of “assembling a crowd for licentious activity.”40
Transgender sex workers are also targets of law enforcements actions.41 Asia Catalyst
research has found that China’s transgender female sex workers are a complex group
that includes MSM who engage in sex work while cross-dressing as women, as well as
transgender individuals. Asia Catalyst’s 2014 research with 70 transgender female sex
workers in China found that 64% of the interviewees had been detained by the police. Due
to lack of protocols and training on gender identity, the police regularly detained transgender
women with male detainees and subjected them to discrimination and abuse relating to their
gender expression.42

——

22

 3.2 Anti-prostitution Campaigns
The Chinese government has historically taken a punitive approach towards sex work
and sex workers. In the 1980s, the government began regularly carrying out “strike-hard”
campaigns43 and “anti-pornography crackdowns” against the sex industry.44 Although the
strength and reach of these campaigns varied, they all targeted female sex workers and their
related work venues with the aim of completely eliminating the sex industry. The crackdown
on sex work was very severe in the 1980s and 1990s. According to statistics published by
the Ministry of Public Security, the police investigated and prosecuted a total of 620,000
people for prostitution-related offenses between 1984 and 1991; 250,000 between 1992 and
1993; and more than 2 million between 1993 and 2004.45 In April 2010 and February 2014,
strike-hard campaigns against sex work in Beijing and Dong’guan respectively, spawned the
harshest national anti-prostitution campaign in more than a decade. The police manpower
deployed, the geographic area covered, the number of sex work venues shut down, and the
number of people arrested were unprecedented.46
Local governments are motivated by political and economic factors to actively engage in
anti-vice campaigns. After the “reform and opening”47 from the 1970s to the 1990s, the
shortfalls in the budgets of the local PSBs led to an increase in activities to “earn income
from fines and penalties,” which became a major internal motivation for anti-vice sweeps
targeting sex workers and their clients. However, in the early 2000s, public security funding
increased, and a policy of “separation of revenue and expenditure” was implemented.48
The decrease in economic incentive to collect fines and penalties was matched by a
de-prioritization of vice raids. However, in order to maintain a certain anti-prostitution

23

 momentum, many local governments task special anti-pornography assignments to the
PSB.49 In 2015, for example, Hunan’s Xinhua County office and the county government
office jointly issued a document to various departments, including the PSB, mandating 66
criminal detentions and 804 public order detentions or arrests related to prostitution, drugs
and gambling offenses for the county.50 Under this kind of pressure, police officers regularly
raided places frequented by sex workers and reportedly detained people on site with no
evidentiary grounds.51 The police also regularly used the possession of condoms as the sole
evidentiary basis for detaining people.52

3.3 The handling of “prostitution” cases
In China, offenses related to sex work are frequently handled by the local police. Under
Chinese law, three factors constitute prostitution: (1) an agreement to provide or mutual
agreement to carry out sexual services; (2) “improper” sexual relations, widely interpreted
as sexual relations occurring outside of marriage or an intimate relationship; and (3) sexual
services in exchange for money or property. If two parties have reached an agreement on
price and are prepared to engage in sexual relations, but on objective grounds have not yet
had sexual relations, this also constitutes prostitution and solicitation and is subject to a
lesser penalty.53
Because sex work is often a hidden act, third-party or eyewitness testimony is rarely
available, and the lack of direct evidence makes such cases difficult to prove. Generally
speaking, it is necessary to prove that one party has engaged in a sexual act in exchange
for money or property, while also proving the other party wishes to make a payment in
money or property to engage in sexual relations with the provider of such sexual services.54
According to the Ministry of Public Security’s guidelines, in prostitution cases, condoms
are “tools of offense,” and law enforcement officers should, “following seizure, take
photographs of the condoms, and then destroy them following the conclusion of the case.”55
In provincial and city level guidelines on how to handle prostitution cases, condoms are also

24

 listed among examples of physical evidence. For example, according to Jiangsu Province’s
“Guiding Opinions Regarding the Handling of Prostitution and Solicitation Cases” and the
Quanzhou City PSB’s Provisions Regarding Investigating and Prosecuting Prostitution and
Solicitation Cases: “When public security bureaus handle prostitution cases, they should
pay attention to collect and secure the following physical evidence: a) reports from the
public, the police station report register, notes taken at the scene, investigation notes; b)
condoms and aphrodisiacs used by the prostitute or client that were collected at the scene;
c) seized proceeds of prostitution, other property obtained through prostitution, records of
payments to prostitutes and so on.”56
There is an understanding among some police that condoms shouldn’t be equated with
prostitution. For example, one leader of a public order squad in Wuhan was quoted in the
media as saying: “Condoms are only one form of evidence, and other conditions should
be satisfied, such as a specific group of people, a specific establishment and specific
behavior.”57 Some PSB officers have reported that condoms can usually only serve as
collateral evidence, and the main method to collect evidence is to detain sex workers during
a transaction, and obtain confessions from the individuals involved.58

25

 Chapter 4: HIV, Condoms, and
Public Policy

 

Chapter 4: HIV, Condoms, and Public Policy
4.1 HIV programs for sex workers
In 2004, China identified people who inject drugs, sex workers, and men who have sex
with men as “high risk” groups for HIV transmission.59 The government adopted specific
measures to reduce the HIV vulnerability of these key populations, which included
outreach and peer education* to provide information on STIs/HIV and to increase access
to condoms and promote correct condom usage.60 Since then, CDC working groups have
been conducting outreach and providing services in entertainment venues. But these
interventions have limited reach with street-based, low-income sex workers, who are
characterized by high mobility, low education, and low HIV/STI awareness and infrequent
health seeking behavior.61 There are an estimated 1-3 million female sex workers in China,
with a 4-8% prevalence of lifetime active syphilis; about 30% are street-based sex workers,
with a 25-40% prevalence of active syphilis in this group.62
Because of the illegal status of sex work and the frequent crackdowns by police, sex
workers are usually hidden, scattered, and mobile, and are thus described as a “hard
to reach” population. Since 2011, UNFPA China has supported HIV prevention among
street-based female sex workers in four project sites across China. In recent years, when
the Chinese government initiated mass crackdowns on sex, the number of sex workers
who accessed HIV prevention services in those four project sites decreased dramatically.
In 2012, at one project site, 1,528 sex workers received HIV testing; in 2013, the number
dropped to 1,247; in 2014, only 749 sex workers received HIV testing; and in 2015, the
number decreased even further to 457. The number of sex workers who received free
condoms and HIV counseling also declined.63

)

（

27

）

 Table 2: Coverage of HIV services for low-tier female sex workers (FSW) in one UNFPA project site64
Category of Service

2012

2013

2014

2015

Number of FSW received HIV testing

1528

1247

749

457

731

552

520

499

731

552

520

499

Number of FSW received free
condoms
Number of FSW received HIV
education materials and HIV
counseling

Once a sex worker tests positive for HIV it is also very difficult to provide treatment and
follow-up services, because most disappear once they receive a positive result and the
health departments lose contact.65 Considering the crime of “intentionally spreading a
venereal disease” in the PRC Criminal Law, it is unsurprising that HIV-positive sex workers
no longer want to be in contact with or on the radar of local health authorities.

4.2 Condoms in China’s HIV strategy
Consistent and correct use of male condoms reduces sexual transmission of HIV and other
STIs by up to 94%.66 Hence, condom promotion has always been a major part of the HIV
response in China. This is well reflected in policies and programs that promote condom use,
particularly among key populations such as sex workers and MSM.
Numerous official documents including national and provincial regulations, strategies,
and guidance are in place aimed at ensuring an effective HIV response and other STI
prevention. A list of national-level policies can be found at the end of this section.
For example, the Chinese government adopted HIV/AIDS-related legislation in 2006 titled,
“Regulation on the Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS,” which requires public venues
to provide condoms. Furthermore, the regulation stipulates that “health, family planning,
commercial, drug monitoring, quality monitoring, testing and quarantining, broadcast and
film and other departments of the people’s government at the county level and above shall
organize and promote the use of condoms and establish and optimize networks to provide
condoms.”67

28

 More recently, China’s “Twelfth Five-year Action Plan for Containing, Preventing and Treating
HIV/AIDS” aims to achieve “the placing of condoms or installation of vending machines in
95% of guesthouses and other public venues, and a condom usage rate of at least 90%
among high-risk groups.”68
Pursuant to the central government’s policy orientation to actively promote the use of
condoms, various provinces have issued similar local provisions requiring entertainment
venues to publicly display condoms.69 In some provinces, for example in Yunnan province,
the public display of condoms has become an important part of HIV prevention health
inspections of public venues,70 and some venues have received administrative penalties
for “not displaying condoms or condom-vending equipment in their places of business in
accordance with regulations.”71
The central government not only provides free condoms to people living with HIV, but also
distributes a large number of condoms to key populations, including sex workers, through
the efforts of the CDC and CBOs. The government allocates in its budget a specific amount
of funds each year to purchase condoms for HIV programming, but has not reported
specific figures related to spending on condoms nationally. Xiao Hui, a staff at a district level
CDC, reported that in 2015, their target is to reach 20,000 people from key populations, and
distribute 140,000 condoms.72

29

 National Condom-related Policies
Publicity Principles for AIDS and STD Prevention (1998): Required “spreading
publicity on the use of condoms to prevent HIV/AIDS and STDs,” and “avoiding reports
that treat condoms as evidence of prostitution.”73
Views on the Promotion of Condom (Contraceptive Shield) Use for HIV/AIDS
Prevention (2004): Makes explicit the responsibilities of health, family planning,
commercial and broadcasting departments for the promotion of condom use. Called
for making full use of television, movies, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines,
books, the internet and other media to vigorously publicize and promote condom use,
and to ensure clients of guesthouses, hotels, hostels and other service venues to use
condoms to prevent and control the sexual transmission of HIV and STDs. Government
to implement policy to provide free condoms to people who were HIV positive or who
had been diagnosed with AIDS.74
Announcement on establishing special working teams for interventions among
high-risk groups in CDCs at all levels (2004): Required the CDC to establish work
teams to engage in intervention work among key populations.75
Guidelines for Interventions Targeting High-risk Behaviors (2005): Instructed the
CDC to promote the use of condoms and to increase access to STD diagnosis and
treatment and reproductive health services for key populations.76
Intervention Guide for Service Workers in Entertainment Venues (2004): CDCissued Guide specifically targeting female sex workers to promote the widespread and
correct use of condoms as one of its three intervention strategies.77

)

<

30

 Sanitation Standards for Bathhouses (2007): Required bathhouses to “display
condoms or install condom vending machines and provide HIV prevention
promotion materials.”78
China Action Plan to Contain and Prevent HIV/AIDS (2006-2010): Promotes
condom use in relevant public venues and among key populations.79

4.3 The Condom Conundrum
The Chinese government has demonstrated a rational pragmatism in its HIV response
and has reached a high level of consensus regarding the role of condoms in preventing
HIV and other STIs. However, as the findings and analysis in this study demonstrate, the
effectiveness of HIV prevention efforts including condom promotion, distribution and use
are being hampered by other laws and policies, and law enforcement practices that are in
conflict with the Chinese government’s public health efforts.
Condoms in the Media
Although the Chinese government has issued various policies requiring State media to
promote condom use, in reality, condoms have rarely been mentioned in mainstream media.
Commercial advertisements for condoms were banned for 25 years by a document issued
by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce in 1989, which was quietly scrapped
in 2014.80 This legal obstacle prevented condom manufacturers such as Jissbon and
Durex’s attempts to advertise condoms on the subway or television.81
When condoms appear in news reports it is only in relation to anti-sex work and antipornography crackdowns on television, on the Internet, and in print media. These reports
often show public security officers raiding vice dens and sex workers being arrested, along
with descriptions of the discovery of large numbers of condoms. For example, “Xi’an Vice
Raid Scene Shots Exposing Condoms Scattered on Beds,”82 and “Hubei Police Investigate

——

31

?

 Illegal Rental Unit, 1,000 Condoms Scattered On the Floor.”83 These reports associate
condoms with sex work and portray them as evidence of prostitution. In an environment in
which sex work is illegal and considered dirty and harmful to public morals, condoms are
likewise given these labels.84 Even now, such reports are far from rare, and they continue to
reinforce stigmatizing attitudes towards condoms that undermine public health services of
government health organizations and CBOs.
In fact, as early as 1998, health departments were aware that the appearance of condoms
in media reports on vice raids had a highly adverse effect on HIV prevention work. That
year the Ministry of Health joined with eight other ministries and commissions to issue the
“Publicity Principles for AIDS and STD Prevention,” which required “spreading publicity
on the use of condoms to prevent HIV/AIDS and STDs” while at the same time “avoiding
reports that treat condoms as evidence of prostitution.”85 The “China Mid- and Long-term
Plan for Controlling AIDS (1998-2010)” also emphasized that national and local newspapers,
radio stations and television stations should carry out publicity and education on AIDS to
construct a social environment empowered to prevent the spread of HIV.86
Conflicting policy, Confusing messages
The government has been actively implementing its HIV strategy among sex workers,
however, the crackdowns on the sex industry have continued and have been actively
reaffirmed in some major HIV prevention documents. For example, the 2004 and 2010 State
Council notices to strengthen the HIV response, and the 2011-2015 National AIDS Action
Plan,87 all have the stated objective of preventing HIV, but nevertheless require “public
security departments to continue, as before, to crack down on prostitution and solicitation,
the assembling of crowds for licentious activity and other unlawful and criminal behavior.”88
This policy conflict has led to substantial difficulties in implementing policies and programs
promoting condom use. Resolving these policy conflicts is essential to an effective HIV
response in China.

32

 In 2004, China established its State Council AIDS Working Committee to formulate major
guiding principles, policies and programs for HIV prevention, and to coordinate and mobilize
the relevant departments to take part in HIV prevention work. Its member work-units
included the Ministry of Public Security and the Ministry of Justice.89 Local governments
also responded by establishing HIV prevention offices and committees to coordinate among
various authorities carrying out HIV work. An internal document issued by the CDC in 2005
states: “The government must step forward to coordinate the support of the public security
departments, and the public security departments must support the promotion of condoms
in entertainment venues and resolve obstructions to policy.”90 However, to date there is
no definitive guiding document or plan on precisely how to support HIV work and how to
resolve “obstructions to policy.”
The 100% Condom Use Program (CUP) that began in 2001 initiated communication and
cooperation among health authorities, public security departments and entertainment
venues. In a pilot project in Wuhan city’s Huangpi District, the public security deputy director
and others sat down for discussions with entertainment venue managers.91 Promotion of the
project led some to wonder whether it implied giving the green light to the sex industry or
at least tacitly approving an effort to legalize the sex industry.92 The attitude of the PSB was
very explicit: they were still targeting prostitution and solicitation. Following the launch of the
100% Condom Program in Wuhan and Jingjiang, Jiangsu Province, the PSB targeted the
sex industry just as before and emphasized that there would be no letting up. The PSB did,
however, avoid venues where the project was being carried out.93
By 2006, CUP was implemented in 10 provinces in China.94 With the effective coordination
and involvement of the PSB, it was reported that police no longer used carrying condoms
as evidence. In 2008, Wan Yanhai, the director of the Beijing Aizhixing Institute, an advocacy
group, submitted an Open Government Information request to the Ministry of Public
Security, asking the Ministry to provide “related regulations, policies that relate to ending
condoms as evidence of prostitution.” The Ministry of Public Security replied, “the MSP
never issued any documents prohibiting using condoms as evidence of prostitution.”95

33

  

Chapter 5: Key Findings and Discussion
5.1 Interactions with the police and impact on condom behavior
In this study, we used questionnaires to collect information regarding sex workers’
interactions with the police, use of condoms, and the impact of police action on condom
behavior. The quantitative data in this chapter describes sex workers’ contact with police,
and how that influences their possession and use of condoms.
5.1.1 Impact of contact with police
Coming into contact with law enforcement officers is viewed by sex workers as an inevitable
part of their lives. More than half (51.3%, 265 /517) of survey respondents reported that
they had been interrogated96 by the police since engaging in sex work, and 42.9% (222/
517) responded that t interrogated in the past year. Among respondents who had been
interrogated in the past year, 64.9% (144/222) had been interrogated once, and 35.1%
(78/222) had been interrogated twice or more. For those who had been interrogated twice or
more, most (78.2%, 61/78) were women.
Table 3: Interrogated by the police since engaging in sex work or in the past year

35

 For survey respondents who experienced interrogation since engaging in sex work, most
sex workers had negative experiences. Seventy-eight percent (207/265) had experienced
verbal humiliation, 64.5% (171/265) had experienced entrapment, and 50.9% (135/207) had
experienced physical violence.
Table 4: In your dealings with the police, did you experience any of the following?97

Among the survey respondents who had been interrogated by police since engaging in sex
work (51.3%, 265/517), 70.9% (188/265) had been taken to the police station for inquiry98.
This was highly reported across genders, with 72.5% (137/189) for female, 60.6% (20/33) for
male, and 72.1% for (31/43) transgender. Just over 47% of those interrogated by the police
were subjected to administrative detention (47.2%, 125/265); and 26.8% (71/256) were
required to pay fines. Female respondents (56.1%, 106/189) were more likely to be subject
to administrative detention than male (9.1%, 3/33) and transgender respondents (37.2%,
16/43). Male and transgender survey respondents, 57.6% (19/33) and 39.5% (17/43)
respectively, were more likely to be subjected to fines.

36

 Table 5: What kind of penalties did you receive?

5.1.2 Condom access and use
With respect to channels for accessing condoms, 66% (341/517) of respondents said
that they mainly purchased their own condoms, 51.5% (264/517) said they had condoms
distributed to them free of charge by CBOs, 42.2% (218/517) said they received condoms
distributed by government health centers or CDC, 17.8 % (92/517) said their condoms
are provided by clients, and 6.1% (32/517) said they got condoms from the venues they
worked; some answered that they both purchased condoms and received free ones from
CBOs. Because the survey was carried out by community partners that had already
established contact with the respondents through the provision of services -- including
condom distribution -- this stated percentage may be higher than the general trend.
Although the vast majority of respondents (96.2%, 497/517) felt that using condoms while
working was “very important” or “important,” there was a discrepancy between their
knowledge of the importance of condoms and their actual use of them. In terms of condom
use, the overall percentage of using condoms with the most recent clients was 82.8 %
(428/517), with 75.6% (229/303) for women, 93.2% (151/162) for men and 92.3% (48/52) for
transgender.99

37

 For those who did not use condoms with the most recent clients (89 respondents), 37.5%
(33/89) reported the reason was concern over possible police searches and confiscation of
condoms as evidence of prostitution. Slightly more than 22% (15/89) reported the clients
did not want to use condoms and 17% reported that they trusted their clients and did not
need to use condoms.
Policing has a greater effect on the use of condoms for women than with male or
transgender survey respondents: among 74 women who reported they didn’t use condoms
with the most recent client, 44.6% (33/74) reported not using condoms out of fear the
police would search for condoms and use it as evidence of prostitution, while no male or
transgender survey respondents cited this.
In terms of frequency of condom use with clients in the past month, 59.2% (306/517) survey
respondents reported that they always used condoms, with 54.8% (166/303) for women,
64.8% (105/162) for men, and 67.3% (35/52) for transgender respondents.
Table 6: Condom usage with the most recent client; and the frequency of using condoms with clients in the last
month

With respect to the frequency of carrying condoms in the past month, 63.8 % (330/517)
of the survey respondents reported always carrying condoms. Among them, women were
much less likely to carry condoms; only 46.5 % (141/303) of the women reported always
carrying condoms, while 89.5% (145/162) of the men and 84.6% (44/52) transgender survey
respondents reported doing so.

38

 In response to why they (187 respondents) do not always carry condoms, two reasons
were most prevalent: (1) fear of police searches and confiscation of condoms as evidence
of prostitution [41.7% (78/187)], and (2) unwillingness of clients to use condoms [37.4%
(70/187)]. As with condom use, female respondents are more likely to cite policing and
clients as the reason for not carrying condoms. Among 162 women who reported not
always carrying condoms, 45.7% (74/162) reported not doing so out of fear that the police
will search for condoms and use them as evidence of prostitution, 40% (65/162) cited the
reason as clients not wanting to use condoms. But only 17.6% (3/17) male and 12.5% (1/8)
transgender respondents cited fear of police as the reason for not carrying condoms.
5.1.3 Law enforcement actions and condoms
Among respondents, 35.4% (183/517) sex workers -- including female (133), male (23) and
transgender (37) -- said they had experienced searches for condoms by the police. The
principal method of interrogation used by the police was to confiscate unused condoms
(66), collect used condoms (70), and/or ask sex workers about condoms (132).
Among the respondents who had been interrogated by the police in the past year, 21.1%
(47/222) reported that they would now use condoms less often, and 36.5% (81/222) said
that they reduced the number of condoms they carried after having had interactions with the
police.
The research found that the consistent condom use rate (in the past month) is lower
among respondents who had been interrogated by the police (in the past year) than those
who had no such experience: the rate of consistent condom use is 47.7% (106/222) and
67.8% (200/295), respectively. Among them, the difference was clearest among female sex
workers. Only 44.7% (71/259) of female sex workers who had been interrogated by the
police had used condoms consistently – a substantially lower figure than for female sex
workers who had not been interrogated by the police (66%, 95/144).

39

 Table 7: Consistent use of condoms in commercial sexual activity in the past month with or without police
interrogation

There were similar results for possession of condoms: 47.7% (106/222) of respondents
who had been interrogated by the police (in the past year) always carried condoms in the
past month, a rate clearly lower than for those who carried condoms but had not been
interrogated by the police (75.9%, 224/295). Again, this discrepancy was most evident
among female sex workers. Only 35.2% (56/159) of female sex workers who had been
interrogated always carried condoms, while 59% (85/144) of female sex workers who had
not have such experience always carried condoms.

40

 Table 8: Possession of condoms in the past month with and without police interrogation

5.2 Law enforcement actions relating to condoms as evidence
To understand how searches were carried out, we interviewed 74 sex workers who had
experienced police searches for condoms. Interview respondents said the police’s main
methods for handling prostitution cases were attempts to catch sex workers “in the act,” or
“stop and search” operations on the street, in residences and in entertainment venues.
5.2.1 Actions targeting sexual transactions
Catching sex workers at the scene is the main method that police used to handle sex work
cases. Forty seven of the 74 interview respondents reported that they had experienced
one or more police raids while in the process of engaging in or attempting to engage in a
commercial sexual transaction, or while soliciting clients or being solicited by an undercover
investigating officer (entrapment). Most of the locations were indoors, such as in hotel

41

 rooms, sex work establishments, or apartments, while a few were outdoors, such as parks.
The process sex workers described was very similar among interview respondents: Police
entered the premises, stopped whatever was occurring and questioned those present, and
collected evidence of a sexual transaction. Many reported that police considered carrying
condoms to be proof of sex work.
Among them, 23 interview respondents reported that police entered the room unannounced
when they were engaging with the client, or just finished the sexual transaction. Interview
respondents reported that police waited outside, and raided the room when they thought
it was the right time. When the police entered the room, their actions were very clear: they
were searching for condoms. Interview respondents said police focused on waste baskets,
beds, quilts and handbags to collect condoms. Both used and unused condoms were
collected, as used condoms can proved sex had happened, and unused condoms can
prove they intended to have sex.
Xiaomei, a female sex worker, said:
I had just gone into the room with a client when several police officers swarmed
in and restrained both of us. They then began turning over things on the bed and
looking under the bed and in the bathroom, and they picked up the quilt and shook
it. I knew they were looking for condoms. A policeman in his 30s suddenly grabbed
my handbag, reached in and pulled out several condoms, and said, “She’s carrying
quite a few!” After that they took both of us into the police station. I had a lot of
condoms and moist towelettes in my handbag.100
Six interview respondents reported that the police couldn’t find condoms, as they either did
not use condoms, or had promptly disposed of their condoms before the police entered
the room. In one case in which the police entered the room after the sexual transaction was
over and the sex worker and client had dressed, the police took the client’s pants off to
look for a condom to no avail, and after finding nothing in the trash can, left.101 Three of the
six interview respondents denied engaging in a sexual transaction and did not receive any
punishment. In two of the six cases, the clients confessed, and one sex worker was sent to
custody and education for half a year, while the other paid a fine of 1800 CNY ($281). And in
one case, the client and sex worker insisted that they were just doing massage; the police
then took 500 CNY ($78) from her wallet and claimed that it was a fine. Zhou Jie, a female
sex worker, said she was lucky not to have been using condoms with a client when the
police entered:

42

 The client and I just finished the business, suddenly a group of undercover cops
burst into the room, and wanted to detain us. I didn’t confess, I’d rather die than
confess! I said I was doing massage. Lucky that the client is not stupid, he said we
only did massage. The police didn’t believe it, they searched my bed, and couldn’t
find any condoms. Luckily we did not use condoms that day, I didn’t have even
one condom with me, otherwise we would have been in trouble. They didn’t have
any evidence, and can’t take us to the police station, so they just released us.102
For four interview respondents, police entered while they were waiting in the room for
clients, after making arrangements with the client over phone. The police knew about the
situation through monitoring sex workers’ phone call with clients, and then entered the room
to search. Police collected various things, including condoms, telephone recordings and
other items related to sexual service. Interview respondents reported that the police used
condoms to pressure sex workers and clients to confess. Nannan, a female sex worker,
reported that one night when police entered her room while she was waiting for a client,
they searched through her things and found a large bag of condoms. They then forcibly took
her downstairs and put her in a vehicle, where she saw two customers she had served that
day. She continued:
Once we reached the police station, they took my cell phone and played a
recording. The content was a recording of telephone calls I’d made that afternoon,
and after that they brought the two clients over to identify me. The police
confiscated my 900 kuai ($145), claiming it was the proceeds of prostitution. There
was also the large bag of condoms, and they said this was evidence, and that I’d
been caught with the goods, and asked if I would confess to doing it. I saw there
was no way to deny it – the two clients had identified me, and there were the
condoms. There was no choice, so I signed the record of interview.103
Xiaobei, a male sex worker, said the police came into the hotel room while he was waiting
for a client, searched the room, and found 100 condoms in his bag. They insisted he was
involved in prostitution. Xiaobei reported that after his client arrived, police began asking
him:
“Who are you looking for?” The client was scared and said he’d come to fool
around with me. A policeman asked, “Were you thinking of fooling around for
a whole month? Have you seen that he’s carrying more than 100 condoms?
How long were you planning to fool around? If you two aren’t involved in
prostitution, what is this?” When the policeman said this, he made the client very
uncomfortable, and the client just stammered and admitted it.104

43

 Having a large number of condoms in a bag created difficulties for other interview
respondents. For example, police caught Lao Wu, a male sex worker, on the scene with his
client, and found over 30 condoms and lubricants in his bag:
I said I am not selling sex, we are friends, we just go out to play. The police said
don’t talk rubbish, who carries so many condoms and just go out to play, do you
want to play for a month? I was shocked, what, I carry many condoms, how that
prove I am a sex worker? The police said you carry so many condoms, obviously
you are selling sex, if you are just playing you only need one condoms. Interview
with Lao Wu, May 20, 2015.
Eleven interview respondents reported that they were solicited by undercover cops. The
police officers negotiated prices with the sex worker, and once they reached an agreement,
the police revealed his true identity, and searched the sex worker for condoms. Zhao Hui, a
female sex worker, reported:
I was standing on the street. I saw a guy who looked at me. We talked and
negotiated the price. He even said he would increase the price for me. But
suddenly he showed a badge and said he was a police officer. He searched
my body and found condoms, and then took me to the police station. All of
my condoms were confiscated; I even brought quite good condoms, all were
wasted.105
During the searches, police officers would also take photos of the scene, of condoms, and
of the people present as evidence. Fourteen sex workers said that the police took photos of
used and unused condoms, and sometimes made them hold those condoms for the photo.
Xiao Xinjiang, a transgender female sex worker, said:
When we finished, we didn’t even have time to put on our clothes, the police
kicked the door open; they didn’t let us to put on clothes, but took pictures of us.
They found used condoms in the trash can, and then took pictures again.106
5.2.2 “Stop and Search” Operations
Chinese law authorizes the PSB to investigate people suspected of violating the law.107
As long as a police officer considers someone suspicious, they can question them, check

44

 their identification card and carry out a search. Interview respondents indicated that police
often carry out inspections where sex workers typically work, such as on the street, in
parks, in rented rooms, or in entertainment venues. Twenty-nine interview respondents had
experienced such police “stop and search” operations. In these cases, sex workers were
not engaging with clients or soliciting; police were looking for condoms.
On the street: Twelve sex workers reported encountering police inspections when they
were in parks or on the street. One sex worker said that the police often made sweeps of a
certain district in the city where she works, or patrolled the area in their cars.108 Some sex
workers said that, even if they were just standing along the road, not necessarily soliciting
for business, the police would take them back to the police station for questioning, and
if condoms were found when they were searched, they would be penalized.109 Other sex
workers said that while they stood along the streets, the police would come over and open
their handbags and see if they were carrying condoms.110 Shasha, a transgender sex worker,
said that after she went to stand on the street one night, but before she had conducted any
business, police picked her up and took her to the police station. At the station, Shasha
explained:
They [the police] began asking me, “Are you engaging in prostitution?” I kept
denying it, and the truth is that I hadn’t done anything that day. Finally, the police
ran out of patience and began to hit me and berate me to make me admit it. The
police rummaged through my bag and found a lot of condoms and some lubricant,
and they claimed that I was providing prostitution services and sent me to a
detention center for 15 days. I was very angry at the time. They had no evidence,
and hadn’t caught me in the act or chatting anyone up, so on what basis could
they say I was engaging in prostitution?111
Residences: Some male and transgender sex workers use rented rooms as their living and
working quarters, while some rent rooms in hotels. Ten interview respondents reported that
the police raided their residences. Xiaoman, a male sex worker who presents as female for
sex work, said:
Because everything here is rental units, a lot of people who hook up or who sell
it like me live around here. So when there are anti-vice sweeps, large numbers of
police officers come here to search the rooms, sometimes once in the morning and
again in the afternoon. It’s a real pain!112

45

 Other sex workers had similar experiences, stating that the police come into their rooms
and rummage through their things until they find condoms.113 For example, Su Wei, a
transgender female sex worker, said:
When I was at home, someone knocked at my door and said the police had come
to carry out a search, and then they came in. They looked all around and began
rummaging through my things, and finally in the loft they found condoms, around
200 of them. The police said, “You carry so many condoms, are you a prostitute?”
Their tone of voice was very nasty and I didn’t dare say much. Then they took
photos of the condoms.114
In these “stop and search” operations, police also treat the possession of a large number
of condoms, independent of a sexual transaction, to be dispositive of sex work. Carol, a
transgender female sex worker, stated:
The police said if you were just an ordinary citizen, you wouldn’t keep so many
condoms at home, so you must be a prostitute, and when they see it’s the CDC
that issued them, obviously to encourage use, that’s even further proof that we’re
in the sex trade.115
Entertainment venues: The police also go to bars, massage parlors and similar venues to
conduct inspections. Seven interview respondents reported that they had experienced
police inspections in these venues. Police officers enter and tell the venue to stop all activity,
and then they carry out bodily searches and bag searches on the sex workers, and also look
for condoms on display by the venue. Liu Chang, a male sex worker, said:
I was having a drink with a client in a bar when suddenly a group of policemen
burst in and began checking everyone’s ID cards. When a policeman saw me,
he said, “You’re the bar’s playboy [a term for male sex worker] aren’t you?” I said
I wasn’t, but the policeman didn’t believe me, and he snatched the bag I was
carrying and rifled through it, and he found a lot of condoms inside, and he stared
at me and said, “You’re still not admitting you’re selling sex? Then why are you
carrying all these condoms?” And with that, I and many others were taken to the
local public security bureau that night.
Xiaoyue, a female sex worker who works in a massage parlor, said:
At the time there wasn’t much business, and we were sitting inside the shop
chatting and fixing our makeup, and then policemen in uniforms came in and said

46

 they were carrying out a search. Our shop had a little basin holding condoms, and
they found that little basin and asked why we had them in our shop, and said this
must be a prostitution venue. What was really annoying was that they weren’t from
the nearby police station. The police made us carry the basin full of condoms to
the police station and said they were evidence or whatever.116
Sex workers also reported that the police take photos of condoms they find during these
searches.117 The police also confiscated the condoms and treat finding condoms as the
determinative factor in whether to take the sex worker back to the police station for further
inquiries or penalty. Among the 29 interview respondents who experienced police searches
for condoms while streetwalking or in their homes or entertainment venues, 69% (20/29)
were taken to the police station where an administrative penalty was imposed, 13.8% (4/29)
were taken to the police station for further inquiries without a penalty being imposed, and
17% (5/29) had no further action taken against them. Junfang, a female sex worker who
works on the street, said:
As soon as I stand in an alleyway, I’ll get caught. If you’re not carrying condoms,
he [the policeman] will make you stand there and interrogate you, but as long as
you refuse to admit it and say you’re just passing through, he can’t take you away.
But if there are condoms, the police will take you in.118
5.2.3 Reliance on condoms as “evidence” and police violence, abuse, and coercion
Sex work-related offenses are mainly handled pursuant to several administrative measures,
and consequently, there is no judicial review or involvement of the court system.119
Accordingly, it was not possible to obtain documentation of the penalties reported by
interview respondents. As a result, there is no way of determining which cases involved law
enforcement officers using condoms as “evidence” to determine an act of “prostitution,” or
in which cases penalties were imposed because of condom possession.
The possession of condoms, in itself, is not in fact evidence of a sexual transaction. Given
the private nature of most commercial sexual transactions, eyewitness evidence is hard to
come by, so condoms are the easiest material evidence to uncover. Although condoms can
only serve as supporting evidence in a chain of evidence, the majority of law enforcement
effort is applied to searching for condoms.
Police violence, abuse, and coercion was reported by interview respondents of all gender
categories.120 Forms of abuse included:

47

 Verbal humiliation: Seven interview respondents across all gender categories reported that
police verbally abused them, including making disparaging remarks about their profession,
and with respect to male and transgender female sex workers, verbally abusing them for
their sexual orientation and gender expression.
Physical violence: Twelve interview respondents reported that police physically abused
them. Police violence occurred during police questioning at the scene and in the police
station. Interview respondents reported that police used physical violence to make them
confess, and to sign the record of interview. Interview respondents reported various forms
of physical violence, including slapping, kicking, punching, beating, and having their head
banged against the wall.
Extortion and corruption: Because public security officers have considerable discretion
over what penalties to impose, they are in a position to take advantage of sex workers
and extort bribes from them. Eight interview respondents reported that the police extorted
bribes from them in exchange for a release. The amounts that the police extorted ranged
from 3000 RMB (US$469) to 30000 RMB (US$4688). 12 interview respondents were fined,
six reported that they weren’t given a receipt; one said he was given a hand written receipt
without any official stamp on it. They suspected the money went into the police officers’
pockets. Interview respondents reported that they paid cash for the fine, though according
to Chinese law, fines should be paid at the bank.121 One interview respondent even reported
that the police took him to an ATM to get money to pay the fine, because he didn’t have
enough cash on him.122 Four interview respondents reported that after police found
condoms, they confiscated their valuables, including cash and a watch. These interview
respondents reported that they didn’t receive any certificate documenting the items
confiscated.

5.3 Impact on HIV response
5.3.1 On condom behavior
Police searching for and confiscating condoms for use as evidence of prostitution is widely
reported by sex workers of all gender categories. These practices have a negative impact
on sex workers’ decision to use and carry condoms, and on entertainment venue owners’
willingness to provide them. Ten interview respondents reported that in order to avoid being
penalized, they would promptly dispose of their condoms when encountering the police,
for example, by throwing their condoms out the window or flushing them down the toilet.123

48

 Li Huixian, a female sex worker, explained:
The police always threaten and scare people by saying condoms prove that you’re
a prostitute, so before the police arrive, I throw the condoms out or hide them, but
I’ve seen a lot of sisters simply not using them.124
In order to prevent police from discovering condoms, one sex worker reported stuffing her
condoms into her vagina.125 Street-based sex workers threw away their condoms as soon as
they saw a police officer in the vicinity. Xiaoyan, a female sex worker who solicits customers
along the streets in a city in southwest China, said:
Streetwalking keeps you on pins and needles; as soon as I see them (police) I run
away, and if it’s too late, I just throw away my money and condoms to spare myself
trouble. I don’t know how many condoms I’ve thrown away.126
Interview respondents reported that fear of arrest drove them to shorten their service time
with clients as much as possible, and made them more likely to agree to a client’s demand
to not use a condom. Xiaoxue, a female sex worker previously detained by police during a
commercial sexual transaction with a client, reported that when the police discovered used
condoms at the scene she was put in detention for 15 days. She said:
After I came out [of detention], I lost my nerve for a long time, and when I started
working again I asked clients if it could be quick, and they usually demanded not
to use a condom. I also hoped to finish quickly, and this way even if the police
came, if they didn’t see a condom they would have no evidence.127
Both quantitative and qualitative data from this study found that law enforcement actions
decreased sex workers’ willingness to carry a sufficient amount of condoms, and that they
tried to hide condoms in secret places. Twenty-one interview respondents said that at
the time of police interrogation, they were usually carrying dozens or even more than 100
condoms, but after these incidents they carried only a few. Because the police usually rifled
through sex workers’ bags looking for condoms, seven interview respondents reported they
stopped carrying condoms in their bags, and instead hid them in in their underwear or in
their hair.128 Some street-based sex workers hid condoms in thick grass in parks.129 Some
sex workers said they no longer carried condoms, but hid them in the rooms where they
worked.130 Meimei, a female sex worker, described in detail how she hides condoms:

49

 We put condoms in several different places. For example, most are hidden outside,
in a plastic bag in a planter outside of the window, along with garbage where
no one will notice. If there’s only a few, we’ll keep them at home, for example in
an empty medicine bottle, or in a plastic bag from the market that we put in the
refrigerator or in the rice sack – in short, in places where they [the police] normally
won’t look.131
Sex work is unpredictable; it is difficult to estimate the number of clients and where the
service will be performed. Reducing the number of condoms carried, or not carrying them at
all, creates a direct health risk for sex workers. Meidi, a transgender sex worker, said:
With quickies, I may take two or three. So I really can’t be caught short [of
condoms], but I don’t know how many I’ll be using at a time.132
Because the storage of condoms has to meet certain conditions, unsuitable storage can
lead to damage, increasing the risk of STI transmission or unwanted pregnancy if they are
used. Hiding condoms, or making them less easily available also makes it less convenient
for sex workers to access them. If sex workers and clients cannot promptly access
condoms when they need them, unsafe sexual behavior may occur. Law enforcement
actions have prevented sex workers from being able to protect themselves.
In some cases, the condoms that police found during searches had been distributed at
no cost by the local CDC or a CBO.133 Three interviewees said that, after experiencing law
enforcement actions, they haven’t dared to accept condoms brought to them by outreach
staff.
5.3.2 On the public display of condoms
Both sex worker interview respondents and venue owners reported that law enforcement
practices had decreased the overall availability of condoms in sex work venues, because
entertainment venue staff did not want to display condoms publicly.
Sex workers and venue managers reported that, after experiencing law enforcement
actions, they no longer displayed condoms as openly as before, but put them in a
concealed location, for example, outside rather than inside a room.134 Three sex workers
said that some venues were no longer putting condoms out at all and, when they needed
them, they would get a small number from the manager. A-Hong, a male sex worker, said:

50

 The boss doesn’t dare to put condoms out in the open and hides them all away.
It’s a real hassle for us to find them. Every three to five days he distributes them to
us a few at a time.135
Zhao Ke, a health department worker interviewed for this research, stated:
I work in a CDC, and I tell venue operators that, according to the provincial AIDS
regulation, they have to make condoms available, and they put them out. But the
police come and say, ‘Why do you have this kind of thing?’ One time I saw the
police make the proprietor quickly gather up all the condoms, saying, ‘Do you have
illegal activity going on here?’ Under these conditions, managers don’t dare put
condoms out. They’re afraid of the police but not of the CDC.136
For this reason, one venue manager told us, many venues respond by “putting condoms out
when the health authorities come, and putting them away when the PSB comes.”137
Brother Song is the manager of a gay bar where condoms are not on public display. He
said,
We don’t put condoms out on the tables here, but put them under the tables. We’re
afraid the police will suddenly turn up for an inspection and make it hard to explain.
And we don’t dare put condoms in the bar’s private rooms. If there are people and
condoms in the room, the police will take you away immediately.138
5.3.3 Impact of law enforcement on sex work
Law enforcement actions force sex workers to move around and make their work even
more secretive. After experiencing law enforcement actions, 21.2% (47/222) of the survey
respondents temporarily stopped engaging in sex work, while 24.8% (55/222) changed
to more concealed venues, and another 24.8% (55/222) changed work venues frequently.
Some sex workers left their original cities or venues, and some said that police vice raids
changed how sex workers operate. In these instances, clients no longer dared to come
to the venues, so the clients contacted the sex workers through the Internet or over the
telephone.139 This kind of displacement disrupts the contacts that CBOs have built with sex
workers, and causes sex workers to face even more threats to their health and safety.140

51

 Street-based sex workers said they chose highly-concealed places to engage in sexual
transactions, such as public toilets.141 When engaging in sexual activity in public toilets, sex
workers do not have access to sanitation facilities, such as showers. Furthermore, there are
increased security concerns the more isolated the locations become.
Although sex work has become more covert, our research found, similar to other studies,
that police crackdowns did not result in sex workers leaving the sex industry.142 After
encountering law enforcement officials, sex workers may stop working, but only for a short
time. Once they resume their work, sex workers merely change their city, venue or method
of operation. Zhao Hui, a female sex worker, said:
I changed a place to work. That place was inspected too strictly, the police already
knew me, I was afraid they would come directly for me, so I changed to another
place quickly.143
And Jun Zhe, a male sex worker, moved to another city:
Immediately after I was released, I went to another city, I have had enough here.144
Furthermore, the economic losses sex workers suffer through penalties or detention require
them to work even harder to make up their losses. Zhao, a female sex worker, said:
I have to continue to work. I already paid the fine, I have to earn the money back!
The economic pressure and fear of arrest also often forces sex workers to agree to clients’
demands to not use condoms. And, because of police crackdowns, sex workers are
less likely to report to the police if they experience violence from clients. Frequent law
enforcement actions also make sex workers more dependent on regular customers as their
main source of income, which also increases potential risks of having unsafe sex. Research
finds that the prevalence of condom use is usually lower with more stable sex partners.145
Law enforcement actions, and accompanying violence and abuse of power, have an
immense effect on the image and credibility of public security authorities among sex
workers. When asked about their impression of the police, only 11.2% (58/517) of the
survey respondents had a good impression of the police, while half (49.5%, 256/517) had
a poor impression. Nearly half (48.7%, 252/517) said that if they encountered a dangerous
situation during work, they would not report it to the police. Zhang Mo, a male sex worker
who was caught by police with condoms, said:

52

 I have no good impression and trust of those so called government people. They
do such shameful things with the money from the government! I guess they had
quotas to fulfill during that time, so they tortured me to confess.146
The fear of government authorities among sex workers as a group may affect their
willingness to accept and obtain government services, and the ability of public health
institutions to provide services may also be weakened. Zhao Ke, a health worker, said that
prior to the vice raids, managers tacitly approved of health department staff going to venues
for outreach and intervention; but after the vice raids, managers would say that their venues
had no target groups requiring intervention.147
5.3.4 Limited coordination between departments
Interviews with key informants--local health authorities, managers of sex work venues,
CBOs and PSB officers --indicate that crackdowns on sex work greatly decrease the ability
of health departments and CBOs to conduct HIV prevention work and distribute condoms to
sex workers. The problem is compounded by the limited communication and coordination
between health and public security departments.
Health officers and CBO staff who were interviewed for this report said that PSB law
enforcement activity is a factor that always has to be considered in intervention work
targeting sex workers as a group. Interview respondents said that the police carry out
inspections at entertainment venues on major holidays or around major conferences, or
they target specific premises for searches based on reports from members of the public.148
Xiao Zhang, a health worker, said raids were carried out all over his city in a crackdown
targeting sex workers in saunas and hair salons in 2014. In addition to arrests made at the
scene, police also designated condoms they found as key evidence of prostitution.149 Moyu,
a health worker in southeastern China, said that during large-scale vice raids in his city in
2014, entertainment venues were not allowed to display condoms.150 These crackdowns
have a chilling effect on the sex industry. Mother Binbin, manager of an establishment for
female sex workers, explained:
Starting last year, business hasn’t been good. Now there’s just seven or eight
[customers] all day, from morning to night. In the past we’d have a dozen or so
at night alone. Since those higher ups called for vice raids, a lot of people have
stayed home, and business has been terrible.151

53

 These crackdowns always bring a temporary halt to HIV intervention work. Health workers
interviewed for this report said that, when they encountered a period of police vice raids,
their intervention work stagnated and they were unable to meet their intervention targets.152
Xiaohui, a staff worker at a local Center for Disease Control, said:
The district under our jurisdiction currently has more than 30 entertainment venues
with more than 400 sex workers, including secret prostitutes and MBs [“money
boys,” referring to MSM sex workers]. Every time there’s a vice raid, we’re unable
to contact even half of our original number. Before the vice raids, these sex
workers cooperated with our work by communicating with us, but since the vice
raids, they’ve been generally unwilling to communicate, thinking that we’re the
ones who called in the police.153
The impact is felt not only on health departments, but also on CBOs, which the health
departments relies on substantially to conduct intervention with sex workers. Sister Yang,
leader of a community organization, said:
The interrogation had a big effect on work. No one wants to come out and fool
around, so we can’t find people [sex workers]. The managers have become
cautious and don’t want to deal with us, and they don’t put condoms on display.
Before the strike-hard campaign, there were some places where we could
distribute a large number of condoms – we’d leave a big box of them, and they’d
be gone in a day or two. But, since the strike-hard campaign, it’s been hard to
distribute condoms. The managers don’t dare put them out, and they [the sex
workers] don’t come out.154
Interview respondents said communication channels between health and public security
officials were extremely limited.155 Xiao Ding says her health department has coordinated
with the PSB on intervention work for people who use drugs, but never for sex workers.156
Lao Yang, a local CDC worker who has been engaged in HIV prevention work for five years,
said that during strike-hard campaigns it is extremely difficult to reach intervention targets.
The coordination between his department and the police is such that after the PSB takes
someone into custody, the health department is notified only to carry out HIV testing of sex
workers in administrative detention centers, which then allows them to meet their quotas.157

54

 Interview respondents said that health authorities were at a great disadvantage when
working with the PSB. Moyu said that during the 2014 vice raids, when the PSB didn’t allow
condoms to be displayed, local health and public security officials convened a coordination
council on the issue:
The public security department is also a work unit for banning drugs and
preventing AIDS, but when coordinating with them we couldn’t say it was for the
health of call girls, or say that there were call girls. If we did, they’d be subjected
to a crackdown. It’s like our province has an AIDS Prevention Office and has the
AIDS Prevention Office coordinate with the PSB, saying they want to put out AIDS
prevention items, but not using the word “condom.” To tell the truth, the “higherups” declare that there’s no problem, but when it comes to implementation by local
police, it’s another story.158
In some places however, HIV work has gained the enthusiastic support of the PSB, as the
local police force is more open and collaborative. A CBO staff person who was interviewed
told of running into a police vice raid once while engaged in outreach and being forced to
stop. One of the organizations then communicated with the PSB through the local CDC to
gain their understanding and support. The PSB then said it would do its best to cooperate
with their outreach work. From then on, the CBO and the PSB were on very friendly terms,
and when that organization was later subjected to extortion by an organized crime gang,
the local police intervened and assisted the CBO. That staff member said, “The smooth
performance of our daily work is largely thanks to the protective presence of the police.”159
Xiao Li, a PSB officer, said:
[Whether or not to put condoms out] I feel this is a question of two departments
coordinating with each other. But how do we coordinate? If they [condoms] are
put out, that suggests that the PSB tacitly approves of prostitution being carried
out at that venue. If they’re not put out, there’s no way for the Center for Disease
Control to reduce the spread of STDs and HIV. Every department thinks of its own
problems and difficulties, so the two need to discuss them together. Here in our
jurisdiction the police haven’t done that; it requires those at the higher levels to
develop favorable policies. This is a problem of national law and not something
that any public security department or Center for Disease Control can resolve.160
A health official interviewed for this report called for an end to the crackdown on sex work,
as it directly impacts on HIV prevention work and distribution of condoms:

55

 Many small hotels, hostels and entertainment venues won’t place condoms where
they can be clearly seen. Every time there’s a vice raid or a strike-hard campaign, a
lot of the sex workers here vanish, which has a very bad effect on our intervention
work – we can’t find people. At the Center for Disease Control, we work from the
perspective of preventing AIDS for all the people, we don’t want vice crackdowns
and strike-hard campaigns, because this directly affects the distribution and
provision of condoms.161

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Chapter 6: The “Probative Value” of Condoms
China is not the only country to use possession of condoms as evidence of prostitution.
Many other countries and regions, including in Asia, have policies and practices in which
condoms are treated as evidence in prostitution cases. However, there is also a slowgrowing movement to rethink and reform these practices, some of which is driven by
the impact these policies are having on HIV prevention efforts, and also due to greater
awareness of human rights protections for those working in the sex industry. A brief
overview of developments in other jurisdictions is therefore instructive.

6.1 Case Studies: New York and San Francisco
In New York and San Francisco, a person is guilty of prostitution when that person engages
or agrees or offers to engage in sexual conduct with another person in return for a fee.
Accordingly, to convict an individual of prostitution, a prosecutor must prove three elements:
that the defendant (1) made an offer or agreement (2) to engage in sexual conduct with
another person (3) in exchange for a fee.162
In New York City, police do not need to obtain an arrest warrant to make an arrest in public
as long as the arresting officer has “probable cause” to believe a suspect is committing
or has committed an offense. Although it is not a crime to carry condoms, before the
policy change one of the factors police used to determine whether to arrest someone for
prostitution or solicitation was whether the person was carrying condoms. Furthermore,
prior to recent changes, the New York City police were widely reported to have confiscated
condoms from people they believed to be involved in the sex trade even when no arrest
was made.163 In San Francisco, the police also regularly treated possession of condoms
as evidence of “an act of furtherance” in prostitution cases. Although the police did not
confiscate condoms, they photographed them for evidentiary purposes.164
There are considerations underlying the use possession of condoms as evidence. Condoms
are a kind of circumstantial evidence. Carrying unused condoms may indicate that a person
may intend to engage in sexual activity, and a used condom indicates that sexual activity
has likely occurred. For this reason, in meeting the first two elements of prostitution (i.e.,
agreeing to provide or mutually agreeing to engage in sexual relations between two people),
condoms can serve as relevant (but not necessarily determinative) evidence. However,
condoms cannot serve as evidence of the third element (i.e., payment of cash or valuables).
In New York City and San Francisco, when police arrest people at the scene and discover

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 condoms, the condoms can be accepted as evidence to prove the first two elements of
prostitution, but the probative value given to this evidence is within the discretion of the
fact finder, usually a judge or jury, but sometimes an independent expert or committee is
appointed to determine the facts, depending on the case.165
In 2012, several advocacy groups carried out investigations and research on the use of
condoms as evidence of prostitution in several major U.S. cities, and found that, due to
the fear of being arrested, many sex workers said they no longer carried condoms, or carry
fewer than they need.166 As epidemiological research has shown that consistent use of
condoms is a highly effective means of HIV prevention,167 some U.S. policymakers therefore
felt that allowing the use of condoms as evidence could increase the risk of the spread
of HIV and affect public health and welfare.168 Policymakers also felt that when deciding
whether to use a particular form of evidence, the possible harm should be weighed against
the benefit provided. In New York City and San Francisco, policymakers decided that the
value of condoms for HIV and disease prevention far outweighed any utility in enforcement
of anti-prostitution laws.169
The effectiveness of condoms as evidence in prostitution cases is also limited. At most,
condoms can serve as collateral evidence when key other factors of prostitution have
already been satisfied. Furthermore, prostitution can take place without the use of condoms
and, for that reason, the fact that someone is not carrying condoms cannot determine
whether or not he or she has engaged in, or intends to engage in, sexual relations. When
police suspect that an individual is involved in prostitution, they are generally able to
use other forms of evidence, including witnessed behavior or testimony. For this reason,
condoms have limited probative value in their own right and, at best, they normally only
duplicate proof provided by other forms of evidence.170 One District Attorney noted that the
benefits of condoms as evidence does not outweigh the public health impact, explaining:
“Sex workers are more likely victims than they are criminals, and condom evidence was
rarely of any value to a prosecution.”171
In 2013, the San Francisco Police Department announced a new policy under which
condoms would no longer be treated as evidence in prostitution cases, and the department
instructed police officers not to confiscate, photograph or otherwise document the

CBS News

59

 possession of condoms. In May 2014, the New York City Police Department followed suit
and announced they too would significantly limit the practice of seizing condoms for use as
evidence in prostitution-related cases, but continue to use condoms as evidence in cases
involving sex trafficking.172 New York City Mayor, Bill de Blasio, said at a news conference,
“A policy that actually inhibits people from safe sex is a mistake and dangerous.”173

6.2 Policy change in Cambodia and Myanmar
In other parts of the world, including Africa, Asia and some regions of Europe, the police
have also arrested sex workers on the basis of possession of condoms, which has led to
sex workers being unwilling to carry and use condoms.174 However, in consideration of the
resulting risk to public health, particularly in regards to HIV, both Myanmar and Cambodia
have also issued policies directing the police not to use condoms as evidence when
arresting sex workers.175
In Cambodia, sex work itself is not illegal, but sex workers can be arrested and charged
with solicitation. Because of the ambiguity and over-breadth of the language regarding
solicitation in the law, carrying condoms could result in sex workers being arrested and
prosecuted. In 2008, the Cambodian Ministry of Justice published explanatory notes to
elucidate the meanings of the provisions of 2008 Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking
and Sexual Exploitation, which is the main law governing sex work in Cambodia. The
explanatory notes explicitly state that “possessing or carrying condoms, lubricant or other
material related to the promotion of safe sex and the reduction of HIV” shall not constitute
proof of or intent to solicit. Additionally, in 2011, the Ministry of Interior of Cambodia issued
a Letter of Declaration, which states that police will not use condoms as evidence for
arresting sex workers except in rape-related cases.176
In Myanmar, sex workers are 13.5 times more likely to contract HIV than the general
population.177 The odds of contracting HIV are increased by the practice of using condoms
as evidence of prostitution as sex workers have noted they are now afraid to carry condoms
in public. Furthermore, many massage parlors and “KTV” (karaoke) lounges that operate as
brothels do not permit condoms to be kept on their premises so as not to attract unwanted
police attention.178

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 In 2000, the Myanmar Ministry of Home Affairs issued Administrative Order No. 1048 which
declared that condoms may not be used as “material witness to arrest sex workers.”179
Condom possession cannot be used as evidence of prostitution in Myanmar and to
do so is “illegal.” Order No. 1048 (1/2000) was issued again in 2001 and 2003. The
Myanmar National Strategic Plan on HIV 2011-2015 includes a specific commitment to the
“enforcement of policy in which condom possession is not used as liability of sex work.”180
The governments in Cambodia and Myanmar have acknowledged the issues of police using
condoms as grounds to arrest and prosecute sex workers, and issued high-level directives
to eradicate this practice. However, both governments have failed to enforce the new
policies; the new policies were not widely disseminated, law enforcement officers were not
educated on the topic, and sex workers continued to be arrested for condom possession.
Law enforcement officers are in a unique position to help sex workers and to promote the
use of condoms and access to health services. But with the good policies just on paper
and not being enforced, now sex workers must decide whether to protect themselves by
carrying and using condoms or protect themselves from the law intended to help them.

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 Chapter 7: Conclusions and
Recommendations

 



EN 


wj

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations
I feel that as long as both parties are willing and there’s no coercion or effect
on society or on others, why should it be illegal? They also need to know how
to protect themselves, so why not let them use condoms? At the very least,
condoms prevent the transmission of disease so there’s no harm to society.
– Sister Ai, female sex worker
The research for this report, conducted in three major Chinese cities, found that coming
into contact with law enforcement actions is a common occurrence for male, female and
transgender sex workers, and they are struggling to maintain their safety and health in
such an environment. Condoms, a tool that can protect sex workers from STIs/HIV, are
categorized and targeted as a “tool of offense” in police actions against sex workers. Law
enforcement officers search for and confiscate condoms, and use possession of condoms
to pressure individuals into a confession. Sex workers who are affected by these policies
and actions are not passive, they demonstrate agency in response to these actions and
in efforts to resist and circumvent the police actions. However, sex workers are still more
likely to agree to client demands to not use condoms, reduce the numbers of condoms
they carry, not carry condoms at all, or try various methods to hide condoms in concealed
places. Entertainment venues are also deterred from publicly displaying condoms in their
establishments, despite central government policies advising them to do so.
China has long taken a punitive approach to sex work. However, this research, together with
other research, has shown that law enforcement is ineffective in eradicating sex work; sex
workers simply change their working locations or methods while continuing to work.
At present, China’s HIV response and law enforcement actions are at odds. Health
departments actively promote condom use at entertainment venues, and community groups
are investing heavily in peer education that includes condom promotion and distribution.
But an effective HIV response should be more than just an arena dominated by health
departments; it is a social problem that should involve coordinated and complementary
efforts by affected communities, law enforcement, media and many other stakeholders.
Prevention cannot merely focus on the number of condoms distributed while neglecting
public policies related to those same condoms. The participation of the PSB in HIV
prevention cannot be limited to STI and HIV testing of arrested sex workers. HIV strategies
at various levels must take note of the effect law enforcement actions are having on the
spread of HIV, such that their response is not directly undermining parallel efforts by health
departments.181

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 The 100% Condom Use Program, which piloted in 2001 and launched in 10 provinces in
China,182 was the only program targeting sex workers that gained the political support of
the Chinese government. As a result, the program successfully mobilized the support of the
PSB, and formed coordination mechanisms which involved entertainment venue owners,
PSB and local health departments. The program achieved concrete results: in places where
the program was implemented, STI prevalence among sex workers was significantly lower
than those that did not implement the program.183
Today, however, there is no mechanism for PSB and public health departments to work
together on interventions for sex workers. With the government’s launch of a large-scale
crackdown on sex work in recent years, the PSB has to take an even harsher approach and
attitude towards sex workers, decreasing the space for PSB’s participation in HIV prevention
work for sex workers.
UNFPA’s survey of its HIV and SRH intervention programs for low-tier female sex workers
in 4 counties in China (2011-2015) found that, the involvement of other government
departments (beyond the health departments) in sex worker and HIV-related health work
has been decreasing; 75.8% health officers reported they “often worked with other
departments” at the beginning of the program, which dropped to 51.4% at the end of the
program.184 The major drop in participation is from the PSB, as it has been more focused on
the crackdown on sex work, rather than in supporting the health department. As a result, the
number of sex workers receiving HIV-related health services has dropped significantly.185
While decriminalization of sex work is the best approach to protect and promote the human
rights of sex workers and has been seen to be the most effective method to reduce HIV
infections in this population,186 there is no indication that this is a near-term possibility in
China.187 However, initiatives from the government, in collaboration with the PSB, CBOs and
sex workers, could start making a change on the ground now, before decriminalization is
possible. Positive reform has already been made in the approach to people who use drugs,
also criminalized by law in China. Injecting drug use used to be the leading factor in China’s
spread of HIV, but HIV prevalence among people who inject drugs has dropped in recent

64

 years.188 This could be potentially be explained by a range of factors, including interventions
such as the 767 methadone maintenance treatment clinics that had been set up in 28
provinces. 189 Although drug use is illegal and the police are authorized to detain people who
use drugs, the government issued policies to ensure the PSB’s legitimate role in supporting
the roll out of the methadone clinics, and the clinics provide a platform for coordination
between various departments.
Without the support of the police force, interventions to create a safer environment for sex
workers will be limited. The same will be true for China’s efforts to control the HIV epidemic
in this population. Authorities and communities should work together to support measures
that protect public order and safety, but also help key populations access health services
rather than being targeted as an object of enforcement.

Key Recommendations:
To the Ministry of Public Security
Eliminate the police practice of searching for and confiscating condoms and using
possession of condoms as evidence of prostitution.
• Amend national and local guidelines on the handling of sex work cases and exclude
condoms as physical evidence of prostitution cases.
• Issue a directive to instruct all law enforcement officers to immediately cease using
the possession of condoms as evidence to detain, question, or arrest persons
suspected of sex work.
• Work together with the National Health and Family Planning Commission (NHFPC)
to organize trainings for law enforcement officers on the directive, and on the public
health importance of condoms for HIV prevention and sexual and reproductive health.
Put an end to police extortion, and abuse and violence against sex workers;
investigate and punish officers who abuse or extort sex workers.
• Establish a feedback and accountability mechanism in which sex workers and
other vulnerable groups can file complaints of misconduct by police. Respond to
all incidents, and conduct due diligence to investigate and punish law enforcement
officers who abuse or extort sex workers.
• Train law enforcement officials to recognize and uphold the human rights of
sex workers; invite sex worker representatives to these trainings to share their
experiences.
2015 Progress Report on AIDS Prevention in China

65

 To the National Health and Family Planning Commission
Address the legal and policy barriers that hamper the promotion of condom use
among sex workers; improve coordination and cooperation with other departments,
especially the public security bureaus.
• At national and local levels, establish a Working Group on Sexual and Reproductive
Health (SRH) and HIV for Sex Workers, which would consist of representatives from
relevant government departments including, but not limited to, public security, health
authorities, the All-China Women’s Federation, and CBOs working directly with sex
workers. The working group should meet regularly to coordinate and solve concrete
issues that impeded sex workers’ access to SRH and HIV health services, such as
condom display in entertainment venues, and police confiscation of condoms.
• Work together with to the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and
Television to end depictions of condoms as evidence of prostitution in news reports
disseminated through television, film, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines,
books, the Internet and other media. Train media and reporters on respecting sex
workers’ dignity and human rights in reporting.
• Work together with the State Administration for Industry & Commerce to formulate
supportive policies and provisions that encourage commercial and public service
advertisements promoting condom use.
Improve sex workers’ access to sexual and reproductive health and HIV services.
• HIV programs for sex workers should be designed and implemented in consultation
with sex workers. The negative impacts on health of current law enforcement
practices should be addressed in the design and evaluation of the programs.
Programs should address the issues most relevant to securing sex workers’ right to
health.
• Support STI and HIV intervention programs led by sex workers and CBOs; provide
voluntary and rights-based outreach, peer education, counseling, testing and other
services.
To the National People’s Congress
Reform punitive laws, policies and law enforcement practices to protect sex workers’
rights.
• Reform the punitive legal framework on sex work; move towards decriminalization
of sex work; withdraw laws and regulations that prohibit consenting and voluntary
adults from buying or selling sexual services; ensure safe working conditions for sex
workers.

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 • Abolish articles in the Criminal Law relating to “intentionally spreading sexually
transmitted diseases,” and abolish phrases relating to “cracking down on prostitution”
in HIV prevention documents.

To the Chinese government
Strengthen sex workers’ access to justice and empower them with knowledge of their
rights.
• Implement community-led empowerment initiatives for sex workers, and create
mechanisms to enable local governments, sex worker organizations and other
interested civil society groups to create environments conducive to sex workers
rights, including network building among sex workers for peer support to prevent and
mitigate the effects of violence.
• Ensure sex workers’ access to legal literacy programs and legal aid services,
including through the training of legal aid providers on sex workers’ rights and
establishing networks of paralegal peers to provide legal support.
• Support sex worker-led organizations to conduct systematic documentation of human
rights violations and discrimination against sex workers, forging partnership with
other key population networks, local leaders, and the media for a stronger national
advocacy to protect the rights of sex workers.

67

 Glossary
Key populations: (1) Gay men and other men who have sex with men, (2) sex workers
and their clients, (3) transgender people, and (4) people who inject drugs are the four main
key population groups. These populations often suffer from punitive laws or stigmatizing
policies, and they are among the most likely to be exposed to HIV. Their engagement is
critical to a successful HIV response everywhere—they are key both to the epidemic and to
the response.
The term “key populations” also is used by some agencies to refer to populations other
than the four listed above. For example, prisoners and other incarcerated people also are
particularly vulnerable to HIV; they frequently lack adequate access to services, and some
agencies may refer to them as a key population.
Outreach services: Refers to services provided by peer sex workers, health education
publicists or health personnel who go into entertainment service venues or other public
venues to carry out health counseling, distribute educational materials, condoms, and
other items, engage in health promotion activities, or who provide HIV-related or sexually
transmitted infections ( STIs) diagnosis and treatment.
Peer education: Refers to an approach to health promotion, in which community members
disseminate health knowledge and promote safe sex within their own community.190
Prostitution/prostitute: A term that implies a person is in the business of selling sex.
Because this term connotes a value judgment, this report only uses the term “prostitution”
when quoting directly, or summarizing, specific legislative or treaty provisions. Otherwise,
the term “sex work” is used.
Public Security Bureau (PSB): Refers to the Public Security Bureau, the local police force
in China. PSBs are under the jurisdiction of the national level Ministry of Public Security
(MPS). The MPS coordinates the work of provincial PSBs, which are also answerable to
the provincial governments and provincial level branches of the Communist Party of China.
Provincial PSBs in turn administer county or district level public security sub-bureaus and
branch bureaus, which perform a role similar to larger police stations. The lowest level units
are police posts, which perform a role similar to smaller, local police stations.

68

 Sex worker: Includes female, male and transgender adults (18 years of age and above) who
receive money or goods in exchange for sexual services, either regularly or occasionally.
Sex work is consensual sex between adults, can take many forms, and varies between and
within countries and communities. Sex work also varies in the degree to which it is more or
less “formal,” or organized.
Transgender: An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and expression do not
conform to the norms and expectations traditionally associated with the sex assigned to
them at birth; it includes people who are transsexual, transgender or otherwise gender
non-conforming. Transgender people may self-identify as transgender, female, male,
transwomen or transmen, trans-sexual or, in specific cultures, as hijra (India). They may
express their gender in a variety of masculine, feminine and/or androgynous ways.

69

 Acronyms
CBO: Community based organization
CDC: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
FSW: Female sex worker
MSM: Men who have sex with men
MSW: Male sex worker
NCAIDS: National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention (China)
MOH: Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China. In the reforms of 2013 the
ministry has been dissolved and its functions integrated into the new agency called the
National Health and Family Planning Commission (NHFPC).
PSB: Public Security Bureau
STI: Sexually Transmitted Infections
UNAIDS: Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS
UNDP: United Nations Development Program
UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund
WHO: World Health Organization

70

 Acknowledgments
This project was a joint collaboration between four Chinese community-based
organizations, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) office in China, and Asia
Catalyst. The research was a result of extensive consultation with Chinese sex workers who
strongly articulated a need to identify and address policies that were affecting their right to
health.
The report was written by Asia Catalyst staff with editorial support from Andrea Worden.
The four community partners designed the research focus, conducted all of the fieldwork,
and reviewed the draft report. Asia Catalyst thanks the four community partners for their
tremendous efforts in collecting the compelling data and testimony contained within this
report, and to the individual sex workers who trusted us to tell their story.
Asia Catalyst also thanks Joanne Csete, Adjunct Associate Professor, Columbia University,
Mailman School of Public Health; Fu Hualing, Professor, Hong Kong University; Megan
McLemore, Senior Researcher at Human Rights Watch; Anna-Louise Crago; Ruth Morgan
Thomas, Global Coordinator at the Global Network of Sex Work Projects (NSWP); and Jonas
Tillman, Consultant at the Chinese National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention
(NCAIDS), and Julia Cabassi, Regional HIV Adviser, Asia and Pacific Regional Office of the
UNFPA for reviewing the draft report and providing comments and input.
We thank Marie-Claude Jean-Baptiste and the Cyrus R. Vance Center for International
Justice, and TrustLaw, the global pro bono legal program of the Thomson Reuters
Foundation, for invaluable legal research and advice. We also thank Paul, Weiss, Rifkind,
Wharton & Garrison LLP for copy editing the early draft of the report, James Baum with
Princeton for the photos for this report, and Stacey Mosher for translating the original draft
from Chinese to English.
Asia Catalyst thanks the UNFPA China office and the Embassy of France in China for
supporting the research and publication of this report.

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 Annex 1: Best Practice on Meaningful Collaboration
with Police
While it is important to change law and policy on paper, experience from other countries
has shown that change should not wait for acts by policymakers, but can and should be
effected more immediately through engagement with the police and communities. In some
countries around the world, criminalized communities such as sex workers and people who
use drugs have started innovative programs to work with the police. This section presents
the best practices from these programs, and shows how shows how communities can work
effectively with police.191 These experiences may prove instructive as China reforms its
approach.
Appeal to police interests
Police harassment of sex workers and people who use drugs is often a function of perverse
incentives (e.g., quotas for arrest, and low salaries that encourage extortion). Successful
reform of police practice toward these groups must similarly identify incentives or ways
of framing engagement to show that these efforts can help police protect themselves and
do their jobs. Police trainings in Kyrgyzstan and Ghana focused first on HIV prevention
efforts for police officers and, in the case of Kyrgyzstan, emphasized ways that awareness
of and support for clean needle programs could avoid needle stick injuries and increase
occupational safety. In Kenya, police understood that better relations with sex workers
could result in information that might prevent serious crime or assist in investigations. In
some countries, engagement with HIV projects has been rewarded with promotions (Kenya)
or commendations (Kyrgyzstan), reinforcing good police conduct.
Secure support from police leadership
Given the hierarchical nature of law enforcement, it has been essential to secure the
endorsement of police leadership for changing police practices toward sex workers and
people who use drugs, and to get them to communicate this shift to less senior officers.
This can happen in several ways. Some police forces issue a formal instruction that officers
are not to interfere with sex worker or drug user access to services, which sends a clear
message about police priorities and helps institutionalize partnership with community
health groups. Such a formal communication occurred with a high-level instruction issued
by key Ministries in Kyrgyzstan, and less formally with endorsement of HIV work at a pilot
site by the Central Committee on Drug Abuse Control in Myanmar. In other contexts, senior

72

 police who “get it” use their positions to positively shape police practice. For instance, the
provincial police chief in Kisumu, Kenya, personally opened the first police training on sex
work, sending a clear message that police priorities were not to punish sex workers, but to
support efforts to protect their health and respect their human rights.
Develop regular and systematized police trainings that involve sex workers and people
who use drugs
Police knowledge of criminalized groups is often shaped by the same stereotypes and
moral judgments that are prevalent in society more generally. It has proven critical to train
law enforcement about the realities of the lives of sex workers and people who use drugs,
and about the effectiveness and availability of health services for these groups. Since police
personnel are frequently transferred, these trainings are best repeated and offered at various
levels, like at police academies, or in continuing education efforts for serving officers.
It is essential to involve groups of sex workers and people who use drugs in the design
and implementation of these training programs. For new cadets, the Police Academy in
Kyrgyzstan formulated a mandatory 46-hour course on harm reduction, sex work, and HIV
that was developed and monitored in collaboration with sex worker and drug user groups.
Similarly, after 500 new recruits in Ghana successfully received training on rights-based
approaches to policing and the rights of marginalized populations, the curriculum was
formally incorporated at all police training institutions in the country. A key component in
shifting police attitudes toward sex workers in Ghana was sex workers themselves speaking
in these trainings of the impact that police repression and abuse had on their lives.
Police commitment to feedback and accountability mechanisms
For groups used to being targets of enforcement, police commitment to accountability
and creation of mechanisms for community feedback are critical to building trust. This
has proven particularly powerful when the police are able to open direct communication
with affected groups. For instance, the work of crisis-response teams and convergence
forums in Andhra Pradesh, India, have enabled sex workers to work with police to identify
and address abuses. In Kenya, after several sex workers reported that a police officer was
stealing from them and forcing them to have sex with him without a condom, police peer
educators worked to ensure the officer was dismissed from his job.
Police engagement with sex workers and people who use drugs outside the frame of
law enforcement
Having platforms or mechanisms that allow police and marginalized groups to informally
interact with each other, outside the frame of law enforcement, furthers trust building and
mutual understanding. For example, the inclusion of sex workers and people who use
drugs in police trainings, or police participation in community events, allows police and

73

 these communities to see beyond the assumptions they have about each other. In Kenya,
Keeping Alive Societies’ Hope organizes sporting events, voluntary testing and counseling
clinics for HIV, and community cleanups that involve both sex workers and the police. Sex
workers from the Swagati Project in Andhra Pradesh, India, credit sex workers and police
sharing the stage together at community events as having an impact not only on police and
sex workers’ attitudes toward one another, but attitudes toward sex workers in society more
broadly.
Organized groups of sex workers and people who use drugs
Given the inherent power imbalance between law enforcement and criminalized populations,
genuine collaboration is more likely when sex workers and people who use drugs are
organized and able to articulate unified positions with respect to police behavior. In Kenya
and Andhra Pradesh, India, projects have supported sex workers to develop leadership
skills and form their own groups, which has led to more powerful collective advocacy on
issues related to their health and rights. The absence of community organizing compromises
the quality of police-community partnership and raises questions about its sustainability.
Sustained funding
Collaborations require sustained funding—whether from external donors or local
governments—to catalyze reform. In Andhra Pradesh, the project benefitted from significant
financial support from both government and private sources. In Ghana, the support of
transnational actors with expertise and access to funding, such as the United Nations
Population Fund, was crucial in convincing the police that action needed to be taken and
was possible. In most of the cases, sustained funding was required for at least four years to
result in meaningful change.

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 A Case Study from Thailand

SWING: Innovative partnership with police192
In Thailand, the Prostitution Prevention and Suppression Act 1996 criminalizes
various aspects of sex work, including prohibiting soliciting, sex work in brothels,
managing sex work businesses. Police raids on sex work premises are common.
Sex workers are frequently picked up by the police for carrying condoms, which are
used as evidence of prostitution.
Service Workers in Group (SWING) is a community-based organization with the
core vision to protect and promote the human rights of sex workers. In 2004, was
documented the recurrent abuse by the police faced by sex workers in Bangkok.
The severity of the violence was documented and attempts were made to raise this
with the police department. However, there was little sign of any improvement. This
impasse continued until 2005, when SWING embarked upon a new partnership
with the National Police Cadet Academy of Thailand when they were invited to
provide training sessions on HIV prevention for newly recruited cadets. Each annual
program hosted nine volunteer police cadets over a three-week training period. The
program ran for three years and ended in 2008.
With regards this program SWING were convinced that if young police cadets
were given the opportunity to interact with sex workers in a neutral setting, this
would eventually turn out police officers with an empathetic attitude, who would be
more likely to treat sex workers humanely. This could potentially transform policing
practices.
The experience of interning police cadets within SWING was extremely
encouraging. During the internship period, cadets worked alongside outreach
staff, promoting condoms and teaching English and Thai at drop-in-centers.
Interns received orientation in outreach and counseling skills. Each evening, a
debriefing session was held to share learning, observations and assess their level
of understanding. To put knowledge into action, every Wednesday, SWING’s office
was turned into a simulated police station. Cadets had to perform their duties as
police officers while sex workers were invited to drop in to the ‘police station’ to
experiment with ways of approaching the police and filing complaints.
A total of 36 cadets completed the SWING internship program during the four
years that it ran. As a result, SWING gained credibility in many of the police stations
across Bangkok.

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 Annex 2: Raw data from Table 3-8 in this report
Table 3: Interrogated by the police since engaging in sex work or in the past year
Interrogated Since Engaging in
Sex Work

Interrogated in the Past Year

Yes

No

Yes

No

Female

189 (62.4%)

114 (37.6%)

159 (52.5%)

144 (47.5%)

Male

33 (20.4%)

129 (79.6%)

26 (16.0%)

136 (84.0%)

Transgender Female

43 (82.7%)

9 (17.3%)

37 (71.2%)

15 (28.8%)

Total

265 (51.3%)

252 (48.7%)

222 (42.9%)

295 (57.1%)

Table 4: In your dealings with the police, did you experience any of the following
Female

Male

Transgender
Female

Total

Entrapment

116 (61.4%)

23 (69.7%)

32 (74.4%)

171 (64.5%)

Extortion

97 (51.3%)

18 (54.5%)

18 (41.9%)

133 (50.2%)

Solicitation of a
monetary bribe

12 (6.3%)

17 (51.5%)

12 (27.9%)

41 (15.5%)

Physical violence

94 (49.7%)

14 (42.4%)

27 (62.8%)

135 (50.9%)

Verbal humiliation

150 (79.4%)

19 (57.6%)

38 (88.4%)

207 (78.1%)

Unlawful
confiscation of
valuables

11 (5.8%)

4 (12.1%)

12 (27.9%)

27 (10.2%)

Coercion of sexual
services

7 (3.7%)

0 (0%)

3 (7.0%)

10 (3.8%)

None of the above

19 (10.1%)

4 (12.1%)

0 (0%)

23 (8.7%)

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 Table 5: What kind of penalties did you receive?
Female

Male

Transgender
Female

Total

Taken to the police station for
investigation

137 (72.5%)

20 (60.6%)

31 (72.1%)

188 (70.9%)

Administrative detention

106 (56.1%)

3 (9.1%)

16 (37.2%)

125 (47.2%)

Custody and Education

32 (16.9%)

0 (0%)

4 (9.3%)

36 (13.6%)

Re-education through labour

11 (5.8%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

11 (4.2%)

Fines

35 (18.5%)

19 (57.6%)

17 (39.5%)

71 (26.8%)

9 (4.8%)

1 (3.0%)

0 (0%)

10 (3.8%)

38 (20.1%)

4 (12.1%)

3 (7.0%)

45 (17.0%)

Prison sentence
None of the above

Table 6.1: The use of a condom with the most recent client
How often did you use a
condom with your clients
in the last month?

Never Use

Sometimes Use

Use Every Time

Total

Female

3 (1.0%)

134 (44.2%)

166 (54.8%)

303

Male

1 (0.6%)

56 (34.6%)

105 (64.8%)

162

Transgender Female

1 (1.9%)

16 (30.8%)

35 (67.3%)

52

Total

5 (1.0%)

206 (39.8%)

306 (59.2%)

517

Table 6.2: : The frequency of using condoms with clients in the last month
Did you use a condom with
the client in your last sexual
transaction?

Female

Male

Transgender

Total

Yes

229 (75.6%)

151 (93.2%)

48 (92.3%)

428 (82.8%)

No

74 (24.4%)

11 (6.8%)

4 (7.7%)

89 (17.2%)

77

 Table 7: Consistent use of condoms in commercial sexual activity in the past month with or without police
interrogation
Female

Male

Transgender
Female

Total

Interrogated by the
police in the past
year

71 (44.7%)

13 (50.0%)

22 (59.5%)

106 (47.7%)

Not interrogated by
the police in the past
year

95 (66.0%)

92 (67.6%)

13 (86.7%)

200 (67.8%)

Table 8: Possession of condoms in the past month with and without police interrogation
Female

Male

Transgender
Female

Total

Interrogated by the
police in the past year

56 (35.2%)

21 (80.8%)

29 (78.4%)

106 (47.7%)

Not interrogated by the
police in the past year

85 (59.0%)

124 (91.2%)

15 (100.0%)

224 (75.9%)

78

 About Asia Catalyst
Asia Catalyst builds strong civil society and advances the right to health for marginalized
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and advocacy. We are an independent organization that places the needs of marginalized
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