Livestock and regional market
in the Sahel and West Africa
Potentials and challenges

   

 

Livestock and regional market
in the Sahel and West Africa
Potentials and challenges

Study carried out within ECOWAS Commission and SWAC/OECD
partnership on the future of livestock in the Sahel and West Africa

2008

Transformation du monde rural et développement durable en Afrique de l’Ouest
Rural Transformation and Sustainable Development in West Africa

 This study falls within the framework of a joint ECOWAS - SWAC/OECD
initiative in partnership with the CILSS, UEMOA and ROPPA.
It was carried out by a multidisciplinary team composed of:
Mulumba J.B. Kamuanga, PhD, Agricultural Economist, Co-ordinator of the
study, former West Africa Regional Coordinator, Livestock Socio-economic Programme, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
Jacques Somda, PhD, Livestock Economist, International Union for Conservation
of Nature (UCN)
Yacouba Sanon, PhD (Doctorat unique), Agro-Livestock Technician, Sociologist,
Expert at the Rural Agricultural and Development Departement, Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
Hamade Kagoné, PhD, Agropastoral Expert, Institute for the Environment and
Agricultural Research (INERA), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Co-ordination:
Jean Sibiri Zoundi (sibirijean.zoundi@oecd.org), Head of the Rural Transformation and Sustainable Development Unit, Sahel and West Africa Club/OECD
Léonidas Hitimana (leonidas.hitimana@oecd.org), Agricultural Economist,
Sahel and West Africa Club/OECD.

© SWAC-OECD/ECOWAS 2008
Sahel and West Africa Club/OECD
4 boulevard des Iles
92130 Issy-les-Moulineaux
E-mail: swac.contact@oecd.org
Website: www.oecd.org/swac
Tel: + 33 (0)1 45 24 89 87
Fax: +33 (0)1 45 24 90 31
Postal address: 2, rue André Pascal, 75775 Paris Cedex 16, France

ii

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have contributed to this regional study. We are extremely grateful to (i)
those responsible within Ministries as well as non-governmental organisations and development associations in the 8 countries visited; (ii) the SWAC correspondents in Ghana
(John Eshun) and Nigeria (Sylvia Nzekwu) for their help in organising field missions in
their respective countries; (iii) Mrs. Germaine Somda-Goumbri for her administrative
assistance; and finally (iv) all of the persons interviewed and met during this mission for
their commendable openness and co-operation.

iii

 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

iii

PREFACE 

ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

xiii

INTRODUCTION 
1. The context of the study 
2. ECOWAS in Brief 
3. The SWAC Secretariat/OECD 
4. Objectives and terms of reference of the study 
5. Expected results 
6. Methodology of the consultation 

v

1
2
4
7
9
9
10

 THE PLACE AND PROBLEMS OF LIVESTOCK REARING IN THE WEST AFRICAN
ECONOMY 
11
1. An important sector for its contribution to job creation and national and personal
income 
11
2. An important sector in terms of its potential 
13
3. Role of livestock in reducing poverty in West Africa and the Sahel 
16
4. Worrying imbalances with regard to the “livestock revolution” 
20
5. Key questions concerning livestock in the Sahel and West Africa region 
24
OPTIMISATION AND STIMULATION OF THE REGIONAL MARKET IN ANIMAL
PRODUCTS 
25
1. Production systems in the region 
25
1.1 Pastoral systems 
27
1.2 Off-land systems 
29
1.3 Agropastoral systems  
30
1.4 Note on unconventional livestock 
32
2. A regional view of livestock development: potential and aptitude of the various zones  32
2.1 Some basic data with regard to the SWA livestock sector: ecological diversity and
livestock potential 
32
2.2 Exploiting the comparative advantages of each zone: a necessary approach to stimulate
he regional market 
36
3. Regional trade in animal products: constraints and opportunities for its development  41
3.1 A weak showing in terms of world supply, but increasing tonnages 
41
3.2 Overview of recent developments in regional trade 
41
3.3. Intra-regional trade could be intensified in view of potential 
42
3.4 A low rate of stock exploitation, but with possibilities for improvement 
47
3.5 Balance of trade in major deficit  
49
3.6 Need for a regional view in order to optimise trade and stimulate the market 
49
3.7 Obstacles to the fluidity of trade, and the role of traditional commodity chainsc 
51
4. Challenges to the livestock sector with a view to better placing of animal products on
the regional and world markets 
55
4.1 The cattle meat chain: conditions for a sustainable economic resurgence 
55
4.2 Regional trade in the poultry sector 
56
4.3 Compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPS): advantages and costs 
59
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES INVOLVEDIN
PASTORALISM 
1. Definitions and importance of transhumant pastoralism 
2. Cross-border transhumance movements 
3. Policy and regulatory framework regarding pastoralism 
3.1 Regional agricultural policies (PAU and ECOWAP) and transhumant pastoralism 
3.2 ECOWAS Decision A/DEC.5/10/98: a regional regulation to be adapted to local
 
circumstances 
3.3 Rangeland tenure: inadequate legislation 
3.4 Environmental determinants governing transhumance 
4. The future of pastoralism in the face of restricted access to resources 
4.1 Vulnerability of access and use of pastoral resources 

vi

63
63
65
65
65
66
68
69
70
70

 4.2 Vulnerability to climatic variability and change 
4.3 Problems and conflicts linked to cross-border transhumance 
5. The future of pastoralism in the face of communalisation in rural areas 
5.1 Communalisation and transfer of responsibility for natural resource management 
5.2 Decentralisation in rural areas: a risk or an opportunity for pastoralism? 
6. Challenges regarding environmental preservation 
6.1 Exploiting rangelands while preserving their productive capacity 
6.2 Preserving and improving biodiversity 
6.3 Maintaining the fertility of agricultural land 
7. Ongoing changes in pastoralism 
WHAT ROLES CAN LIVESTOCK SECTOR ORGANISATIONS PLAY? 
1. A look back at history  
2. Organisation of the actors—a prerequisite for change in livestock production 
3. Types of sector organisations 
3.1 Producers—a productive system undergoing change 
3.2 Producers who band together in a country to increase their strength 
3.3 Livestock and meat traders 
4. The processing segment and its actors 
4.1 Conditions from 1970 to the present 
4.2 Local milk processing 
4.3 Hides and skins processors 
5. A variety of indirect actors who should be better coordinated 
5.1 Livestock ministries and technical services 
5.2 Continental and regional organisations  
5.3 Subregional projects and programmes 
LIVESTOCK POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR RESPONDING TO REGIONAL
AND INTERNATIONAL MARKETS CROSSCUTTING ISSUES 
1. Financing policies: Support for production and marketing 
1.1 Financing policies 
1.2 Policies to support trade 
2 The challenges and opportunities of research and development (R&D) policies 
3. International initiatives for livestock development 
3.1 African Livestock (ALive) 
3.2 Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative (LEAD) 
3.3 Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Facility (PPLPF) 
3.4 World Initiative for a Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP) 
4. Livestock production and strategies to combat poverty and raise the standard of
living (employment income, food security) 

71
72
72
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75
75
76
76
79
79
80
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86
91
92
94
94
97
99
103
103
104
108
108
112
112
113
113
113
116

STRATEGIC VISION OF THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR IN THE SAHEL AND WEST
AFRICA: FOOD SECURITY, POVERTY REDUCTION, AND CONSTRUCTION OF
A REGIONAL MARKET FOR ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
119
1. Strategic short- and medium-term orientations/recommendations 
120
1.1 Respond to rising West African demand 
120
1.2 Increase the livestock sector’s contribution to poverty reduction 
121

vii

 1.3 Fluid trade integrated into the financial system to increase the supply of animal
 
products in areas with strong demand and improve the technical and economic
 
performance of actors 
1.4 Support the organisations of agropastoralists, livestock exporters, and processors  
1.5 Protect pastoralism  
2. Long-term strategic orientations 
2.1. Provide the means necessary to conquer the international market for animal products 
2.2 Step up the contribution of science and technology to enable livestock production
 
to respond to future challenges 

122
123
124
125
125
125

BIBILIOGRAPHY 

127

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 

145

viii

 PREFACE

L

ivestock rearing plays a key role in the economies of West African countries providing, at times, 44% of agricultural GDP. With 60 million heads of cattle and 160
small ruminants, 400 million poultry, the Sahel and West Africa is an exceptional region
for livestock rearing. In numbers, and in comparison with the entire sub-Saharan Africa
region, the Sahel and West Africa contain 25% of the cattle, 33% of the sheep, and 40%
of the goats.
Livestock rearing is one of the main economic activities on which the poorest populations depend for food and income. It is also essential to ensure against vulnerability and

ix

 risk related to climatic conditions for populations highly dependent on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihoods.
However, this animal production potential is still under-exploited. This is illustrated by
the region’s persistent great dependence on extra-African imports for some animal products such as cattle meat, poultry pieces. As for dairy products, imports have doubled
within 20 years, increasing from 223.7 million USD in 1984 to 529.4 million USD in
2004. Besides a loss of State revenue, these imports of animal products have been detrimental to the development of local production chains, notably in the dairy and poultry
sectors. This situation intensifies the region’s dependency.
Growing annually by 4%, the demand for animal products in the Sahel and West Africa
should increase more than 250% by 2025. For now, the animal product supply growth
rate is at 2%. This increase, although significant, does not satisfy demand. Statistics
indicate that this imbalance between supply and demand will continue and worsen in
the 2020s.
Besides improving productivity, livestock rearing in West Africa shall increasingly face
policy and technical challenges. It is essential to support national and regional trade and
agricultural policies that encourage the promotion of domestic animal product production.
Similarly, the agro-food processing industry should provide value added by creating
supplementary jobs and generating more revenue for economic actors in the region. To
this end, the professionalization of livestock actors should also integrate the challenges
linked to sanitary regulations and quality standards, an essential element of the regional
and international animal products market.
The aim of this joint ECOWAS Commission and Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat
(SWAC/OECD) initiative is to examine how livestock rearing could stimulate the West
African agricultural and food products market by strengthening food and nutritional security on one hand and by contributing to poverty reduction on the other. This
analysis is a contribution to the implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy
(ECOWAP) adopted on 19 January 2005, notably concerning the specific objectives to:
(i) reduce the region’s dependency on imports by giving priority to local food production and its processing as well as capitalising on comparative advantages and complementarities between zones; (ii) to promote fair trade and the economic integration of
farms in international, regional and national markets, and (iii) create employment by
guaranteeing revenue pre- and post¬production.

x

 The current and future food and economic challenges require that particular attention
be given to optimising livestock’s potential in the region. This depends on preserving
and improving the livelihoods of millions of the rural and urban population. We hope
that the results of this analysis shall contribute to decision-making and action thus enabling States to respond to the major food security and nutritional concerns, improve
poor populations’ livelihoods, and reduce poverty in general.

President of the ECOWAS
Commission

Director of the Sahel and West
Africa Club (SWAC/OECD)

Dr Mohamed Ibn CHAMBAS

M. Normand LAUZON

xi

 EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY

A

nalyses of policies in the livestock sector all agree that demand for animal products
will rise in line with population growth, especially in view of rapid urbanisation.
In the West Africa region, statistics also indicate a high demand for animal products
both in the coastal countries described as consumption basins and in the Sahel countries
described as production basins. This relative natural specialisation with regard to animal
production has advantages for the development of intra-regional trade in animal products and therefore for regional integration. However, there remains the paradox of the
ever-growing proportion of animal product imports from outside Africa, especially dairy
products and poultry pieces. This situation raises several worrying questions for partners
and actors in development of the livestock sector in the Sahel and West Africa (SWA)
region, especially the following: How can the livestock sector become a driving force
in strengthening the regional animal products market? How can the regional supply of

xiii

 meat, dairy and other products be increased, and how can the regional trade in these
products be boosted in response to the growing demand of towns? And what could the
contribution of livestock rearing be to food security and poverty reduction?
The answers to these questions are complex and require in-depth consideration with the
support of precise information on the state of the livestock sector in the region and its
evolution over a fairly long period. The Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) and the
Commission of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) have been
engaged in this long-term process of strategic thinking, in strategic partnership with the
Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), the West
African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) and the Network of Farmers’ and
Agricultural Producers’ Organisations of West Africa (ROPPA). This study is part of this
strategic thinking to identify ways and means of enabling the livestock sector to play its
role effectively as an engine of economic development in the individual countries and
take part in the process of regional economic integration. The study was undertaken
as part of the SWAC Secretariat’s Potentials and Challenges of Livestock Rearing in
West Africa Initiative and is intended as a contribution to the first two objectives of the
Economic Community of West African States Agricultural Policy (ECOWAP), namely
(1) implementation of an approach ensuring food sovereignty by reducing dependence
on imports for food security, and (2) poverty reduction.
A multi-pronged methodology was needed to provide a participatory, analytical response to these concerns. Quantitative data were therefore obtained basically from available statistics on the SWA countries (FAOSTAT, official sources, objective estimates)
and from regional and international institutions. Interviews were conducted with actors
in the livestock sector in eight countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana,
Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal) representing the various livestock and animal product
systems in the region. A data collection grid was designed for the purpose. Lastly, documents on production, marketing, processing and macroeconomic and sectoral policies
were reviewed. The multi-functional nature of livestock rearing and the complexity of
the concerns being addressed required the formation of a multi-disciplinary team comprising a socio-economist (the co-ordinator), a livestock economist, a social anthropologist and an agropastoral expert. The main results have been grouped into five chapters.
Chapter 2 examines the place and problems of the livestock sector in the SWA region.
The share of animal production in agricultural GDP ranges from 5% in Côte d’Ivoire to
44% in Mali. In the countries of the Sahel the contribution of livestock to agricultural
GDP is 40%. If labour and organic manure are counted as livestock products, the sector’s contribution to agricultural GDP is nearly 50% for West Africa – and case studies
in fact show that alongside livestock farmers and herders as such, traditional marketing
channels dealing in animal products generate thousands of secondary jobs; in Burkina
Faso, for example, these were estimated as the equivalent of 60 000 full-time jobs.

xiv

 This large share of the livestock sector in GDP is due to the major livestock potential
and genetic diversity found in West Africa. The region has about 25% of the cattle in
sub-Saharan Africa, 33% of the sheep, 40% of the goats and 20% of the camels. Other
herbivores (camelids), short-cycle animals (pigs, poultry) and various other species used
as draught or pack animals (horses, donkeys, and camels) complete the animal stock of
the region.
The failure to capitalise sufficiently on this potential because of inadequate policies has
resulted in imbalances at several levels. First, at the regional level, animal production in
the SWA countries is far from meeting a demand that is now growing at an estimated 4%
a year. The second imbalance concerns the low level of trade in animal products among
the various zones of the region, which could instead capitalise on their complementary
assets in terms of geographical position or agroecological potential. The third imbalance
concerns disparities between urban and rural areas. For the 11 SWA countries with
comparable data, rural poverty (the percentage of inhabitants living on less than two
dollars a day) averages out at 58% as against 35% in urban areas. Differences in income
between town and country are also reflected in the consumption level of animal products. Styles of urban consumption are changing, with greater attention being paid to the
health quality of food and a preference for “high-end” and standardised products.
The major challenges facing the livestock sector are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. If the
regional market in animal products is to be developed and stimulated, any action must
be based on the complementarity between zones, exploiting the comparative advantages
of the various blocs of SWA countries and judiciously applying the principle of
subsidiarity. For starters, better knowledge of the various production systems is required,
particularly their contributions to the supply of animal products and the nature of food
resources. For example, pastoral systems account for a third of the cattle and half the
small ruminants but supply 60% of cattle meat, 40% of small ruminant meat and 70%
of milk. Agropastoral or mixed small farming systems are quickly gaining ground on
purely pastoral systems, and it is becoming increasingly rare to find herders who do not
practise at least some type of agriculture. The combination of agriculture and livestock
rearing allows the recycling of nutrients, thus increasing the sustainability of systems
and preserving the environment. Such systems contribute 35% of the total production
of cattle meat, 20% of small ruminant meat, 35% of poultry meat, 40% of pig meat,
15% of milk and 10% of eggs. Despite their larger contribution to the overall supply of
animal products in the SWA region, traditional extensive systems deserve improvement.
Productivity is directly linked to the availability of grazing land, which governs the
movement of herds and determines nomadic and transhumant modes of production.
Livestock yields are still far from satisfactory; for example, young weaned cattle gain no
more than 50 kg per year in the transhumant system, which means that it takes five or
six years to produce a 250-kg animal.

xv

 Nevertheless, given the deteriorating living conditions of those involved in pastoralism,
it is reasonable to question the future of this system. However, there is today almost
nowhere in the Sahelian part of the SWA region where conditions could be found to
feed and water hundreds of thousands of ruminants at all seasons – in other words, the
necessary conditions for settling previously transhumant or nomadic livestock. Current
changes in the environment thus do not allow any thought of halting transhumance,
but call for more effort and imagination in adapting it. The implementation of actions
to secure and sustainably manage pastoral resources by 2020 must be carried out both
in Sahel countries and in host countries. The interests of extensive livestock systems and
herders must be taken into account in any land-use plan.
The specific aptitudes of the various zones seem clearly defined. Sahel countries have
conditions favourable to the extensive rearing of cattle and small ruminants, while the
coastal countries, except for Nigeria, provide more pig farming products, producing
21% of the regional tonnage (330 097 t) in 2005. Inputs for short-cycle livestock and
unconventional species are relatively abundant in some countries (Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana
and Nigeria for poultry, both broilers and layers, Benin for cane-rats and Côte d’Ivoire
for fish-farming). Nigeria is certainly the regional leader in egg production, accounting
for 68% of produced tonnage.
Overall statistics for regional imports and exports do not allow a comparative analysis
of intra- and extra-regional flows. However, the very low proportion of regional trade in
international terms is clear. The region’s rate of openness to the rest of the world is now
30%, six points less than the 1990 figure of 36%. The lack of national statistics on intraand extra-regional trade hampers any in-depth analysis of changes that might be used as
a planning tool. For example, Mali exported close to 6 500 t of live cattle to Senegal for
an average annual value of CFAF 5.75 billion between 2000 and 2003. The corresponding figures for its trade with Côte d’Ivoire were 16 617 t and CFAF 11.84 billion.
Generally, traditional commodity chains still dominate flows of animal products. The
failure of projects to modernise the cattle meat sector, and in particular the current difficulties in exporting carcasses from abattoirs (Burkina Faso and Niger), are in contrast
with the efficiency of export chains for live cattle. The comparative natural advantages
of the region are therefore poorly exploited and the regional supply of animal products
still does not meet demand. Hence the need for a regional view that will take account of
the potential and weaknesses of the various livestock systems within the SWA countries.
Such a view must allow and encourage exporting countries to develop the live cattle
trade, combined with modernisation of cattle meat chains for the export of meat to the
coastal countries, as was the case of Niger with the Niger Company for the Exploitation
of Animal Resources (SONERAN) in the 1990s. If national and regional policies seek
to ensure the inhabitants’ self-sufficiency in products of animal origin and obtain international market shares, policies should be implemented for short- and medium-term

xvi

 intensification of agropastoral systems with a view to achieving more intensive systems
in the long term.
In this process of transforming the livestock sector in the SWA region, the various social
actors must be properly organised if any action carried out at the regional or national
level is to be sustainable. However, analysis of the situation of actors and professionals in
the sector (Chapter 5) highlights the constraints that must be removed if they are to participate effectively in the transformation process. Current weaknesses include: (1) their
low level of financial independence, which makes them dependent on outside support
to organise activities in favour of members – a situation prejudicial to the assumption
of an independent position; (2)  the poor organisation of actors at the regional level,
inasmuch as the various countries do not have the same levels of organisation of actors
directly involved in animal production chains; and (3) the absence of trading contracts
among the actors in the various links in commodity chains, with the exception of certain
chains (for example, modern poultry farming) and then only in certain countries (for
example, Côte d’Ivoire).
Consistent policies are therefore needed in order to develop and stimulate regional trade
in animal products. Analysis of policies (Chapter 6) shows that progress has been made
in reconciling policies within the various countries of the region and that community
actions are now being carried out. It is clear that if revitalisation of the livestock sector is
to be sustainable and have positive effects, it must be made more economically profitable.
Regional organisations can ensure such an increase in profitability, which will entail better
organisation of production, modernisation of marketing channels, sustained support to
development of the processing sector (ensuring added value) and professionals to invest
in it. Similarly, research and development must play a determining role in developing
and transferring technology. However, this will require the definition of research and
development policies with a regional perspective, based on the strengths and weaknesses
of livestock processing and marketing systems within the various countries in the
region.
Regarding unexploited potential, the strategic view of the livestock sector in the SWA
region must encompass the short term as well as the medium and long terms (Chapter
7). In the short term, strategic orientations must be based on the two main strategic
animal products – meat and dairy products – in order to meet a demand of 3.5 million t
for meat products (from cattle, small ruminants, poultry and pigs) and 4.5 million t for
dairy products by 2015. A second short-term orientation will have to be the boosting of
the contribution of the livestock sector to reducing poverty and food insecurity in the
various countries. In the long term, the SWA countries must equip themselves with the
necessary means of entering the world market in animal products by working towards
compliance with health and phytosanitary standards for these products, thus establishing the conditions for fair competition among producers while protecting consumers
from improper and dangerous practices.

xvii

 INTRODUCTION

W

ith an estimated annual growth of 4%, the demand for animal products is destined to increase in sub-Saharan Africa, especially West Africa, by more than
250% by 2020 (Club du Sahel/OECD, 1998; Delgado et al., 2001). This will result
from population growth, accelerated urbanisation, growing incomes and consequently
increased purchasing power of the populations. There was a temporary decrease in meat
imports from outside Africa as a result of changes in trade policies over the past ten years
at the international level, such as the Marrakesh Accords in 19941, and at the regional
and national levels, such as the introduction of macroeconomic adjustment programmes
leading to the devaluation of the CFA franc in 19942. This temporary situation created
1 
The new rules of the World Trade Organization (WTO), especially the section dealing with export subsidies, have led to a drop in European sales of beef and veal to African, Caribbean and Pacific countries
(WTO, cited by Faivre Dupaigre et al., 2006).

The appearance of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow disease” has also had repercussions on the demand for European meat in African countries, contributing to the decline in imports.
2 

1

 real opportunities to satisfy the region’s demand with local animal products at favourable prices. With more than 60 million head of cattle and 160 million small ruminants,
and its agroecological diversity –subhumid and humid non-forested zones, semi-arid
zones and Sahelian zones – West Africa offers great potential for increasing animal production and opportunities to optimise the role of cattle in reducing poverty.
In economic terms, livestock rearing plays a major role in household incomes, even if its
contribution to West African national budgets is negligible and variable. With regard to
poverty reduction, statistics (FAO, 2006) indicate that about 675 million of the world’s
rural poor, including nearly 170 million in sub-Saharan Africa, are entirely or partially
dependent on livestock production to feed themselves or obtain financial remuneration.
1. The context of the study
Analysts of livestock sector policies agree that demand for animal products will grow in
step with population growth, also taking accelerating urbanisation into account. Indeed,
some experts go so far as to speak about a “livestock revolution” in the next 25 years, in
view of this increase in production driven by the demand for animal products (Delgado
et al., 1999; 2001; FAO, 2002; 2005). Statistics for West Africa (FAO, 2005) also indicate a high demand for animal products, especially in coastal countries – 520 770 head
of cattle for Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo combined. The most recent
data on livestock production in three land-locked Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, Mali
and Niger) reveal a total exploitable potential of 22.5 million head of cattle in 20051.
Although there are opportunities for the development of regional trade in meat, there is
still the paradox of the ever-increasing imports of animal products from outside Africa,
even if imports of meat from the European Union are tending to decline. For example,
the proportion of imports of meat from outside Africa rose from 3% to 19% in Côte
d’Ivoire between 1970 and 1999, and from 4% to 17% in Togo (Balami, 2003). In 2002,
the Member States of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) imported 24 000 t of poultry meat at a cost of USD 58.8 million (Faivre Dupaigre et al.,
2006). Côte d’Ivoire alone imported 15 000 t of poultry meat in 2003, six times more
than before UEMOA’s implementation of the Common External Tariff (CET) (Faivre
Dupaigre et al., 2006).
With regard to dairy products, several programmes and projects have been designed
for the peri-urban areas of certain towns in recent years, for example the Peri-urban
Agricultural Development Project (PDAP) in Mali and the National Pilot Dairy
Development Programme (PNPDL) in Burkina Faso. On the initiative of the West
Burkina Faso 7.6 million (Ministry of Livestock Resources, 2006); Mali 7.5 million (Ministry of Livestock
and Fisheries, 2005); Niger 7.4 million (Ministry of Livestock Resources, provisional results of the census,
2006).

1 

2

 and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF/
WECARD), a Competitive Fund has been set up to execute a research and development
project focusing on market access and agricultural diversification in the UEMOA region,
with the intent of making the dairy sector more competitive in a number of countries
in the region and boosting regional integration. Despite these various efforts, imports
of dairy products from outside Africa are increasing. In Burkina Faso, for example, such
imports represented an average of CFAF 7 billion a year between 2000 and 2005 (MRA,
2004), while they represented CFAF 36.7 billion in Senegal in 2004 (Duteurtre, 2006),
nearly CFAF  10  billion in Mali and CFAF 6  billion in Niger (MRA, 2005). Dairy
products thus continue to swell import bills for food products in the SWA countries,
depriving them of the possibility of investing in other economic sectors for the effective
reduction of poverty and food insecurity.
The fact is that in many West African countries the favourable environment created
with the introduction of such policies as those of structural adjustment has proved less
beneficial to the livestock sector than to agriculture. The livestock sector receives little
support in the form of public investment in processing and packaging infrastructure and
lacks policies to stimulate regional trade in animal products.
However, there are some comparative natural – and exploitable – advantages among
the countries of the region. Sahel countries have the twofold feature of an available
surplus and a potential surplus in the production of domestic ruminants. The coastal
countries are better endowed than those of the Sahel in terms of modern short-cycle
livestock (poultry and pigs), especially in urban and peri-urban zones. In Côte d’Ivoire,
for example, poultry farming supplies about 9 million broiler chickens and 3 million
laying chickens a year, with a solid production base and locally supplied inputs1. These
countries also have considerable agropastoral resources due to good climatic conditions
and could specialise in the production of such supplementary foods as cotton seed cakes,
thereby increasing complementarity among the various West African zones. When stimulating trade (to be analysed below), Nigeria’s importance must be noted, in as much as
it constitutes a market accounting for nearly 55% of the international meat trade in the
region (Renard et al., 2004) and therefore has a determining influence on the livestock
sector and the regional trade in animal products.
Apart from the main shortcomings of the region’s livestock sector, it should also be recognised that some animal products imported from outside the continent are still heavily
subsidised. It has been estimated that export subsidies for dairy products, beef and veal
from the European Union and 12 other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) countries totalled USD 2 384 million in 1998, almost half for
dairy products (Williams et  al., 2004). West Africa is also facing a problem of competition in an increasingly globalised market. Some products, such as Asian poultry
Verbal communication to the Mission of Experts at the Ministry of Animal Production and Fishery
Resources in Abidjan, 15 September 2006.

1 

3

 and such by-products from its marketing as chicken wings and chucks and blades, are
produced and marketed worldwide at very low cost. Imports from outside Africa are becoming more competitive than similar products from within the region. This situation
is also a challenge for the development of the livestock sector. In the absence of effective measures to improve productivity and stimulate trade, it is feared that, despite the
potential of its livestock sector, West Africa will find it hard to capitalise on the regional
opportunities offered by a growing demand for food products of animal origin.
The present initiative of the Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) entitled “Potentials
and Challenges of Livestock Rearing in West Africa”, carried out in strategic partnership
with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Permanent
Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), UEMOA and the
Network of Farmers’ and Agricultural Producers’ Organisations of West Africa (ROPPA),
represents a contribution to strategic thinking on the questions raised by the many challenges facing the livestock sector in the regional trade in animal products, namely:
How can the livestock sector become an effective driving force in strengthening the regional
market in animal products? How can the regional supply of meat, dairy and other products
be increased, and how can the regional trade in these products be boosted in response to the
growing demand of towns? And what could the contribution of the livestock sector be to food
security and poverty reduction?
This regional strategic thinking is carried out within the overall framework of the questions posed by the SWAC Secretariat, the central one being:
Where and how are the 430 million inhabitants of West Africa going to live in 2020, considering that there were only 290 million of them in 2003?
2. ECOWAS in Brief1
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional group of
fifteen countries, founded in 1975. Its mission is to promote economic integration in
“all fields of economic activity, particularly industry, transport, telecommunications,
energy, agriculture, natural resources, commerce, monetary and financial questions,
social and cultural matters .....”
The Institutions of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) are
as follows:
•  The Commission
•  The Community Parliament
•  The Community Court OF Justice
•  ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID).
Free translation from the English version http://www.comm.ecowas.int/dept/index.php?id=p_pl_
commission&lang=en

1 

4

 The Heads of State and Government broke with the past by their decision to transform the ECOWAS Secretariat into a Commission. The difference goes beyond a name
change and an increase in the number of officers at the management level. After thirty
years of existence, ECOWAS finds itself at a cross-road. At thirty, ECOWAS has come
of age, is mature and master of its destiny.
 
Changes have already been underway with the support of development partners. These
initiatives have been boosted by the Heads of State and Government when they endorsed institutional transformation covering all ECOWAS Institutions. 
By implementing this transformation process which should reposition ECOWAS vis-àvis the West African populations to whom pledges have been made, the leaders of our
region have taken the destiny of their institution into their own hands. Indeed, by subscribing to the vision of the Founder-fathers of ECOWAS, they have taken ownership
of the objectives designed to improve the living conditions of the citizenry, ensure economic growth and create an environment conducive to development and integration.
 
By becoming a Commission with enhanced powers and Commissioners in charge of
smaller and clearly defined sectors, the ECOWAS Secretariat will have more impact and
become more visible in Member States.
Regarding the Community Parliament, the restructuring is designed to make it more
efficient by providing it with relevant management support. Similarly, the Community
Court of Justice is being re-organised to have its judges also concentrate on their core
competences.
 
The expected changes will not be possible without the support of the staff of our institutions. The task is huge; hence, the need for everyone to get involved in its implementation.
 
The Heads of State and Government urged every one of us to participate in the rebirth
of our institution to ensure that development and integration soon become a reality.
Restructuring the Secretariat
Main Features ;
•  To better adapt to the international environment.
•  To play a more effective role in the integration and development process.
•  A President, a Vice-President and 7 Commissioners.
•  A smaller and more clearly defined sector for each Commissioner.
•  Support to Member States to build their capacities for programme implementation.

5

 •  A predictable rotation system based on equity, transparency and functionality.
•  Consequences of the restructuring process;
It is expected from this restructuring:
•  Consolidation of the Community spirit.
•  Enhancement of the powers of the Commission.
•  Strengthening of supra-nationality.
•  Adoption of a new legal regime (decisions directly applicable in Member States
and by the Institutions).
New Regime for Community Acts
The transformation of the Secretariat into a Commission will be accompanied by a fundamental measure: the adoption of a new legal regime for Community Acts.
Until now obligations of member States were captured principally in Protocols and
Conventions which are subject to lengthy Parliamentary ratification processes. These
processes delayed the entry into force of the legal texts thereby paralyzing the integration
process. Decisions of the Authority were however immediately applicable and binding
on Member States, whilst those emanating from the Council of Ministers were only
applicable and binding on the Community Institutions.
Under the new legal regime, the principle of supranational becomes more pre-eminent
and there will be a de-emphasis on the adoption of Conventions and Protocols.
Community Acts will be Supplementary Acts, Regulations, Directives, Decisions,
Recommendations and Opinion. Thus, the Authority passes Supplementary Acts to
complete the Treaty. Supplementary Acts are binding on Member States and the institutions of the Community.
The Council of Ministers enacts Regulations and Directives and makes Decisions and
Recommendations. Regulations have general application and all their provisions are enforceable and directly applicable in Member States. They are enforceable in the institutions of the Community. Decisions are enforceable in Member States and all designated
therein. Directives and their objectives are binding on all Member States. The modalities
for attaining such objectives are left to the discretion of States.
The Commission adopts Rules for the implementation of Acts enacted by Council.
These Rules have the same legal force as Acts enacted by Council. The Commission
makes recommendations and gives advice. Recommendations and advice are not enforceable.

6

 3. The SWAC Secretariat/OECD
The Club du Sahel was created in 1976 on the initiative of OECD member countries,
in liaison with the leaders of the countries of the Sahel, as a forum for discussion and
advocacy of increased, sustainable support from the international community for the
countries of the region, victims of drought. In 2001, the Club du Sahel’s Strategy and
Policy Group (SPG – equivalent to a board of directors) decided to extend its field of
activities to the whole of West Africa in order to take account of complementarities and
interdependencies between the Sahel and the other countries in the region. The Sahel
Club thus became the Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC), with activities covering
the 15 countries of West Africa, plus Cameroon, Chad and Mauritania because of their
geographical situation1 (see Map 1).
Attached to the OECD, the SWAC Secretariat is composed of a technical team of about
20 people based in Paris and relies on a network of partners in West Africa and throughout the world. The Secretariat is financed by voluntary contributions coming from most
OECD countries.
The Secretariat has its work plan approved by the SPG which is composed of representatives of contributing countries, together with representatives of the countries of
the region and the main West African networks and partner institutions. The Strategy
and Policy Group meets twice a year to examine progress on tasks undertaken by the
Secretariat and approve its annual and multi-year work plans. It is chaired by a person
nominated by its members for a specified period. As facilitator, stimulator and leader of
open and constructive exchanges, the SWAC plays a bridging role and interface between
regional actors and those of the OECD countries.
The SWAC Secretariat focuses its efforts on four main areas of interest to the region
itself and the international community, with orientations that are also in keeping with
concerns over the future of the region, particularly as expressed in the framework of the
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), the African Union and the partnership agreement recently concluded between the SWAC Secretariat and the ECOWAS
Secretariat. The four main focuses of the SWAC Secretariat’s work are thus:
•  Medium- and long-term development perspectives.
•  Rural transformation and sustainable development.
•  Local development and the process of regional integration.
•  Governance, conflict dynamics, peace and security.

Hence the use in the present document of the term “countries of the SWA region”, referring to all the
countries within the SWAC’s sphere of action.

1 

7

  Land Am Population 2004
weSt Africa 1000 sq. km2 Millions 
Mauritania 1025 13% 3,0 1%
Cape Verde 4 0% 0,4 0%
Senegal 193 2% 10,9 4%
The Gambia 10 0% 1,5 1%
Guinea Bissau 28 0% 1,4 0%
Guinea 246 3% 9,3 3%
Sierra Leone 72 1% 5,9 2%
Liberia 96 1% 3,4 1%
Mauritania [Sub-Total 1674 22% 35,7 12% 
Mali 1220 16% 12,0 4%
Burkina Faso 274 4% 13,6 5%
Niger 1267 16% 11,4 4%
Chad 1259 16% 9,5 3%
Sub-Total 4020 52% 46 16%

 

Total 7780 100% 286 100%
WAEMU member countries CILSS member countries



Atlantic Front Countries

Landlocked Countries
Gulf of Guinea Countries
ECOWAS

 

Source: SWAC
Map 1. Countries in the ?eld of action

4. Objectives and terms of reference of the study
This study has the overall objective of obtaining a clearer picture of the future of the
livestock sector and its contribution to the regional economy (see Annex 1 for the terms
of reference). The Potentials and Challenges for Livestock in West Africa Initiative is
intended as a contribution to the two main objectives of the ECOWAP (CEDEAO,
2005), namely to implement an approach ensuring food sovereignty by reducing dependence on imports for food security, and to reduce poverty.
To achieve these objectives, a consultation commissioned by the SWAC Secretariat was
held by a team of four experts, focusing its analysis on issues of regional importance for
the SWA countries, grouping the issues around three main concerns:
a.  How to capitalise on the existing potential for the supply or production of animal
products to stimulate a regional market in such products based on complementarities between zones, through an analysis of the potential and the constraints and
challenges facing the livestock sector in the region.
b.  Analysis of the stakes and specific challenges linked to transhumant pastoralism
in the region.
c.  Identification of relevant elements and prospects for the future of the livestock
sector in terms of its contribution to poverty reduction, improvement in people’s
living conditions, food security etc.
5. Expected results
a.  A contribution to implementation of the Atlas on Regional Integration, produced
jointly by the SWAC Secretariat and ECOWAS.
b.  Improved knowledge of existing livestock production systems, their potential,
strong points and constraints.
c.  Knowledge and better evaluation of regional opportunities with regard to the
trade in animal products and the region’s participation in international trade.
d.  A contribution to strategic thinking on the strategic medium- and long-term view
of the livestock sector in terms of the objectives and main pillars of the ECOWAP,
especially with regard to food security, poverty reduction and the construction of
a regional market in agricultural products.
e.  Improved awareness of State and non-State actors regarding the issues at stake
in the livestock sector in the SWA region and the conditions for optimising and
capitalising on such potential.
f.  Concrete proposals that could be used in decision-making at the regional and
national levels.

9

 6. Methodology of the consultation
A discussion meeting attended by SWAC experts and partners involved in the Potentials
and Challenges for Livestock in West Africa Initiative was held in Ouagadougou
(4–5  September 2006) to co-ordinate points of view, define the steps to be taken to
obtain the products demanded and speed up preparations for field consultations. The
multi-disciplinary nature of the team of experts (a socio-economist, a livestock economist, an agropastoral expert and a sociologist) was intended to boost functional complementarity in the analytical task and result in a consistent interdisciplinary product.
A data collection grid was drawn up and refined in collaboration with the SWAC
Secretariat (August–September 2006) to be used as a guide in field consultations with
the various target categories at national and regional levels (see Annex 2). Various institutions and structures were involved: technical ministries responsible for livestock issues in
the individual countries, regional integration and development organisations, research
and training centres and institutes, professional agricultural organisations, organisations
of civil society actors and private operators (see Annex 3 for the list of institutions,
operators and people met).
Documentary research was started with a review of the literature at various documentation centres and especially through the Internet.
Field missions were carried out from 5 to 21 September 2006 in some target Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal) and some coastal countries (Benin, Côte
d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria) to collect basic information from all the actors concerning
the key issues of the study. Exchanges and discussions were organised with the ROPPA
national platforms in the countries visited, but also with various actors in the livestock
sector (herders, processors, private operators, etc.).
A three-day (22–25  September) brain-storming session of experts for the analysis,
exploitation and sharing of the information collected was followed by a phase of
individual work to produce complementary analyses and draft the Provisional Report.

10

 CHAPTER ONE

THE PLACE AND

PROBLEMS OF
LIVESTOCK REARING
IN THE WEST
AFRICAN ECONOMY

1. An important sector for its contribution to job creation and national and
personal income

A

griculture in the broader sense is especially important in the economies of West
Africa, for example in the UEMOA zone (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire,
Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) it contributes to 30% of GDP and employs 50% of the labour force (Renard et al., 2004). In the land-locked Sahel countries
that are net exporters in the central corridor of the SWA region, the contribution of the
livestock sector to GDP ranges from 10% to 15% (MRA/Niger, 2001; MRA/Burkina
Faso, 2005; MEP/Mali, 2004), but is lower in countries with seaboards (Senegal 8%,
Ghana 9% and Togo 9%). In terms of agricultural GDP, the livestock sector plays a very
important role, for the share of animal production ranges from 5% in Côte d’Ivoire to

11

 44% in Mali, with an average of nearly 40% in Sahel countries. In Mauritania, although
the livestock sector accounts for 15% of GDP, it contributes 80% of agricultural GDP.
In Nigeria, the livestock sector seems to have declined: over the previous four years the
agricultural sector accounted for 49% of GDP (in 2000), 13% of this from livestock,
whereas in 2003 these proportions were no more than 35% and 3% respectively (Eboh
et al., 2004).
The contribution of the livestock sector to GDP would in fact be higher in West Africa if
the value of animal traction and organic manure in mixed agriculture-livestock systems,
which are widespread in the region, were also taken into account (Winrock International,
1992). Smith et al. (1996) show that if the labour force and organic manure were considered as livestock products, the contribution of the sector to agricultural GDP would
rise from 25% to 35% for sub-Saharan Africa and to almost 50% for West Africa.
Agriculture in general and the livestock sector in particular provide 52.5% of jobs in
West Africa as a whole. Various case studies show that in countries highly dependent on
agriculture, i.e. where it accounts for more than 20% of GDP, overall economic growth
can be closely correlated with that of agriculture. Thus a one-dollar increase in farm
income corresponds to a two-dollar increase in the total income of the local economy
(Delgado at al., 1998). It is generally agreed that at least 50% of the cash income of
mixed farmers in tropical Africa is derived from the sale of livestock products (Winrock
International, 1992). Case studies also show that in West Africa 40% to 78% of the
income of rural inhabitants, the main victims of poverty, is derived from agriculture
(Reardon, 1997).
With regard to income distribution, it is important to note that investment in shortcycle livestock production, especially poultry, provides an income to more women in a
number of countries on the Gulf of Guinea and some Sahel countries, with Senegal as
the leader here. Major changes are under way in Burkina Faso (MRA, 1997) and Mali
(MEP, 2004) with a view to developing the production of broiler chickens and eggs for
consumption. These changes in short-cycle livestock systems exist alongside so-called
traditional systems, which are also supported by national policies. This is true of traditional poultry farming, the main activity that generates a cash income chiefly for rural
women.
Livestock rearing thus occupies an important place both in macroeconomic terms
(contribution to GDP and job creation) and for strategic reasons of optimising the
production environment:
•  First, 38.2% of the SWA region is composed of arid zones that are unfavourable
to the development of crop production. Livestock rearing is therefore the only
way of optimising the fragile ecological zones inhabited by people who are vulnerable in terms of both income and food security.

12

 •  Second, livestock represent more than half the capital held by rural inhabitants in
sub-Saharan Africa. The mixed agriculture-livestock production systems widely
practised in the region improve the environment by reducing the effects of soil
degradation, especially through the recycling of nutrients by domestic animals.
•  Third, livestock rearing has significant spillover effects within the process of trade
in animal products. Case studies reveal that alongside livestock farmers and herders as such, the traditional marketing channels connected with animal products
generate thousands of secondary jobs; in Burkina Faso, for example, these have
been estimated as the equivalent of 60 000 full-time jobs (FAO/CDI, 2003).
2. An important sector in terms of its potential
West African livestock potential is numerically great and very varied in its composition.
The region has about 25% of the cattle, 33% of the sheep, 40% of the goats and 20% of
the camels in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole (Camara, 2005; FAOSTAT, 2005). Other
herbivores (camelids), short-cycle animals (pigs, poultry) and various other species used
as draft animals (horses, donkeys) complete the animal stock of the SWA region. Various
unconventional animals are also assuming increasing importance, but there are few statistics to support this.
Table 1 gives approximate data on the main species reared and involved in trade dealings
in the SWA region. It shows that Sahel countries have proportionately more ruminants
than coastal countries. However, by force of numbers, Nigeria alone holds a predominant place in terms of ruminants by comparison with Sahel producers. On the other
hand, the coastal countries and Nigeria have more monogastric livestock than the Sahel
countries. While the Sahel countries’ share of ruminants increased between 1985 and
2005, that of the coastal countries and Nigeria in particular declined.
With regard to poultry, the coastal countries, other than Nigeria, and the Sahel countries have increased their numbers, while Nigeria has been steadily losing its pre-eminent
place since 1985. For pigs, the coastal countries have progressively lost their supremacy
over the Sahel countries and Nigeria1.
Viewed overall, the numbers of livestock reared in the SWA countries have gone through
a variety of changes (see Figure 1). The highest growth rates in numbers were seen in
pigs, with an average five-yearly growth rate of 23% between 1985 and 2005, giving an
In the absence of any recent study, some hypotheses may be formulated as to factors that could explain
this marked drop in pigs in the coastal countries. First, in the case of Sahel countries, it may be a matter of
an improvement in data collection, which has given a clearer picture of the importance of this type of livestock. It may also be noted that interest in the Sahel in rearing monogastric livestock dates from the 1980s
and that major projects to improve pig farming have been implemented. In the coastal countries, epidemics
have contributed to a drop in the pig population, inasmuch as these countries already practised an improved
rearing system with breeds that are less rustic than the local ones. Competition from Sahel countries may
also have discouraged coastal farmers when their share of the market shrank.

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13

 average annual growth rate of 4.58% – higher than the world rate for the same period.
Growth was highest in Burkina Faso (8.49%), Cape Verde (7.94%) and Nigeria (6%).
Small ruminants had the second highest growth rate (an annual average of 3.45%).
Chickens had an annual growth rate of 2.75% between 1984 and 2005, while cattle had
an annual growth rate of 2.14%.

* Sr = Small ruminants
Source: calculated and adapted from FAOSTAT, 2005 (accessed on 12 September 2006).

Figure 1. Five-yearly changes in the growth rate of livestock rearing in the Sahel and
West Africa region
It must also be noted that the growth is not regular but rather has low and high periods.
In the case of pigs, for example, a five-yearly growth rate of 32% between 1984 and 1989
dropped to 16% between 1989 and 1994, then to 10% between 1994 and 1999, before
rising to 33% between 1999 and 2004. This trend also applies to chickens. The various
livestock diseases affecting monogastric animals in particular had a negative effect on
the numerical growth of these species. The outbreak of swine fever in Côte d’Ivoire in
1996 can be sited as an example here. Growth in cattle numbers was low (9%) between
1985 and 1989 at the end of the last cycle of drought, but then reached 13% between
1999 and 2004.
West Africa contributes 23% of the continent’s beef and veal production, with an estimated 919 500 t in 2005, i.e. 3.17 kg per inhabitant. Production has almost doubled
since 1961, with an average annual growth rate of 2%. However, the growth was irregular over the period 1961–2005, as the region experienced a drop in production between
1971 and 1975 (–2.2%) and between 1986 and 1989 (–5.0%), in keeping with changes
in livestock numbers. Although Nigeria produced 280 000 t of meat, or 33% of regional
production in 2005, at country level this represented only 2.13 kg per inhabitant, a per

14

 capita production lower than the regional average. In the Sahel countries, annual per
capita beef and veal production is higher than in Nigeria (8 kg in Burkina Faso, 7 kg in
Mali and 6 kg in Niger).
With regard to small ruminants, meat production is about 269 000 t for sheep (25%
of African production) and 351 000 t for goats (44% of African production). Half of
the African production of sheep meat comes from North Africa. Monogastric livestock
rearing plays an important part in the economies of the coastal countries. In this regard, West Africa is the main pig meat producer on the continent, with Burkina Faso,
Cameroon and Nigeria leading the way. Pig meat production has undergone major
growth since 1980, rising from 106 000 t in that year to 330 000 t in 2005.
Apart from the numerical size of its animal resources, the SWA region is also recognised
as a reservoir of great genetic diversity, with multi-functional livestock rearing. About
13 cattle breeds of the shorthorn type and 12 of the zebu type have been recorded, with
varying zootechnical characteristics. For example, according to Missohou and Adakal
(2004), shorthorn cattle have a live adult weight ranging from a minimum of 115 kg for
a female of the Somba breed (Benin and Togo) to 750 kg for a male of the Kouri breed
(Niger and Nigeria), while the live adult weight of zebu cattle ranges from an estimated
240 kg for a female of the Sokoto breed (Nigeria) to 660 kg for a male of the same breed.
With regard to dairy production, fragmentary data (Gonçalves, 1995) reveal low yields
(0.5–2 L per day), depending on the breed, style of livestock management and milking method, without specifying potential yields – although it is generally accepted that
breeds yielding 0.5 L a day could produce more than 2 L with management and feed
improvements (Agyemang et al., 1997).
The intrinsic zootechnical characteristics of small ruminants, poultry and pigs are poorly documented, but their genetic diversity and the potential for increasing their meat
yields – and/or milk yields in the case of sheep and goats (Gbangboche et al., 2005) – are
indisputable in the region.
The case of Niger is a good illustration of Sahel countries’ natural advantage in rearing
ruminants. With livestock of all species estimated at nearly 7.5  million tropical livestock units (TLUs)1, for a total value of CFAF 706 billion and an annual production of
CFAF 191.5 billion, giving an added value of CFAF 155 billion2, Niger can thus be seen
as a great livestock rearing country (see also Box 1). The countries of the SWA region
clearly have major numerical, genetic and zootechnical potential. In contrast with this
great potential, there is poor availability of meat and milk in the region, mainly because
of insufficient exploitation of the potential in terms of yields and of policies that fail to
take account of complementarities between zones.
The tropical livestock unit is used to convert the weights of different species of livestock and corresponds
to 250 kg of live weight.

1 

2 

These figures are estimated on the basis of FAO data (2005).

15

 Box 1. Niger’s agropastoral potential
Niger enjoys a comparative natural advantage for the production of cattle and small ruminants
for export to the coastal countries of the Gulf of Guinea and Central Africa. Livestock rearing
is practised by almost 87% of the active population as their main activity, or secondary activity
after agriculture. With a pastoral area estimated at 63  000  km2 and a water-rich subsoil, the
development of a small proportion of this land could already significantly increase both fodder
and animal production. There is a very broad genetic potential composed of such highly productive
bovine species as the Azawak zebu with its high milk yields, shorthorn cattle (Gouri) toward the
Lake Chad area and the Bororo breed, which is well adapted to the arid environment of the Sahel.
The know-how of Toubou, Arab and Fula herders is legendary and is a huge asset in maintaining
the productivity of the various breeds of cattle. The small ruminants of Niger (Bali Bali sheep and
Red Sokoto or Sahelian goats) are particularly appreciated not only in the SWA region but also in
Central Africa and the Maghreb. The growing interest and organisational capacity of those involved
in the beef and veal, leather and skins, dairy, and sheep subsectors are starting to be recognised
within the regional trade in animal products. In view of the estimated 35% contribution of the
livestock sector to agricultural GDP, the Government has recognised the sector’s importance by
upgrading it to a full ministry.
Statements gathered by the mission to Niamey (Ministry of Livestock Resources) on
18 September 2006.

3. Role of livestock in reducing poverty in West Africa and the Sahel
About 675 million poor rural people in the world (surviving on less than two dollars a
day), nearly 170 million of them in sub-Saharan Africa, are wholly or partially dependent on livestock to feed themselves or as a source of income (FAO, 2006). Defined in
this way, poverty is a widespread phenomenon in West Africa and the Sahel (Thornton
et al., 2002). It is particularly a feature of certain Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, Mali,
Niger) or coastal countries with a large rural population (Guinea) and with economies
that are mainly dependent on agriculture and especially on livestock. In most of these
countries, it affects more than 50% of the population.
Table 2 summarises the poverty situation in a sampling of representative countries in
the SWA region. Even in countries where the poverty threshold is 50% or higher, livestock rearing is an important activity, as is the case in the Sahel countries, where the
livestock sector is the first or second source of export revenue. Despite the insufficient
exploitation of animal production livestock rearing plays a role in reducing poverty in
the region. It also reveals a contradictory and abnormal situation. In a wider perspective,
poverty is a phenomenon encompassing various dimensions of destitution linked to the
inability to meet such human needs as consuming and being sure of food security, being
in good health, being able to learn, being able to exercise the right to make one’s voice

16

 Table 2. Rural and urban poverty in 1999 in West Africa

Country
Burkina Faso
Côte d’Ivoire
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea Bissau
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal

Rural poverty
(% of inhabitants)
74.1
36.4
69.1
34.3
72.2
76.9
76.6
43.0
65.5
48.4
40.6

Urban poverty
(% of inhabitants)
37.2
30.3
37.5
25.5
44.1
56.6
35.6
24.5
35.3
32.7
23.5

Source: Renard et al., 2004.

heard, living in security and dignity, and having a decent job1 (OECD, 2001; Thornton
et al., 2002).
The role of livestock in reducing poverty should be strengthened, given its underexploited potential both in individual countries and in the SWA region as a whole.
The animal production potential discussed above plays a direct role in the process of
socio-economic transformation and contributes to people’s nutritional and food security
in a number of ways. Livestock rearing as a productive activity is in line with that same
dynamic of bringing men and women out of the vicious cycle of poverty that affects
rural people in particular but increasingly also those in urban areas – or preventing them
from falling back into it. Livestock production not only improves people’s nutritional
status, but above all it provides income to various groups on the fringe of African society
through trade.
In general terms, livestock often constitute a reserve of wealth, steadily built up and used
to counter risks of income loss and food insecurity. This savings and insurance function
will remain important so long as the commercial financial system (banks and insurance
companies) remains inaccessible to the majority of people. Urban livestock rearing, even
on a small scale, is a supplementary source of income for people employed in jobs other
than farming (traders, artisans, civil servants). Its contribution to household incomes
is estimated as at least 25% (Wilson, 1995). Case studies show that livestock rearing
1 

As the late President Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d’Ivoire liked to say, “A hungry man is not a free man.”

17

 accounts for 34% of rural household incomes, as opposed to 14% for crop production
(Zonon, 2004; CAPES, 2003). A survey of a number of mixed farmer-herders on the
Mossi Plateau of Burkina Faso indicates the importance of income from livestock in
rural people’s lives (see Box 2). A survey of household budgets and consumption in
Niger shows that the livestock sector contributes more than 15% to household budgets,
while its contribution to meeting food needs is 25% (MRA, 2004). In the Sahelian zone
of Senegal, Kelly et al. (1993) showed that the majority of poor rural households depend
essentially on livestock for their income.
However, the role of animal products in reducing poverty, especially monetary poverty,
varies from country to country. For example, poultry’s contribution to livestock income
is assessed at 49% in Benin and Senegal, and 56% in Côte d’Ivoire (UEMOA, 2002),
while the contribution of milk is particularly high in the Sahel countries: 40% in Niger,
38% in Mali and 32% in Burkina Faso.
Livestock rearing distributes income to a large number of economic actors
Box 2. Role of livestock rearing according to a rural producer
This is basically what one interviewee said: “You know, our farming with hoes is a way of hiding
shame. It’s so you don’t just sit at home every morning and become the laughing stock of the village.
In fact, it’s thanks to poultry, sheep and goats that I manage to feed my family and pay for school
fees and even medical care. For example, when a member of my family is ill, I sell a sheep or a
goat so that I can pay for fuel for the ambulance to take the person to a medical centre. When the
children ask for school supplies, the solution’s simple: I sell chickens or guinea-fowl.” This testimony
indicates that livestock rearing, especially of the barnyard type – which is so little discussed in
studies – is the best way of bringing people out of the cycle of poverty (Sanon, 2003).
Similar statements were gathered during the present consultation in the southern region
(Sikasso) of Mali and in Niger and Senegal.

Livestock rearing is a well-known source of employment. Dairy production in urban
and rural areas is a labour-intensive activity. Milk and meat processing generate the
highest levels of employment in the livestock sector. FAO (1994) estimates that for 30
head of cattle, the number of workdays needed for slaughtering, processing and marketing are respectively 20, 80 and 4. The equivalent figures for pigs are 10, 30 and 2.
Livestock rearing contributes to food and nutrition
Animal products play a direct and indirect role in reducing food insecurity. The intake
rate of animal proteins in the daily diet is an important indicator of a country’s development level, and also of a given group. Sasson’s work (1986) shows that:
•  The over-nourished consume 2  800 to 3  400  kcal and 50 to 70  g of animal
protein per person per day.
•  The well-nourished consume 2  800 to 3  400  kcal and 20 to 50  g of animal
protein per person per day.

18

 •  The “intermediates” consume 2  400 to 2  800  kcal and 10 to 30  g of animal
protein per person per day.
•  The undernourished consume 2  000 to 2  800  kcal and 10 to 30  g of animal
protein per person per day.
•  The severely undernourished consume an average of 2 000 kcal and 5 g of animal
protein per person per day and suffer from nutritional deficiencies.
In Africa the most widely consumed animal products are milk, meat and skins. For
example, dried cattle skins produced in Niger are used for human consumption in
Nigeria. Blood is consumed as a food in some pastoral communities in East Africa
(Masai and Nuer). The minimum calories required by a 65-kg person in a situation
of food security is 2  400  kcal (the norm established by FAO), generally supplied by
cereals, roots and tubers. The daily animal protein requirement is at least 55 g for the
well-nourished and about 17 g for the less affluent. Apart from rich people in urban
centres and herders, communities involved in food production are far from reaching
these minimums.
At the regional level, however, per capita daily consumption is about 2 320 kcal, which is
lower than the FAO norm. Honfoga and van den Boom (2003) show that, on average,
diets in the Sahel countries of West and Central Africa contain less than 2 200 kcal,
compared with 2 500 kcal in the coastal countries. On the other hand, protein deficiency
is more widespread in the coastal countries, where the typical diet contains only 45 g of
protein, as against 60 g in the Sahel countries.
Livestock rearing is a driving force for agriculture
Livestock rearing has a determining role to play in increasing the yields of cereals and
certain cash crops in the SWA region. Studies have shown that a family with a pair of
oxen can cultivate two or three times more land than is possible with hand implements.
Cattle also provide excellent fertilizer: on 1 ha of land, their manure can increase cereal
yields by 25% (Harrisson, 1991). Other experiments spanning several years have shown
that a farmer who works his land by hand can complete a year’s full technical schedule
on only 0.4 ha, whereas with the help of two oxen the area can be expanded to 5 ha
(CIRAD, 1996).
There are also environmental advantages to mixed farming. Animal excreta help regenerate very fragile soils in several Sahel countries (Baumer, 1985). In the west of Burkina
Faso (the cotton basin), the Action Plan and Investment Programme for the Livestock
Farming Sector (PAPISE, 2005) reports that ownership of cattle allows the production
of 1 to 2 t of manure per year per animal, depending on the length of time spent in
stalls. For example, a pair of oxen kept in a pen at night produce the equivalent of two
50-kg bags of complete fertilizer (costing CFAF  12 500 per bag at 2004 prices) and
double that with a manure stable, or enough to fertilize 1 ha of cotton or maize.

19

 4. Worrying imbalances with regard to the “livestock revolution”
Worrying imbalances for development of the livestock sector with the intent of strengthening the regional market can be seen at several levels. The first imbalance is that between
regional figures for the production – and therefore the supply – of animal products and
the demand for these products. Examination of the available statistics for the three main
products – meat, milk and eggs – reveals an overall shortfall during the past 20 years,
although for certain products, such as small ruminant meat, production met nearly all
the demand during the same period. Figure 2 shows the following trends: (1) The supply
of beef and veal was lower than demand between 1985 and 1995; there was a slight improvement up to 2004, but not enough to establish a surplus over demand. (2) The supply of poultry and pig meat and dairy products was lower than demand over the whole
20 years. (3) Inasmuch as the supply of small ruminant meat and eggs was sufficient to
meet demand, it was the regional imbalance between supply and demand of dairy products that most swelled the deficit in animal products. Historically, the regional supply
of dairy products has never covered regional demand, which is still met by imports. The
deficit in dairy products was about 1.3 million t between 1980 and 1990, but has seen
an almost exponential growth since then. Projects do not forecast any reversal in this
trend, and the deficit could reach 2.5 million t by 2015.
As stressed above, the growth in demand is partially a result of very rapid population
growth and a high rate of urbanisation. The population of the region, which was about
220 million in 2000, will continue to increase, growing by about 100 million between
now and 2015, 73  million of them urban and 38  million rural (FAOSTAT, 2003),
thus accelerating the growth in demand. Of the countries with high population growth
between 1960 and 1990, the coastal countries had a higher rate than the regional average, estimated at 2.7%, whereas the countries of the Sahel had a lower rate than the
average.
Urban growth is 6%, and it is estimated that by 2020 there will be nine towns or
urban municipalities with 2  to 4 million inhabitants or more, apart from Lagos and
Abidjan, which will have 14 million and 9 million inhabitants respectively (Club du
Sahel/OECD, 1998). In addition to population growth, especially in the coastal countries, which are net importers of animal products, income levels are also a factor stimulating demand (see Table 3). Analysis of income evolution in the various sectors of West
African societies shows an overall rise in the gross regional product, with a 4.6% growth
rate since 1990, compared with 3.6% between 1960 and 1990 (Club du Sahel/OECD,
1998).
The second worrying imbalance concerns the low level of trade among the various zones
of the region, which could have exploited complementarities based on their geographical position or agroecological potential. The three large blocs of countries in the SWAC
Secretariat’s field of action – the countries of the Gulf of Guinea (Benin, Cameroon,

20

 Figure 2. Evolution in regional supply and demand for animal products
Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo), the countries on the Atlantic seaboard (the
Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone) and the
land-locked countries of the Sahel (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali and Niger) – also have notable differences in their macroeconomic structures (see Table 3) (Sahel and West Africa

21

 Club/OECD, 2005). Apart from Nigeria, the countries on the Gulf of Guinea are net
importers of livestock products, those on the Atlantic seaboard trade very little amongst
themselves, and the land-locked countries basically supply those on the Gulf of Guinea
(except for Cameroon) with products from the beef and veal commodity chain.
The consumption of food products is also influenced by income. It has been seen in
countries all over the world that the consumption of animal products increases when
the average income increases. Delgado et al. (1999) have shown that for sub-Saharan
Africa dairy products and sheep and pig meat have the highest elasticity in consumption
in relation to total expenditure on animal products (see Table 4).
Table 3. Basic data for the countries of the Sahel and West Africa region in 2004
Population
(millions)

Total SWA
countries a
Gulf of
Guinea b
Atlantic
seaboard c
Land-locked
countries d
Sahel
Nigeria
Other coastal
countries f
e

286.9

Growth rate Pastoral zones Urbanisation
(%)
as % of
(%)
1990-2000
agricultural
land
2.83
67.56
33.91

Per
capita
GDP
(USD)
510.34

Criterion 1: Opening to the sea
204.0
2.55
54.0

33.47

642.70

35.7

2.86

72.4

59.70

568.59

46.0

3.10

76.3

23.04

310.62

Criterion 2: Agroclimatic
56.9
2.90
75.1
137.0
2.80
54.4
50.9
2.45
54.6

26.50
36.60
35.57

332.00
694.00
546.56

All the countries in the SWAC field of action, including Cameroon and Chad.
Benin, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo.
c
Cape Verde, the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone..
d
Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali and Niger .
e
Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger and Senegal, .
f
Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Togo involved in trade in animal products with the Sahel.
Source: adapted from Club du Sahel/OECD, 1998; FAOSTAT, 2005; Economic and Monetary Community
of Central Africa (EMCCA) Website: www.izf.net/izf/Guide/; OECD, 2005.
a

b

22

 Table 4. Elasticity in consumption (in weight) in relation to total expenditure on animal
products
Animal products

Countries with
per capita GDP
<USD800

Average sub-Saharan
Africa

Countries with
per capita GDP
>USD3000

Beef and veal

0.72

0.65

0.57

Pig and sheep meat

0.96

1.10

1.30

Poultry meat

0.28

0.27

0.26

Milk

1.43

1.36

1.26

Source: Delgado et al., 1999.

This elasticity has been estimated for a large number of countries on several continents
and the figures therefore do not allow a precise appreciation of the dynamics of animal
products consumption in the SWA region – and even less that of individual countries in
the region. However, it may be noted that the countries of the SWA region belong to the
category of those in which per capita GDP is lower than USD 800. In such countries,
milk consumption is the most sensitive to variations in average income, followed by pig
and sheep meat, then beef and veal, and lastly poultry meat.
The third type of imbalance concerns disparities between rural and urban areas. As with
differences in income between countries (in terms of per capita GDP), differences in
income between urban and rural areas also affect the consumption of animal products.
Population growth has been higher in African towns than in rural areas, a trend that
should continue in the decades ahead. Many authors (Delgado et al., 1999; Huang and
Bouis, 1996) stress the fact that urban consumers diversify their diet as a result of the
wider choice offered and exposure to more varied cultural influences. They consume
more animal products than rural consumers. Case studies (Thillier-Cedan and Bricas,
1997) also show that the proportion of food expenditure allocated to animal products
reaches 30.8% in such urban areas as Cotonou. Food expenditure accounts for 46% of
the total outgoings of urban households. Urban styles of consumption are also changing,
with more attention paid to the health quality of food and a preference for high-end
and standardised products. The growing globalisation of markets and rapid urbanisation
also encourage the development of “supermarketisation” and market segmentation
(Randolph et al., 2004), which means that a growing proportion of urban inhabitants,
even those with modest incomes, buy more animal products in urban supermarkets, at
the expense of raw products sold in public places and often consumed by the poorest
strata of society.

23

 Urbanisation has a very strong influence on the nature of marketing channels, inasmuch as urban consumption is mainly supplied by commodity chains, whereas rural
consumption is essentially accounted for by household production and gifts or is supplied by very short channels (direct sale from producer to consumer). Urban growth will
therefore increase the need for longer commodity marketing chains, which will be in
direct competition with import chains, since most large West African towns are ports –
and, although the Sahel countries are land-locked, they have easy access to ports in the
coastal countries.
5. Key questions concerning livestock in the Sahel and West Africa region
How can the comparative natural advantage of the Sahel countries in animal production
be best transformed into an economic advantage by strengthening trade with the
coastal countries where regional consumption of meat products is mainly concentrated,
stimulated by higher per capita incomes? Would it not also be beneficial to develop the
fodder potential of the reception zones of transhumant herds in the coastal countries by
promoting careers in livestock fattening and the livestock feed industry?
Population growth and urbanisation in the region will modify food habits towards a
greater consumption of animal products and will be determining factors in the growth
of demand for these products. Even if per capita consumption remained at the current
level – extremely low compared with dietary needs – the overall demand would still
grow considerably. If, in a more optimistic scenario, economic development raises per
capita income to levels closer to those in other parts of the world, the demand for animal
products will grow even faster. What regional solutions can be recommended to raise the
current level of trade, increase the rate of cover1 of requirements by animal production
in the countries of the SWA region, and reduce imports from outside Africa? What
national and regional policies should be implemented to achieve regional integration by
stimulating markets in animal products?

1 

The rate of cover is the proportion of consumption needs covered by local or regional production.

24

 CHAPTER TWO

OPTIMISATION

AND STIMULATION
OF THE REGIONAL
MARKET IN ANIMAL
PRODUCTS

I

t is important to note that exploitation of the above-mentioned comparative
advantages of the various blocs of SWA countries can be an effective contribution to
stimulating trade, especially through the application of the principle of subsidiarity. A
better knowledge of the potential, constraints and challenges of the various production
systems is therefore needed in order to aid strategic thinking on the future of the livestock
sector.
1. Production systems in the region
For the purposes of the present study, a livestock system is defined as a body of farms
or livestock undertakings characterised by a similar complement of natural resources,
having the same types of livestock production and household resources, and facing the

25

  

MAURITANIA

 

GUINEA
.. NIGERIA

COTE


 

Legend

Hyperarid 
Arid -
Semi-mid 
Subhumid -



Humid

Thornton ct 31., 2002 Kruska ct 31., 2003
Map 2. Agroecological zones in West Africa

same constraints, so that similar development and intervention strategies can be applied
to them (Dixon et  al., 2001). At the regional level, it is useful to refer to livestock
systems first according to their agroecological zone, as seen on the map (Map 1). The
countries of the SWAC Secretariat’s field of action are thus divided into arid, semi-arid,
sub-humid and humid zones, defined according to the length of the growing period and
rainfall. The classification of livestock systems devised by Seré et al. (1996) recognises
this agroecological potential as a major criterion in distinguishing among the various
mixed agriculture-livestock systems that are fairly widespread in West Africa. Other
relevant criteria may be progressively added in order to take account of human and
livestock population densities – which are often correlated in rural areas (Thornton et
al., 2002; Kruska et al., 2003).
sing these criteria, it was then possible to draw up a classification of livestock systems
with simultaneous possibilities of identifying development priorities on the regional
or even national level (Fernandez et al., 2004). More recently, work carried out by the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to map cropping systems in West
and Central Africa expanded the field of classification criteria by incorporating various
types of crop (annual and permanent) into the detailed chart of mixed agriculturelivestock systems (Manyong, 2002). Access to Sahelian ponds, lowlands and river
valleys was also taken into account as an important element in the yearly grazing chain,
especially for the use of surface water and dry-season fodder reserves (flood plains), so
that certain mixed systems, such as rice and livestock, could be identified. Boutonnet
et al. (2000) distinguish four livestock systems on the basis of the nature of the livestock’s
food resources, highlighting the “barnyard systems” that are rarely mentioned in other
writings1. Analysis of the relevance of the criteria mentioned above led to the adoption
of the classification proposed by Fernandez-Rivera et  al. (2004) (see Figure 5) for a
reading of livestock systems that tallies with the needs of this study.
1.1 Pastoral systems
Animal production depends essentially on the use of natural resources – grassland and
shrubland – grazed by livestock on uncultivated land mainly in the arid and semi-arid
zones of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, stretching as far as the Atlantic seaboard in
the north of Senegal and Mauritania. Livestock are reared in mixed or unmixed herds
of cattle, sheep, goats, camelids, donkeys and horses. With regard to cattle, the zebu
genotype is predominant in these systems and is sometimes the only breed. The main
constraints are concerned with land tenure, ownership rights and the scarcity of fodder
resources.
These are systems practised by farmers in all rural zones and by small livestock farmers in urban settings.
They are a variation on the mixed agriculture-livestock system, costing very little in work, space and inputs,
but providing a practically free supplement to the diet of families practising them. According to ThuillierCerdan and Bricas (1998), 10% of the urban consumption of poultry, eggs, and sheep and goat meat in
Cotonou comes from these systems.

1 

27

 In traditional extensive systems the availability of grazing dictates the herd movements
that distinguish nomadic or transhumant production systems1. Livestock yields are still
unsatisfactory. For example, young weaned cattle do not exceed an annual weight gain
of 50 kg in the transhumant system, so it takes five to six years to produce a 250-kg cow
(Touré, 1996). Dairy production occupies a central place in the management of these
systems (Ancey, 1998), because the group can subsist on self-production or by trading
milk or butter. It seems that the conditions of balance of these systems hamper any
large-scale marketing of dairy products (Brokken and Senait, 1992). However, in some
zones, such as Chad, these systems have been the source of a considerable dairy trade, for
example, the trans-Sahara trade in clarified butter in the early 20th century (Duteurte,
1998). Although the sale of live animals is not the main aim of this system, it is the primary source of cash income. The trade involves only culled animals or those surpluses to
the family’s milk needs and the reproduction of the herd.
Attempts to improve the pastoral system by settling herders in the region have met with
limited success. An example is the work carried out by the Animal Development and
Production Agency (SODEPRA) in northern Côte d’Ivoire, where the settled rearing
of cattle classified in the primary, “zero level”, group involved 65% of production units
in the 1990s. This livestock system was characterised by such features as (1) numerical
weakness of individual production units, (2) grouping of animals in collective pens and
management by a paid herdsman and (3) owners’ lack of technical skills and infrequent
guidelines and interventions on the herd. In Burkina Faso, the creation of agropastoral
zones (Sideradougou, Smorogouan and Yallé) was one of the Government’s responses
to the successive droughts during the 1970s and 1980s, encouraging herders to settle
in reception zones equipped with infrastructure to increase the productivity of their
livestock. However, in these two examples, sustainable pastoral development could not
be envisaged in the zones in question without addressing the fresh problems of the risk
and prevalence of animal trypanosomosis.
According to Seré (1994), pastoral systems account for a third of the cattle and half the
small ruminants in sub-Saharan Africa, providing 60% of the beef and veal, 40% of the
small ruminant meat and 70% of the milk in these countries as a whole.
A participatory approach to environmental management and the improvement in herd
health and livestock yields seems to be the way forward with a view to sustainable production that would benefit from the establishment of fodder reserves.
The ranching system is distinguished from pastoralism by the private or State ownership
of rangelands. Meat production for sale is usually the sole objective of these enterprises
and dairy production is absent (Boutonnet, 2000). Ranching is very rare in West Africa,
1 
Transhumance is defined as an oscillating, seasonal movement of livestock under the care of herders,
following precise routes in order to exploit pastoral resources. It is distinguished from nomadism, which is
characterised by more random movements and is followed by the herder’s whole family.

28

 Source: adapted from Fernandez-Rivera et al., 2004.

Figure 3. Livestock systems practised in the countries of the SWAC’s field of action
apart from a few cases where the objective is often that of developing and promoting one
breed on the part of the State; examples are the Marahoué ranch in Côte d’Ivoire, the
Madina-Diassa ranch in Mali and the Toukounous ranch in Niger to exploit the genetic
potential of the Azawak zebu.
1.2 Off-land systems
Off-land systems are totally independent of any agricultural use of the land and are the
second type of unmixed livestock rearing system. They use only animal feed: cultivated
fodder and agro-industrial by-products, whether concentrated or unrefined – cereals, oil
seed cakes, bran, hay and straw.

29

 These systems are found in or on the outskirts of towns, and have blossomed in the
past 25 years in the wake of growing urbanisation and a demand for animal products
that distant small farming or pastoral systems are unable to meet, in view of the shortcomings of long marketing channels. They focus mainly on poultry farming (for eggs
and meat), pig farming, and milk production to a lesser extent. In the latter case they
are mostly trade-oriented systems, the most frequent being family or collective milkproduction units and fattening enterprises. Animal production is covered by the use of
exotic breeds and their crosses, which are more productive than local genotypes. Systems
for fattening thin sheep and cattle coming from pastoral systems operate in the same
way in urban and peri-urban locations.
Modern poultry and pig farming is generally carried on in close association with western
companies, which supply feed formulas and ready-mixed feed, chicks or breeding sows
and chickens, advice and testing. This industry is expanding in the coastal countries,
especially Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal1. Traditional (off-land) poultry farming is also
expanding. Villagers and small-scale herders in urban areas practice off-land barnyard
systems to rear chickens and guinea-fowl. Productivity should increase with health care,
predator control and a reduction in seasonal stress, while improved feeding should
produce better quality carcasses. These systems cannot produce more than available food
supplies allow, and their performance can be improved only by eliminating such major
health constraints as Newcastle disease and avian flu in the case of poultry and African
swine fever in the case of pigs.
Off-land dairy production systems are cost-effective only because of African consumers’
preference for fresh milk and the lack of longer marketing channels to supply towns
from small-scale dairy farmers, whose production costs are lower. The economic viability
of peri-urban dairy farms is often ensured by the sale of brood heifers bred from exotic
(imported) stock. In-depth socio-economic surveys in the peri-urban areas of the region
have recently shown the very low profitability of this type of system (Hamadou and
Tiendrebeogo, 2004; Hamadou et al., 2002; 2003).
Intensive cattle fattening in permanent stalls, using purchased concentrated feed and
fodder, was fairly widespread in Africa in the 1970s, but has been practically abandoned
since then.
1.3 Agropastoral systems
Also called mixed farming systems, these are the most widespread as they dominate the
landscape in the sub-humid savannah zones of the countries of the SWAC’s field of action. Agropastoral systems use a combination of grazing on uncultivated land, fodder
More than 200 000 breeding birds were recorded in Côte d’Ivoire in 2006 (verbal communication to the
Mission of Experts at the Ministry of Animal Production and Fisheries on 14 September 2006). Senegal also
has the capacity to produce 4 million day-old chicks and 1.3 million broilers per year (DIREL, 2005).

1 

30

 crops, agricultural and agro-industrial by-products and purchased feed, in a mixed multi-crop and livestock farming system.
By combining agriculture and livestock rearing for household consumption and sale,
these systems have seen major growth as a result of demographic pressure. Several
authors, especially Seré (1994) and Bonfiglioli (1992), note the expansion of agropastoral
systems at the expense of purely pastoral systems. It is increasingly rare to find herders
who do not practise a certain amount of agriculture. When associated with agriculture,
livestock rearing provides manure and traction, as well as a reserve of capital, which is
indispensable in places where the banking network is absent and the currency weak.
Herds of cattle owned either individually or collectively are managed by paid herdsmen.
As Figure 3 shows, these systems are very varied and sedentary, and may be based
on (1)  annual crops – for food, sale or export, (2)  permanent crops – cocoa, fruit,
banana etc., or (3) farming of lowlands, river valleys and flood plains.
For lack of a regular outlet, dairy production is in general only a secondary product.
It sometimes helps to pay for salaried herders. Beef and veal production is only a
by-product of the above activities, while that of other species is intended mainly for
household consumption.
The combination of agriculture and livestock rearing received a boost with the
introduction and expansion of animal traction, especially where it is associated with
cotton growing, which has become the driving force of agricultural development in the
savannah zones of the region (Kamuanga, 2002). Development of the zones managed
by the Malian Textile Development Company (CMDT) in Mali, the Burkina Textile
and Fibre Company (SOFITEX) in Burkina Faso, the Regional Action Centre for
Rural Development (CARDER) in Benin, the Ivorian Textile Development Company
(CIDT) in Côte d’Ivoire and the Cotton Development Corporation (SODECOTON)
in northern Cameroon are notable examples of this. However, the sustainability of mixed
agriculture-livestock systems also requires the introduction of fodder crops, thereby
reducing dependence on the cattle feed market. Fodder plants have been popularised
over the past 25 years in different forms – rangeland improvement, fodder banks, erosion
control measures, permanent pastures – albeit with uneven development and limited
success (Bosma et al., 1996). The main problem is still that of the effective adoption of
fodder crops as an integral component of cropping systems.
It should be noted that the decrease in cattle productivity in agropastoral systems is
affected by several factors, including (1) the intensity or frequency of the practice of
transhumance (for example in northern Côte d’Ivoire: Kamuanga et al., 2004), (2) the
effectiveness and optimal use of trypanocides (for example in Burkina Faso: Ouédraogo
et al., 2006), (3) the reduction in pastures due to the expansion of crops and other types
of land-use, and (4) the breed composition and mode of herd management (Tano et al.,
2001). Herd composition is often characterised by the presence of trypano-tolerant

31

 cattle – N’Dama, Baoulé and their crosses (Lobi country in Burkina Faso and Tammari
country in Togo and Benin) – alongside zebus, which are more susceptible to animal
trypanosomosis.
In conclusion, pastoral and agropastoral systems in the SWA region still contribute more
than 80% of the supply of animal products (PROCORDEL, 2005). In sub-Saharan
Africa as a whole, the production of mixed agriculture-livestock systems represents 35%
of total beef and veal production, 20% of small ruminant meat production, 35% of
poultry meat production, 40% of pig meat production, 15% of milk production and
10% of egg production.
1.4 Note on unconventional livestock
The rearing of cane-rats, snails, rabbits and ostriches, fish-farming etc. are starting to expand in West Africa. Despite the lack of reliable statistics, it can be seen that the coastal
countries are ahead of those of the Sahel. For example, domestication of cane-rats began
over 25 years ago in Ghana and is now expanding in Benin, with about 19 000 animals
(Mensah, 2000, cited by Jori and Chardonnet, 2001). There are about 500 private canerat farms in Benin, and many also exist in Côte d’Ivoire. Burkina Faso is the only Sahel
country to launch itself into this field in implementation of its wildlife management
policy. Its contribution to the supply of animal products in the region is still very small,
despite the fact that it could help improve the supply to towns. The constraints on this
type of production are linked to the scarcity of investment capital.
2. A regional view of livestock development: potential and aptitude of the various
zones
The aptitude of the various zones within a country or group of countries in the SWA
region determines the framework and opportunities for profitable trade with a view to
development of the animal product market. These opportunities depend initially on
the productivity level of the livestock systems allowed by the agroecological potential
of each zone. They also depend on how the economic environment evolves and on the
existence of the political will to implement appropriate decisions to stimulate the intraregional market in animal products.
2.1 Some basic data with regard to the SWA livestock sector: ecological diversity
and livestock potential
There is a broad difference in productivity between all domesticated breeds reared in
tropical countries, sub-Saharan Africa in particular, and those reared in temperate countries in the north. The typical values of productivity parameters for cattle under traditional systems are given in Table 5, divided according to type of production system.
These values are average for sub-Saharan Africa and have certainly undergone changes.

32

 For cattle, small ruminants, pigs and poultry, the levels of the parameters described are
valid and applicable to the livestock systems practised in all the countries in the SWAC’s
field of action.
With regard to cattle, the birth weight of a calf in industrialised countries is about
40 kg, as compared with 15 to 25 kg depending on the particular breed of zebu in SWA
countries. The adult weight of a dairy cow in industrialised countries is between 550 and
750 kg, as compared with 250 kg for most West African zebus and 300 kg for Azawaks
in the Sahel zone. Moreover, for African breeds, age at first calving is about 45 months,
although it is higher in traditional pastoral systems (49 months) and lower in agropastoral systems in subhumid zones (39 months). By comparison, the age at first calving is
24 to 30 months in temperate countries. Inasmuch as the interval between calvings is
Table 5. Some parameters of cattle productivity under traditional livestock systems in
sub-Saharan Africaa,c
Parameter

Production systemb

Calf mortality (%)

Arid zone
pastoral

Semiarid zone
pastoral

Semiarid zone
agropastoral

Sub-humid
zone
agropastoral

23.1

20.7

22.3

21.1

Cow mortality (%)

8.2

6.2

6.4

4.2

Age at first calving (months)

49.0

47.4

48.4

39.4

Calving rate (%)

61.0

58.2

60.0

57.4

251.0

282.0

218.0

233.0

Interval between calvings
Milk production/Lactation (kg)

11.7

10.2

9.0

6.9

Adult cow live weight (kg)

246.0

239.0

256.0

205.0

Bull live weight (kg)

322.0

326.0

324.0

Nd

Exploitation rate (%)

a. 
b. 
c. 

c

Values have been adjusted to reflect those of livestock systems in the SWA countries.
Proportion of production exploited in proportion to total production at a given date. At herd level,
this encompasses net marketable output (sales, gifts, emergency slaughtering, minus purchases and
gifts received).
Source: adapted from Otte and Chilonda (2002), Livestock Information Sector Analysis and Policy
Branch, FAO, 2002.

also longer in the SWA region (17 months on average, as against 13 in Europe), overall
reproductive performances are considerably lower, while mortality rates are in general
very high in traditional systems – an average of 22% for pastoral and agropastoral systems taken together.
In traditional pastoral and agropastoral systems, productivity by weight is 7 to 14 kg per
year for cattle and 3 to 6 kg for small ruminants (Touré, 1996). Productivity of labour,
expressed in tropical livestock units (TLUs) per worker, can drop to 3 in arid zones. It is

33

 about 8 in Mauritania and 12 in Somalia, while it is 80 on modern ranches in Botswana
and 300 to 800 in Australia (Brokken and Senait, 1992).
Traditional African pastoral systems thus require considerable labour – and labour is
plentiful but poorly paid. All this results in an overall numerically low productivity,
although this is partially offset by a greater longevity of livestock in tropical areas (the rate
of culling for females is often lower in the tropics compared with temperate regions).
However, the greatest difference is found with milk production. In France, for example,
the average production of the Prim-Holstein breed is 7 340 kg of milk per lactation,
whereas the recorded production of the African zebu ranges from 200 to 1  600  kg
(Touré, 1996; Meyer and Denis, 1999). However, there are considerable variations from
one country to another.
For small ruminants, there is already a difference in terms of productivity between
pastoral and agropastoral systems, depending on the availability of fodder in the
various agroecological zones1. For sheep, the age at first lambing ranges from 11.5
to 13  months for Djallonké ewes in humid and subhumid zones to an average of
16 months in Sudano-Sahelian zones, where there is a large seasonal variation in the
biomass in natural rangelands. The average interval between lambings is slightly shorter
in humid and subhumid zones (8.4  months) than in Sudano-Sahelian and Sahelian
zones (10.1 months). The fertility rate ranges from 68% to 167% for Djallonké ewes
and 103% to 109% for Oudah ewes. Djallonké ewes have greater fecundity than those
of Sahelian breeds: 101% to 131% as against 82.5% to 116% for Oudah ewes.
As with sheep, goats in humid and subhumid zones mature earlier than those in arid and
semi-arid zones. The average interval between births, estimated at 9.9 months, is slightly
shorter for dwarf goats reared in humid and subhumid zones than for those reared in
arid and semi-arid zones. Dwarf goats are more prolific than Sahelian goats: 165.8% as
against 122%. Taking all breeds together, the fertility rate ranges from 70% to 125%
and the fecundity rate from 90% to 180%.
The difference is even more noticeable for small ruminants when African productivity
is compared with that of countries of the north. The weight of a Djallonké goat in West
Africa is on average a third that of an Alpine goat, and its milk production is insignificant compared with the 700 L of the French breed. Comparable differences are found
between Djallonké sheep and Arles merinos, for example.
With regard to pigs, a newborn Large White piglet weights 40% more than an African
piglet, while an adult sow weighs four to ten times as much. Similarly, reproduction
performances of African breeds (size of litters and interval between litters) are often a
third lower or even half those of European breeds.
1 

These data are taken mainly from the Final Report of PROCORDEL, 2005.

34

 In traditional poultry rearing, local chickens lay their first eggs at 19 to 25 weeks (i.e. 4.5
to 6 months). The variation is a result of differences and lack of regularity in rearing
conditions. Laying performances of local chickens vary as widely as their rearing conditions. When ranging freely, they lay 40 to 50 eggs a year, but in improved rearing conditions, they can lay 80 to 100 eggs a year. When eggs are systematically gathered, this
improves laying intensity by disturbing the cycle of laying-incubation-rearing of chicks
normally followed by local chickens. Most of the eggs laid by local chickens are of the
white-shelled Leghorn type, although eggs with off-white or pale coloured shells are also
found. Their weight steadily increases with laying cycles, increasing from less than 20 g
to more than 40 g (with 32 g as the average). The average hatching rate of 68% can
rise to nearly 90% in the rainy season or fall to 50% in the dry season. However, about
10.7% of hatchlings die within 24 hours for various reasons, such as the poor characteristics of the eggs from which they have hatched. There is no selection of eggs before
incubation, so that the weight of eggs and therefore that of chicks vary considerably,
ranging from 21 to 30 g.
For all the productivity parameters described above, only the average values have been
given, masking considerable variations both within and between systems. Overall,
however, there are clearly large differences in productivity, which can be attributed
particularly to genetic factors, inasmuch as the pressure of selection for any species has
always been weaker in sub-Saharan countries because of the multi-purpose nature of
tropical domestic species, which has governed the choice of breeding stock. Health
pressure (parasites, major infectious diseases, dietary deficiencies) is by and large much
stronger in tropical countries. The limiting factor in pastoral and agropastoral systems
is still food.
It is certainly wiser to intervene on all the factors involved, taking them as a whole and
aiming not so much at a productivity level equal to that of the countries of the north
but rather at the acquisition of a balanced potential for species capable of producing
sufficient meat, milk and eggs, while optimising the meagre food available and resisting
diseases and climatic conditions. In other words, a potential for improving livestock
productivity in the SWA countries does exist, but it is at present smothered by a raft of
ecological, technical, socio-economic and agricultural policy constraints. There are real
possibilities of overcoming these constraints, taking a certain number of strong points
for each zone into account. Inasmuch as food is the limiting factor, a regional approach
must address the problem, considering such questions as: Is it better to develop cotton
cakes – a rare source of protein – produced in Bobo-Dioulasso to maintain extensive
livestock in the dry season, produce milk near Ouagadougou, or intensify poultry farming on the outskirts of Abidjan or traditional pig farming in Ghana?

35

 2.2 Exploiting the comparative advantages of each zone: a necessary approach to
stimulate the regional market
Analysis of the distribution of quantities of the main animal products available in the
SWA region (see Table 6) clearly identifies the comparative advantages of the Sahel
countries and those of the coast. By considering Nigeria separately, it is easier to see its
demographic and economic weight, thus enabling its potential for animal production
to be taken into account. Liberalisation is certainly important, but it must be based on
more efficient production systems (enhancing production capacities, increasing supply,
improving the business environment  etc.) and on the particular advantages of each
country taken individually within the perspective of regional complementarities.
Countries in the arid and semi-arid zone (land-locked Sahel countries and those of the
Atlantic seaboard)
The main comparative advantage of the arid, semi-arid and subhumid regions concerns
animal production intended primarily for the regional market and mainly involving
cattle and small ruminants. The target countries are members of CILSS: Burkina Faso,
Cape Verde, Chad, the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal.
Niger, which produced a little more than 30% of the 921  508  t of beef and veal
produced in the SWA region in 2005, should also be included, since this production
came mainly from the semi-arid north of the country. Despite a general shift of herds
towards the coastal countries because of the drought cycles of the 1970s and 1980s, the
Sahel countries still have a quantitative advantage in terms both of numbers and of meat
production (43.4% for beef and veal and 46.9% for small ruminant meat).
Since 1985, meat production has followed trends similar to the numbers seen in Table 1.
Mali, the main producer, provides almost one third of the meat produced in the central
basin (Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger and Togo), both for cattle and
goats. Burkina Faso and Senegal account for about 16% each, followed by Niger with
13%. In 2005, the SWA countries produced 2.74 million t of milk, 70% of it in the
Sahel.
The poultry sector is composed of traditional poultry rearing practised mainly in rural
areas and modern poultry rearing which is showing signs of developing into an automated industry. Nigeria alone accounts for more than 40% of poultry production in the
SWA countries. Senegal has the largest share of production capacity among the Atlantic
seaboard countries, accounting for 80% of poultry meat production, while Burkina
Faso and Mali have the largest share in the central basin (70%). In the case of Mali, 96%
of the total number (23 million birds) comes from the traditional sector. Burkina Faso’s
traditional sector is a major economic asset for the State in terms of foreign currency
earnings – CFAF 1.2 billion in 2003 solely from sales to Côte d’Ivoire (Faivre Dupaigre
et  al., 2006). The modern poultry sector has developed since the 1980s, expanding

36

 Table 6. Distribution of animal product production in the Sahel and West Africa
region
Year

1985

1989

1994

1999

2004

2005

SWA (1000 t)

800.163

642.503

743.600

873.455

909.355

921.508

Sahel share (% SWA)

25.90

41.30

40.15

40.56

42.98

43.36

Cattle meat

Coastal share (% SWA)

19.39

24.84

24.30

25.32

26.23

26.25

Nigeria share (% SWA)

54.70

33.85

35.54

34.11

30.79

30.38

Small ruminant meat
SWA (1000 t)

299.681

391.874

428.846

536.492

615.794

622.873

Sahel share (% SWA)

44.55

44.38

45.29

44.98

46.57

46.90

Coastal share (% SWA)

15.46

15.20

14.62

13.50

14.27

14.39

Nigeria share (% SWA)

39.98

40.40

40.08

41.51

39.14

38.70

Milk
SWA (1000 t)

1,615.691

1,863.210

2,115.388

2,414.105

2,702.306

2,742.714

Sahel share (% SWA)

65.02

65.89

66.20

68.43

68.92

69.19

Coastal share (% SWA)

15.85

15.91

15.82

15.58

15.08

15.05

Nigeria share (% SWA)

19.12

18.19

17.96

15.98

15.98

15.75

289.527

350.149

378.145

434.995

520.126

524.735

Poultry meat
SWA (1000 t)
Sahel share (% SWA)

22.97

23.76

25.62

26.19

25.08

25.46

Coastal share (% SWA)

29.76

28.01

29.98

34.29

34.07

34.05

Nigeria share (% SWA)

47.266

48.22

44.38

39.50

40.84

40.48

137.456

199.616

215.329

249.527

327 117

330.097

Pig meat
SWA (1000 t)
Sahel share (% SWA)

32.58

22.85

22.26

17.47

15.74

15.85

Coastal share (% SWA)

23.25

19.66

21.31

21.21

20.60

21.07

Nigeria share (% SWA)

44.16

57.48

56.42

61.31

63.65

63.07

SWA (1000 t)

357.592

362.997

570.008

620.570

694.492

699.868

Sahel share (% SWA)

13.55

15.37

13.58

14.00

14.71

15.18

Coastal share (% SWA)

16.53

17.68

13.08

15.89

16.74

16.79

Nigeria share (% SWA)
69.91
66.94
73.33
70.09
68.53
Source: calculated on the basis of FAOSTAT data (accessed on 21 September 2006).

68.01

Eggs

especially in certain Sahel countries on the Atlantic seaboard, such as Senegal, where it
accounts for a little more than 9% of agricultural GDP.
In conclusion, the countries of the Sahel have a favourable set of factors for extensive
cattle and small ruminant rearing. If there are natural limits to the expansion of this

37

 type of livestock rearing based on grazing land and agricultural residues, they have not
yet been reached, except in years of major drought. Moreover, economic analysis indicates the cost-effectiveness of more intensive fattening programmes, using by-products,
fodder cereals or other fodder crops. There is also major potential for strengthening the
links between agriculture and livestock rearing in the Sahelian part of the SWA region.
Countries in the humid and subhumid coastal zone (Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic
seaboard)
This zone comprises Benin, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra
Leone and Togo. The main comparative advantage of the humid coastal zone is its crop
and forest production. These products are sold on national, regional and international markets. Recent developments in rural production activities have shown that these
countries also have advantages for undertaking off-land activities involving the modern
rearing of laying chickens and broilers, pig farming, unconventional livestock rearing
(cane-rats, fish-farming etc.). Between 1985 and 2005, total poultry meat production in
the region almost doubled, rising from 289 527 to 524 7835 t, 34% of it coming from
the coastal countries, excluding Nigeria. The Côte d’Ivoire poultry sector is the most
structured in the UEMOA subregion, with an integrated commodity chain stretching
from poultry feed production through to a poultry slaughtering unit, and more than
200 000 breeding chickens recorded. Today Côte d’Ivoire has a modern industry that
provides about 8 million broilers and 3 million laying chickens a year. Moreover, the
sector is run by experienced producers with a solid production base and locally available
inputs1. Ghana also has potential for short-cycle livestock rearing. In particular, the current development of modern poultry farming enterprises shows that Ghana can become
a net exporter over the next 20 years2.
The coastal countries, excluding Nigeria, supply a much larger proportion of pig products,
producing 21% of the regional tonnage in 2005 (330 097 t). Inputs for the rearing of
short-cycle species and unconventional species are relatively abundant in such countries
as Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria for egg and meat poultry farming, Benin for canerat rearing and Côte d’Ivoire for fish-farming. The proportion of poultry numbers and
also of poultry meat production in the coastal countries, excluding Nigeria, increased
from 30% in 1985 to 34% in 2005. In Nigeria, there was a considerable decrease from
47% to 40% over the same period, although the country is still the undisputed regional
leader in egg production, with 68% of the tonnage produced.

Verbal communication to the Mission of Experts, Ministry of Animal Production and Fisheries, 14
September 2006.

1 

Verbal communication to the Mission of Experts, Directorate of Animal Production, Ministry of Food
and Agriculture, 10 September 2006.

2 

38

 Regional aptitudes: food opportunities, markets and health environment of animal production
The opportunities offered by a regional view of complementarities and possible trade are
summarised in Table 7. Despite the scarcity of statistics on certain aspects of the livestock sector, a qualitative examination of the aptitudes and conditions of the environment indicates the existence of food opportunities to be exploited as well as the potential
for trade in a regional approach to livestock development in the SWA countries. The
Table 7. Comparative natural advantages of the various groups of countries in the Sahel
and West Africa region
Sahel and West Africa zones
Sahel countries

Coastal countries

Nigeria

Fairly
unfavourable
ecoclimatic
environment

Favourable
ecoclimatic
environment

Favourable
ecoclimatic
environment

AIBPa

Underdeveloped
agro-industrial
environment

Fairly developed
agro-industrial
environment

Well developed
agro-industrial
environment

ABPb

Fairly favourable
agroclimatic
environment

More favourable
agroclimatic
environment

More favourable
agroclimatic
environment

Trypanosomosis

Fairly favourable

More favourable

More favourable

Other diseases

Fairly favourable

Fairly favourable

Fairly favourable

Meat

Large

Very large

Very large

Milk

Very large

Very large

Very large

Eggs

Very large

Very large

Very large

Very high

High

High

Water resources

Small

Very large

Very large

Production
of veterinary
products

Small

Fairly large

Fairly large

Food
Fodder
opportunities

Diseases
Markets

Other
Costs of exports
opportunities to outside Africa

Notes: 
 

a
b

AIBP = agro-industrial by-products
ABP = agricultural by-products

geographical distribution of ecoclimatic advantages indicates disparities in fodder assets among Sahel countries, coastal countries and Nigeria. Similarly, the agro-industrial
fabric of the various countries suggests disparities in the availability of agro-industrial
by-products. Several other factors, such as diseases, market size, the costs of exporting
outside Africa and the availability of water, favour regional exploitation of comparative
advantages and complementarities among the countries of the region.

39

 Source: FAOSTAT, various years.

Figure 4. Comparative evolution of world and SWA meat production
The situation therefore needs strengthening by developing socially acceptable models of
access to available rangelands in the savannah zones in the north of the coastal countries.
The northern regions of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, for example, could serve as fattening
zones for ruminants from the Sahel1. Young animals could thus be prepared for slaughter
with a period of fattening. Those involved would need proper training in new livestock
rearing technologies. Marketing infrastructure for cattle and meat products would also
require development.
This is especially true of the Abidjan and Accra abattoirs, which need considerably greater
investment than the simple cost of rehabilitation, if their capacity is to be expanded to
cover an anticipated increase and more regular supply of live animals from the Sahel
and fattening zones2. The other coastal countries, which are no better equipped with
modern abattoirs large enough to meet regional requirements, can also anticipate this
type of investment, to the extent that local consumption allows.
The mission was amply informed about this option during consultations in the two countries. Studies
will also be undertaken on this subject in Nigeria with a view to establishing grazing areas for transhumant
herders’ (both nationals’ and non-nationals’) livestock.

1 

Verbal communication to the Mission of Experts, Ministry of Animal Production and Fisheries, Abidjan,
15 September 2006, and Directorate of Animal Production, Accra, 10 September 2006.

2 

40

 3. Regional trade in animal products: constraints and opportunities for its
development
What balance between supply and demand can be envisaged and what forecast can
be made, taking into account demographic factors, urbanisation and consumers’ requirements, with a view to stimulating regional trade in animal products? It is also up
to each country or group of countries to promote the allocation of human, financial
and physical resources to turning comparative natural advantages into comparative economic advantages. Analysis of the facts and development of a regional view will provide
indications regarding the evolution, constraints and opportunities regarding the supply
and demand of animal products.
3.1 A weak showing in terms of world supply, but increasing tonnages
Compared to the world meat supply, which grew by 86% between 1979 and 2003 to
253.5 million t, the production of the SWA region grew by only 73% over the same
period, reaching 2.8 million t. This tonnage represents only 1.1% of world meat production, 0.1% less than the percentage for 1979-81 (see Figure 4). This downward trend
in comparison with world supply is an indication of the increased flows of meat imports
into the SWA region, partly as a result of demographic growth and urbanisation1.
Comparative data for world production and SWA production and also those for the
contributions of each subzone over the period 1979–81 to 2003 show that there was
a steady growth in meat production in the SWA region – from 1.6 million t to about
3 million t. The share of the Sahel in SWA meat production grew from 19% to 33%
over the same period, a gain of four points in 24 years, while the Nigerian share, assessed
at 41% in 1979–81, fell by 4%, while the other coastal countries maintained their share.
Taken overall, meat production is increasing in the study zone.
3.2 Overview of recent developments in regional trade2
The analysis of statistics is initially based on overall data for regional exports and imports, even though these do not allow a distinction between intra- and extra-regional
trade. Figure 7 shows developments in the SWA countries’ trade in animal products.
That trade is dominated by live animals rather than processed products. The region is
a net importer of meat, dairy products and eggs. Data on the trade in eggs and dairy
products within the region must be treated with caution, for these items are often in fact
1 
Exports of beef and veal to the world market reached 6 million t in 2003, i.e. about 12% of world production. It is useful to note the special importance of certain exporting countries such as Brazil, which holds
first place with 1.2 million t of beef and veal, when this country exported nearly 500 000 t to the world in
1999.

FAOSTAT is the main source of overall data, which do not distinguish the volumes traded within the
SWA region from those traded with regions outside Africa.

2 

41

 re-exported from the coastal countries to those in the interior. The region as a whole is
a net importer of meat (from cattle, small ruminants, pigs and poultry) for an estimated
value of USD 166.5 million in 1994 (FAO, 2001).
In 2003, meat, dairy products and egg exports made a timid appearance as exports (see
Figures 7b and 7c). The region offers a different picture in terms of trade in live animals,
which is more substantial. It is thus an overall net exporter of ruminants (see Figures 7d
and 7e), although it is a net importer of pigs and poultry (see Figures 7f and 7g). The
overall trend and the volume of trade in live animals were declining up to 2003, while
trade in small ruminants was increasing. Although imports of sheep and pig meat and
eggs seem negligible, there was a definite upward trend between 1980 and 2003. The
decline in exports despite the increase in animal production is additional proof of the
growing demand within the region. On the other hand, the decline in imports would
point to their high prices and thus their drain on foreign currency reserves and the
balance of trade.
The evolution of intra- and extra-regional trade is linked to a total rate of openness of
39%, which is very close to the 1990 figure, according to the Club du Sahel/OECD
(1998). However, the regional rate of openness to the rest of the world is estimated at
30%, or six points less than the 1990 figure of 36%. Regional trade would thus account
for 22% of total imports, or 13 points more than the 1990 figure. Generally speaking,
the tonnages of all animal products traded are steadily increasing, despite their very low
volumes in proportion to world levels.
3.3. Intra-regional trade could be intensified in view of potential
Three major traditional trading basins for animal products have existed for a long time,
with flows going from the Sahel to coastal countries. This age-old trading tradition
within the region has survived many socio-political and economic changes, primarily
because of the intermingling of the various peoples there, and led the national governments to undertake the formal establishment of such community areas as ECOWAS
and UEMOA.
Analysis of the physical trade flows in the region shows a certain interdependence
between the Sahel countries and those of the coast: flows of cereals (in certain periods)
and starchy products primarily move northwards from the coastal countries, while those
of older animal products move in the opposite direction.
Before evaluating the conditions for any intensification of trade within the region, it
will be helpful to define the three recognised trading basins (Boutonnet et al., 2000;
Williams et al., 2004; Renard et al., 2004):
•  The first trading basin comprises the countries on the Atlantic seaboard – Cape
Verde, the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal and

42

  

 

 

11m 1935 199'! 1995 1m 3006

 

 

 

(3) Meat products

 

Import
.51!va

[rot-m]

 

1m 1m 1990 1995 19:: 2003


 

 

 

 


named

 

was WW 19? 19? 2M:
nun?-

 

 

 

Live small ruminants

 

 

 

llmno?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IEIn-nd
1930- 1985 1990 1995 1399 ma

Dairv products
lmnon
lEupurt
195D 1990 1999 10133
M?l?l
Live cattle
l-Imwn


10.0 1.3-5 


 

19.5

 

an?:

 

 

Live pigs

 



4000B








10? 1990
Anne

 

 

.Im pun.
.Exnrl

I?li 200:!
II

 

 

Live poultry (chickens)

 

 

Figure 5. Evolution of the trade in animal products in the Sahel and West

Africa region

43

 

 

Sierra Leone. The zone has little trade with other zones (some between Mali
and Senegal or between Guinea and Mali) and little trade among the countries
themselves (except for sheep between Mauritania and Senegal or possibly between
the Gambia and Senegal).
•  The second basin is the central area, comprising Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire,
Ghana, Mali, and Togo. The zone acts as a pole of attraction for animal products
consumed in Côte d’Ivoire and to a lesser degree Ghana. Trade with zone 3 passes
through Togo.
•  The third basin comprises Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria. Nigeria
and to a lesser extent Cameroon are poles of attraction for animal products. Some
rare trade flows may come from zone 2 (Burkina Faso and Mali), while other even
less frequent flows may exist from Chad and Niger toward the countries of North
Africa. Cameroon and the Central African Republic have been included with this
zone, since the majority of their trade goes to Nigeria, although there are smaller
flows from Cameroon to Gabon and from the Central African Republic to the
Congo.
Trade flows involving cattle meat are larger, but almost all this trade in the SWA region
at present is in live animals, inasmuch as current policies have been unfavourable to the
development of animal product processing. The value of the trade in live cattle increased
in real terms from USD 13 million in 1970 to USD 150 million in 2000 (Williams
et al., 2004). The market is based exclusively on demand from Benin, Côte d’Ivoire,
Ghana, Nigeria and Togo.
The situations of the individual countries differ depending on changing demand, and
in recent years the trend in the two main importers, Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria, has
been downward. Despite the advantage of long-standing ties between peoples, trade
within the region is not always optimal. In the past, the supply of live animals has been
very badly affected by droughts, especially those of the 1970s and 1980s. Drought and
population growth have caused a decline in the number of cattle per inhabitant in the
Sahel countries, the main suppliers to the coastal countries – from 0.78 in 1970 to 0.39
in 2000. On the other hand, this effect has been marginal in importing countries, where
the number has merely fallen from 0.16 to 0.15, according to Williams et al. (2004).
With regard to current specific trade among countries, Burkina Faso and Mali are the
main exporters of live cattle to Côte d’Ivoire, whose imports of cattle fell from slightly
more than 154  000 head in 1998 to about 87  000 head in 2002, while imports of
sheep and goats fell from 253 000 in 1998 to about 138 000 in 2002. These decreases
are partly explained by the devaluation of the CFA franc which raised prices for red
meat, the development of domestic production and an increase in the consumption of
white meat (poultry and pig meat). The decreases in imports can also be attributed to
the socio-political crisis of 2002 (MPARH, 2005). Nigerian imports of cattle fell from
187 6000 head in 1999 to 54 000 head in 2001. The main suppliers of the Nigerian live

44

 cattle market are Niger, Chad and Cameroon. The downward trend in Nigeria is even
more marked for sheep and goats, with the number of imported animals falling from over
1.7 billion to a little more than 100 000. This change would seem mainly a result of the
country’s desire to support local livestock rearing, to the detriment of imports (Ministry
of Agriculture, 2003). In contrast, Ghana’s cattle imports rose from 7 192 head in 1993
to 47 176 in 1994 and 35 946 in 1998, with Burkina Faso and to a lesser extent Niger as
the two main sources since the 1994 monetary adjustment (MOFA, 2004). Benin and
Togo represent very minor markets for exports from the Sahel.
Data on export levels and on the consumption of animal products within the region are
scarce and need periodic updating. This is the only way of obtaining a clear picture of
trade flows and performances in order to assess the relevance of policies in this sphere1.
Mali’s intra-regional trade with Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal in recent years gives an idea
of the nature, volumes and monetary value of the trade in animal products between a
Sahel country and its two neighbours, one on the Gulf of Guinea and the other on the
Atlantic seaboard. A reading of Table 8 confirms that live cattle are the most widely
traded product and that imports are dominated by dairy products. Between 2000 and
2003, Mali exported an annual average of nearly 6 500 t of live cattle (live weight) to
Senegal for a value of CFAF 5.75 billion. The value of the trade in small ruminants with
the same country was CFAF 3.26 billion (nearly 4 000 t) a year over the same period.
The corresponding figures for Côte d’Ivoire are CFAF 11.84 billion (16 617 t) for live
cattle and CFAF 2.09 billion (3 865 t) for small ruminants.
Mali’s imports of dairy products from Senegal had a value of CFAF 223.6 million in
2000 and CFAF 216.9 million in 2003, having been reduced to a quarter of their value
in 2001 and 2002. Imports of dairy products from Côte d’Ivoire maintained their level,
with a yearly average of CFAF 241.5 million2.
In general terms, the available information does not provide a clear picture of the real
size of the subregional market in live animals. Supply flows for each coastal country generally depend on traditional trading patterns and above all on geographical position in
relation to the supplying countries seeing as transport appears to be one of the determining factors in the competitiveness of the supply. For example, the cost of transporting
and handling live cattle represents 40% to 60% of the total cost of cross-border marketing of live cattle, excluding the purchase price of the animals (Williams et al., 2004).
The absence of disaggregated statistics was a major constraint for the mission when trying to obtain a
realistic picture of flows within the region. National statistical services do not regularly record trade data
in such detail. There is in fact a serious problem over the gathering of statistics in the UEMOA region
following the suppression of taxes on products of animal origin and the implementation of the Common
External Tariff (CET).

1 

It should be noted that in terms of intra-regional trade these imports are mainly re-exports from Côte
d’Ivoire and Senegal to Mali.

2 

45

 Table 8. Mali’s intra-regional trade in animal products with Senegal and Côte d’Ivoire
Year

2000

2001

2002

2003

Average
2000–2003

Exports to Senegal
Cattle (t)
(CFAF 1000)

7 411.5
6 513.4
10 566.0
1 490.3
6 495
7 270 977.6 7 000 070.1 7 158 376.2 1 589 600.0 5 754 756

Sheep/Goats (t)
(CFAF 1000)

3 357.4
3 227.1
2 931 590.0 2 987953.8

7 998.1
1 291.3
3 968
5 927 216.9 1 196 910.0 3 260 918

Other live
animals (t)
(CFAF 1000)

5 213.8
595.5
5 179 649.7 597 007.8

-

1.3
814.9

1 453
1 444 368

Leather & skins (t)
(CFAF 1000)

323.3
522 511.6

96.6
119 364.7

313.6
383 663.7

253.3
413 837.1

248
359 844

176.9
223 592.9

35.7
55 722.0

29.9
52 729.4

192.6
216 898.1

109
137 236

Imports from Senegal
Dairy (t)
(CFAF 1000)
Exports to Côte d’Ivoire
Cattle (t)
(CFAF 1000)

9 283.6
40 923.2
8 947 855.4 25 400
172.0

Sheep/Goats (t)
(CFAF 1000)

4 201.9
4 698.1
5 643.4
919.2
3 865
3 784 762.2 4 356 025.1 3 518 911.7 1 048 515.0 2 089 136

Other live
animals (t)
(CFAF 1000)

5 872.1
1 889.8
992.1
5 734 240.0 1 972 351.1 690 100.0

54.8
41.8

2 202
2 099 183

Leather & skins (t)
(CFAF 1000)

67.0
31 714.7

16.7
2 873.1

76
107 310

120.2
71 021.8

9 512.4
6 749.4
16 617
5 956 728.1 7 078 544.3 11 845 824

99.3
323 635.1

Imports from Côte d’Ivoire
Dairy (t)
146.9
153.9
448.0
194.6
236
(CFAF 1000)
187 273.8
248 441.1
335 022.4
195 332.1
241 517
Source: Federation of Interprofessional Livestock and Meat Groups of Mali (FEBEVIM) and calculations
by the mission, September 2006.

Moreover, even if meat imports (cattle, sheep and goats, poultry) from outside Africa
to the coastal countries are declining, they represent significant shares of the market in
livestock products.
The outlook for an increase in exports of live animals from the Sahel countries to the
coastal countries seems good, despite the fact that the profitability of live animal exports
seems to be linked mainly to the informal nature of the activity and the trade. Exports
to Côte d’Ivoire will grow with the improved socio-political situation in the country.
There is in fact a considerable and very real demand, as the rate of cover from domestic
production is no more than 60%.

46

 Moreover, UEMOA’s community protection policy with its CET and the imposition
of a compensatory levy on meat from outside Africa coming into the country are
increasing the competitiveness of exports from the Sahel to the Côte d’Ivoire market.
The establishment of a modern abattoir in Anyama and a cattle market constitute
support for imports of live cattle from the Sahel.
In the case of Nigeria, the market should theoretically grow because of (i) demographic
changes and growing urbanisation, (ii) the creation of a new international cattle market
in Kano and the development of all border markets, (iii) professional management of
markets, (iv) a political decision to develop local supply and (v) the construction of new

Source: adapted from FAOSTAT, 2005 (various years).

Figure 6. Evolution in the exploitation of regional stocks of animal resources
abattoirs in Kano and Abuja. Ghanaian demand for meat is growing and the country has
no tradition of cattle rearing. The construction of two abattoirs (in Accra and Kumasi)
is a clear indication of the country’s desire to support local processing in order to gain
added value.
3.4 A low rate of stock exploitation, but with possibilities for improvement
The low production of the SWA region measured against world production of animal
products, especially meat, is partly due to the low rate of exploitation of the region’s livestock numbers. Figure 6 shows the main livestock resources and the number of animals

47

 Table 9. Financial trade flows in animal products to and from the Sahel and West Africa
region (2002)
Imports

Exports

Meat

Milk

Meat

Milk

World (USD 1 000)

39 241 883

12 561 239

38 119 703

12 413 548

SWA (USD 1 000)

153 707

357 402

39 395

35 022

SWA’s share in the
world (%)

0.39

2.85

0.10

0.28

Sahel’s share in SWA
(%)

14.88

19.36

10.39

3.07

Nigeria’s share in
SWA (%)

11.23

52.77

0

4.16

Côte d’Ivoire’s share
in SWA (%)

14.68

7.87

0.07

30.70

Ghana’s share in SWA 17.04
(%)

8.32

0.37

0.84

Benin’s share in SWA
(%)

29.89

5.08

84.94

0.09

Senegal’s share in
SWA (%)

8.34

2.90

8.14

1.28

Share of other coastal
countries (%)

3.93

3.70

-3.91

59.86

Source: calculated on the basis of FAOSTAT data (September 2006).

exploited per species. It shows that the number of cattle exploited remained constant at
12%, while available stocks steadily increased between 1985 and 2003 (see Figure 6a).
Exploitation of small ruminants was higher, at about 32% of the available stock (see
Figure 6b). Despite being more prolific, small ruminants and their meat were proportionately less traded than cattle and their meat.
With regard to monogastric animals, poultry, especially chickens, are the most
intensively exploited in terms of both absolute value and rate of exploitation. The rate
of exploitation grew steadily, rising from 131% in 1985 to 139% in 2003 (see Figure
6c), mainly because of the prolific nature and very short rearing cycle of poultry. Lastly,
the rate of exploitation of pigs ranged between 63% and 64% over the period under
consideration (see Figure 6d).
In short, the way livestock resources are exploited in the region suggests possibilities for
improvement. Current stocks of ruminants show that the rate of exploitation could be
increased by more than 10 points without harming the reproduction of rearing systems.
For example, if the rate of exploitation of cattle had been 22% in 2003 (i.e. a 10% increase), the regional production of cattle meat would have increased by 80% over the
actual 911 260.6 t. The same applies to the other species reared, all other things being

48

 equal. The conditions to increase the rate of exploitation of livestock resources in the
region must be combined with measures and procedures to make the supply chain more
efficient (Sibanda and Kamuanga, 2006).
3.5 Balance of trade in major deficit
The financial trade flows (see Table 9) show that the SWA countries’ share of world meat
imports is 0.39%, as against 0.10% for exports. For milk, the share is 2.85% for imports
and 0.28% for exports, with Nigeria accounting for more than half the expenditure on
milk imports (53% of SWA imports). Benin spends the most on meat imports (30% of
SWA imports). Generally speaking, the coastal countries spend more on animal product
imports (milk and meat). In terms of exports, the coastal countries derive less income
from animal products. Benin and Côte d’Ivoire appear to be exceptions, for meat and
milk respectively, but the figures certainly refer to re-exports to the interior of the region.
Data on financial flows in 2002 are typical, reflecting a chronic deficit in the balance of
trade in animal products. The deficit is greater for dairy products, for which the zone is
still dependent on imports to satisfy the growing demand resulting from rapid population growth, income growth and changes in food habits, especially in towns.
3.6 Need for a regional view in order to optimise trade and stimulate the market
A number of factors point to the need for a regional perspective when promoting the
livestock sector in the SWA region. First, there are imbalances between regional supply
and demand for animal products and between regional imports and exports (see section
2.4 above). Second, there are differences among the contributions of the three zones (the
Sahel, the coast and Nigeria) in the production and exploitation of livestock resources,
as seen above (see section 3.2 above). Third, there are differences among the three zones
in the extent to which needs are covered by regional production. Table 10 completes
the analysis of supply and demand by estimating three ratios that measure the capacity
of the region and individual zones for self-supply (ratio of production to consumption)
and the levels of participation of animal products in trade (ratios of import or export to
consumption).
With regard to beef and veal, Nigeria seems to be the foremost consumer, ahead of the
countries of the SWA region. However, the Sahel countries produce enough for their
own consumption, whereas the coastal countries and Nigeria import 14% and 1% of
their consumption respectively. In general terms, the region’s production does not cover
its consumption. The same pattern can be seen for small ruminant meat: the Sahel
countries are the foremost consumers and produce enough for their own consumption.
Nigeria does not import small ruminant meat, but FAO statistics fail to show the
considerable export flows of live small ruminants from Niger to Nigeria and especially
to Benin. The coastal countries import 2% of their consumption. Taken as a whole, the
region is self-sufficient in this product.

49

 Table 10. Average annual consumption and consumption ratios for animal products
Product
Region – Zone

Annual
consumption
(t)

Ratio of consumption
Production

Exports

Imports

SWA

813 496.3

0.98

0

0.04

Sahel countries

291 869.9

1.07

0

0.01

Coastal countries

222 778.7

0.86

0

0.14

Nigeria

298 847.7

0.99

0

0.01

SWA

453 536.8

1.00

0

0

Sahel countries

194 825.4

1.06

0

0

Coastal countries

70 964.6

0.93

0

0.02

Nigeria

187 746.8

0.97

0

0

SWA

489 860.5

0.8

0

0.1

Sahel countries

133 507.7

0.74

0

0.04

Coastal countries

185 493.9

0.67

0

0.23

Nigeria

170 858.9

0.99

0

0

SWA

229 332.1

0.98

0

0.03

Sahel countries

33 812.0

1.16

0

0.02

Coastal countries

62 772.4

0.89

0

0.09

Nigeria

132 747.7

0.98

0

0

SWA

2 886 656.4

0.74

0.02

0.43

Sahel countries

1 729 241.7

0.84

0.01

0.24

Coastal countries

526 099.6

0.64

0.06

0.61

Nigeria

631 315.1

0.59

0

0.79

SWA

532 711.1

1.00

0

0.01

Sahel countries

72 996.8

1.05

0

0.01

Coastal countries

84 432.5

0.98

0

0.05

Nigeria

375 281.7

0.99

0

0

Cattle meat

Small ruminant meat

Poultry meat

Pig meat

Milk and dairy
products

Eggs

Notes: 0 indicates that there are traces of imports or exports.
Consumption = Production + Imports - Exports.
Source: calculated on the basis of FAOSTAT (2006).

50

 With regard to poultry meat, the coastal countries are the largest consumers, followed
by Nigeria and the Sahel countries. Levels of self-supply are 99% in Nigeria, 74% in the
Sahel countries and 67% in the coastal countries. The coastal countries import 23% of
their consumption, as against 4% in the case of the Sahel countries. Regional production covers only 80% of regional consumption. The situation for dairy products is worrying with the regional rate of self-supply at 74% and considerable disparities between
zones. The production of the Sahel countries covers 84% of their consumption, while
that of the coastal countries and Nigeria covers only 64% and 59% respectively.
The opportunities of stimulating the regional supply and demand of animal products
were outlined by actors in the countries visited during this study through their views of
the regional livestock sector, which can be summarised as follows:
A strong and vibrant livestock industry supplying standardised products to meet the needs of
21st-century consumers.
This condensed view intuitively encompasses the need for greater valorisation of animal
products, stimulation of intra-regional trade, an improvement in the quality of products etc.; in other words, the currently underexploited livestock sector must be turned
into an industry to make the most of the opportunities offered in the region. All this
requires the development of food resources and genetically productive breeds, the establishment of water supplies, and capacity-building within the sector. The sale of aged
animals currently practised between the Sahel and coastal countries – Ghana and Côte
d’Ivoire in particular – does not produce good-quality meat. Natural factors such as
drought and the shortage of fodder resources in the Sahel explain the present situation.
Endemic or epidemic livestock diseases are another constraint on the development of
animal production. Services to producers and veterinary services are still lacking and of
uneven quality across the SWA region. Nevertheless, since the devaluation of the CFAF
franc in January 1994, regional co-operation has been remobilising energies in West
Africa. However, the cattle meat export sector, the engine of the regional trade in animal
products, is still rather traditional, despite the emergence of some modern co mpanies.
3.7 Obstacles to the fluidity of trade, and the role of traditional commodity
chainsc
Several obstacles to trade fluidity within the SWA region have already been identified1. They are of various types, including both obvious and less obvious obstacles, and
The text of this section is based partially on many studies of trade, especially in the central basin. These studies, focusing on issues of regional integration, were carried out by such bodies as the CILSS, the Economic
Community of Cattle and Meat (CEBV), the SWAC, the Ivorian Centre for Economic and Social Research
(CIRES)/University of Abidjan, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the
French Development Agency (AFD) and the World Bank.
1 

51

 originate both in the cattle and animal products market and in the sphere of livestock
farms.
The first obvious obstacle to the fluidity of trade in animal products – especially as regards the cattle meat commodity chain – arises from the small variability of cattle prices
(in comparison with input prices) in the play between supply and demand. Variations in
the price of meat products have for a long time been firmly bracketed between an upper
limit set by the limited purchasing power of the people and a lower limit set by the limited profitability of livestock rearing and the trade in animal products. Prices of animal
products worldwide have undergone steady, long-term erosion: a reduction in real terms
of 37% for milk and 23% to 35% for meat between the beginning of the 1980s and the
1990s (Renard et al., 2004). However, this pressure seems to have been even stronger on
meat in West Africa; in Abidjan, for example, the average price of a beef carcass in 1981
was strictly comparable in current francs to that in 2001 (CFAF 1 200 per kg), despite
inflation and the devaluation of the CFA franc (Williams et al., 2004). In other words,
in 20 years the price of a carcass has remained constant, whereas that of inputs has
inevitably varied, while devaluation has raised the cost of nearly all imported products
(including the majority of inputs for livestock rearing).
Box 3. An actor’s views on the application of regional trade policies
An interviewee from the Federation of Interprofessional Livestock and Meat Groups of Mali
(FEBEVIM) made these frank remarks to the mission (14 September 2006): “It must be admitted
that the demand for meat products in the region is growing rapidly and that all exporting countries,
including Mali, cannot in the foreseeable future satisfy this demand if nothing is done to promote
the livestock sector in a regional perspective. What can be done to stimulate and benefit from trade
within the region? Above all there must be a sustained political will on the part of our leaders.
Because the fact is that our governments sign paper agreements with UEMOA, declaring that
livestock products are local products and are therefore not subject to duty or any other form of value
added tax. However, at the border between Mali and Senegal they keep charging illegal duties,
for example the supplementary tax of CFAF 75 000 per cattle truck when the customs officer gets
in to count the animals personally. Before the introduction of the CET, we thought taxes between
Senegal and Mali would go down, but they have in fact gone up, even if they are described as
‘legal’. The CET is supposed to be levied on products entering the UEMOA zone, but we keep
paying it from one country to another, with customs duties even being put on local products from
inside the Union.”

Margins in the various commodity chains have thus been steadily whittled away – by
about 5% of the final price at collection and by 10% to 12% on later links in the central
trading basin oriented towards Côte d’Ivoire and neighbouring countries (Williams and
Sycher, 2004). The commodity chains have therefore become very efficient in terms of
costs, so that prices are multiplied by only 1.2 to 1.9 from farm to plate, as against 5
to 8 in Europe, for example. This limited profitability has prevented actors in the SWA
region from investing in the modernisation of their commodity chains. In addition,
although Sahelian meat is to some extent considered to taste better than frozen imports,

52

 it does not consistently benefit from a quality bonus on the price. Market segmentation
has not really occurred in Abidjan, where the size of the solvent demand willing to pay
such a quality bonus is not known. All these factors hamper the regular disposal of animal products on growth markets.
Political and non-political barriers also affect the fluidity of trade within the SWA region
(Williams et al., 2004). These include both tariff and non-tariff instruments and also
legal and non-legal instruments, for example:
•  Many roadblocks collecting illegal or “wildcat” taxes: these affect the trade in
animal products both between countries and within individual countries (see
Box 3).
•  High official taxes on animal products: these include fees for export, vaccination or health certificates, road tolls between countries, levies for livestock and/
or agricultural development funds (for example, in Burkina Faso and Niger) and
the arbitrary nature of taxation in the destination country (for example, Côte
d’Ivoire).
•  The poor state of roads and high costs of transporting cattle to markets: efforts
are being made to improve access routes between countries. However, within individual countries roads linking rural markets for collection and terminal markets
for export are often in a very bad state.
•  The inadequate flow of market information (prices, supply and demand levels)
needed for a good commercial decision.
•  The absence of a formal, binding contract for trade transactions between market
actors: attempts at informal contracts are under way between certain actors in
different countries (Burkina Faso- Côte d’Ivoire) to ensure a regular supply to
coastal towns.
•  The predominant practice of trading in live animals, which does not take into
account the possibility of adding value by processing animals into meat.
Trade reform policies have been initiated in the countries in the study zone. They are
often the result of recommendations made in various expert studies commissioned by
governments or regional organisations1 and concern the liberalisation and facilitation
of trade, payment and exchange systems, and the facilitation of investment. In practice,
their application varies from one country to another and from one community zone to
another (UEMOA and ECOWAS). In the UEMOA zone, there has been considerable
progress in simplifying and reducing tariffs, although non-tariff barriers still remain. In
the case of ECOWAS, attempts are under way to harmonise trade policy instruments on
the basis of UEMOA’s experience. The political will to loosen up trade within the region
is always present at meetings of the region’s leaders, but the situation on the ground
sometimes leads to contrary actions.
In institutional terms, various actions have been identified and recommended (ECOWAS, 1998; Williams
et al., 2004; Bouna Niang and Vindriet, 2005; Boisseau, 2005; Faivre Dupaigre et al., 2006).

1 

53

 Investigation in the field allowed the mission to identify other types of constraints on
the fluidity of trade within the region:
•  Linguistic diversity can be an obstacle at two levels: at the moment of trade dealings on the border between two countries, and then during movements of transhumant herds, for example on the border between Burkina Faso and Ghana1.
The problem is exacerbated by the very low level of education of most involved
in trade within the region.
•  Monetary diversity: trade between countries in the CFA franc zone and those
outside the zone requires two transactions (animal products and their monetary
counterpart, which is then changed into the currency of the seller’s country of
origin). There are two types of problem here: first, the actors are mainly illiterate
and are not well versed in exchange rates; second, exchange rates in the importing countries concerned (Ghana and Nigeria) fluctuate, so that even with a good
understanding of exchange rates, there are often serious risks of losing on the
transaction, since the sellers have to change the money immediately in order to
return to their own countries.
Analysis of trade in the SWA region indicates an irregular degree of openness because of
the barriers described above and certainly for other causes not formally identified.
Overall, flows of animal products are still dominated by traditional commodity chains.
This is particularly so with the livestock meat chain, which includes cattle, small ruminants, poultry and, to a lesser extent, pigs, all of which are usually traded live and then
slaughtered in the importing country. If these chains have survived the various obstacles,
it is precisely because the actors have a certain expertise in this domain. Today, live animals have become the primary product exported from the Sahel to the coast. The trade
is served by networks of traders via a complex traditional organisation in which trading
functions are distributed among a number of complementary actors: traders, associates,
guarantors, escorts, brokers and forwarding agents. The failure of projects to modernise
the chain, especially difficulties regarding the export of carcasses from abattoirs (Burkina
Faso and Niger) is in contrast with the efficiency of the chains involving the export of
live cattle2. However, the latter chains will ultimately have to deal with a number of
other problems:
The mission (September 2006) noted this obstacle at both levels. First, at the time of trade dealings on the
border between Burkina Faso and Ghana: “People pay to cross, because they do not understand one or the
other language, even if their papers are in order.” This applies both to direct trade operators and to indirect
actors (border officials). Second, during movements of transhumant herds: the Burkina Faso Fulas speak
neither French nor the local Ghanaian language, and incomprehension can lead to violent clashes.

1 

2 
It should be noted that in Niger there has been a mixed commodity chain in which the practice of trading in live animals is combined with modernisation for the export of carcasses. The example of the Niger
Company for the Exploitation of Animal Resources (SONERAN) should be emulated in future plans to
reorganise the cattle-meat chain intended for export.

54

 •  The insufficiency and/or dilapidated state of infrastructure for the processing of
animal products. Most of the countries concerned do not have enough abattoirs,
and where they do exist they are in a poor state. Consequently, daily slaughterings
are insufficient to satisfy a growing demand in the towns of the coastal countries,
while cattle markets overflow with live animals, leading to virtual surpluses in the
supply of live animals and consequently to a fall in the price of cattle. This was
made particularly clear to the mission in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana.
•  Norms and standards for animal products. The traditional commodity chains
are based on the trade in live animals, for which it is hard to draw up and apply norms. However, the international trade in agricultural and food products is
increasingly subject to norms and standards. The traditional chains will therefore
have to meet these requirements if the SWA countries wish to play an active role
as exporters in the international trade in food products.
4. Challenges to the livestock sector with a view to better placing of animal products
on the regional and world markets
4.1 The cattle meat chain: conditions for a sustainable economic resurgence
The future challenge for the SWA countries will be whether the cattle meat chain can
satisfy inhabitants’ levels of meat and protein consumption while facing stiff competition from imported products or products from short-cycle animals, bearing in mind
that cattle rearing is one of the economic drivers of the Sahel countries. Demand is
changing drastically in urban zones, with a clear swing toward poultry and pig products,
whether locally produced or imported, and a growth in the consumption of fish products. There is also a difference between Sahel and coastal countries. For example, annual
consumption of cattle and small ruminant meat is about 10–12 kg per person in Chad
and Niger, whereas it is about 4 kg per person in Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria1. Except for
the coastal countries, the average annual increase in meat production between 1990 and
2000 was about 3% (FAO, 2005).
With regard to production, essentially centred in the Sahelian zones, the main constraint lies in the inflexibility of livestock systems and their inability to adapt to growing
demand. Herders practise short- and medium-term strategies aimed mainly at guaranteeing subsistence in a harsh environment. This means that their main objective is not
to market meat, which they do on an ad hoc basis when they need cash. However, cattle,
sheep and goat meat are eaten throughout the SWA countries, and the intense, longestablished trade in livestock between Sahel countries and coastal countries reflects clear
complementarities in supply and demand.
1 
Recent estimates give the total annual consumption of meat (ruminants and white meat) as 7.2 kg per person in Côte d’Ivoire and 5.5 kg per person in Nigeria (see Etude diagnostique sur l’intégration commerciale,
EDIC/Burkina Faso, prepared by the World Bank, 2006.

55

 If these production systems are to be made more cost-effective, the first step would be a
better organisation of production, basing this on Sahel producers’ adherence to a modernisation project. Such adherence requires the extension of appropriate technological
packages in order to bring about the desirable criteria of production modernisation
that would be profitable for producers and increase their security. However, connecting
to the remainder of the regional economy requires adapting ruminant production to
market conditions: regular supply to the consumption basins (Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana;
Cameroon and Nigeria; Guinea and Senegal on the Atlantic seaboard), with animals
that satisfy the diversity of demand.
With regard to marketing, the first steps are to exploit the advantages of the various
groups of countries in the SWA region as well as establish trade policies based essentially on a better organisation of markets for the products in the chain. The intent is to
intensify trade flows of live animals and meat, so that they fulfil Sahel producers’ sales
hopes and create greater availability for export to the coastal countries. The aim will
thus be a strategy of regular destocking of cattle produced in the Sahel outside the food
crisis periods caused by successive periods of drought or in response to a favourable economic situation such as the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc in the UEMOA
countries. For all that, it is product competitiveness that must be improved by cutting
distribution costs and a major reduction in transaction costs, through a much more efficient taxation system.
4.2 Regional trade in the poultry sector
The establishment of large-scale production structures in the coastal countries, especially
Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal, is the logical result of the comparative advantages discussed
above and of the complementarity between the SWA zones that must be developed.
Short-cycle species, particularly poultry, capitalise better on the processing of imported
or locally produced agricultural products such as cereals and protein cakes1.
Regional trade in these sectors has remained minimal, despite a fairly large potential
market for industrial broilers. In most of the SWA countries, poultry sectors are in crisis
because of competition from European imports, but also from the United States, Brazil
and Asian countries2. With implementation of the UEMOA CET in 2000 (which will
probably be extended to all the ECOWAS Member States), the modern poultry sectors
in the region started to show signs of vulnerability. In Senegal, for example, application
It is estimated that the production of 1 kg of meat requires 3 fodder units (FU) per broiler chicken, 6
FU per turkey, 4 FU per pig and 20 FU per fattened ruminant, according to a study on the competitiveness of animal production in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar (CIRAD/EMVT/Secrétariat d’Etat à la
Coopération, France, 1997, cited by Renard et al., 2004).

1 

The risk of competition comes more from American chicken wings (by-products of the marketing of
breasts and legs on the United States domestic market and therefore produced at minimal cost, even without subsidies) and from Asian poultry (at low cost due to cost cutting).

2 

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 Box 4. SPS standards
These standards are contained in the OIE’s Terrestrial Animal Code and comprise recommendations with the aim of preventing the transfer of pathogenic agents that could infect animals or
humans in importing countries through the trade in live animals, animal products or genetic material. The SPS measures are applied identically to national and imported products, and encompass
all the laws, prescriptions or procedures relevant to product specifications:
•  production processes and methods;
•  testing procedures and maximum residue levels;
•  compliance and inspection certificates;
•  quarantine requirements;
•  declaration of zones free of certain diseases or zones from which imports are banned.
The information and considerations below concern animal products of interest to West Africa:
•  Four livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa have special economic significance for international trade: foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), rinderpest (RP), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Rift Valley fever (RVF) and African swine fever (ASF). The OIE
prescribes a number of diagnostic tests (required and alternative tests) to be carried out
according to the procedures of the Terrestrial Animal Code in order to avoid conflicts of
interpretation between countries exporting and importing animal products.
•  Principles of identification and traceability of animals and animal-origin products are
established according to the OIE standards by the competent authorities, who compile a
legal framework with agreed objectives, choice of appropriate techniques for identifying
and registering a product, the obligations of contracting parties, accessibility and efficient
exchange of information.
•  Principles and instructions to be followed for the inspection and monitoring (Codex
Alimentarius) of hygienic practices for meat (Articles 3.10.1.3 to 3.10.1.9) are made
available to the veterinary services and competent authorities of all Member States in order
to reduce risks, establish norms, develop inspection and surveillance programmes, certify
procedures and disseminate appropriate information to all links in the meat production
chain.

of the CET in 2001 cut customs duties by two-thirds, resulting in a 50% reduction in
poultry rearing activities (Faivre Dupaigre et al., 2006). Nevertheless, Côte d’Ivoire is
still applying compensatory amounts of CFAF 1 000 per chicken, but this supplementary barrier does not provide total protection for national production.
It is hard to counter competition from countries that export poultry products to the
SWA region (unlike the case of beef and veal), inasmuch as their production costs are
always lower, while their production of poultry – and therefore of by-products – keeps
increasing1. Changes in consumer habits in Europe have meant a growing supply of byIn Senegal, statistics from the Livestock Directorate (DIREL, 2004) regarding the poultry sector are more
encouraging: local production under a modern poultry system was 3.9 million laying chickens and 1.3
million broilers in 2004, representing an average 13% increase over 2003. On the other hand, imports of
chickens (144 606 layers and 73 236 broilers) already represented an increase of 85% over 2003. Massive

1 

57

 Box 5. Principle and applicability of the concept of SPS equivalence
The WTO Agreement on SPS recognises the principle of equivalence in its Article 4, which stipulates
that Member States must accept the sanitary or phytosanitary measures of other Member States as
equivalent to (international) SPS standards, even if these measures differ from their own standards
or indeed from those used by other Member States trading in the same product, on condition
that the exporting country can prove that its measures guarantee the same level of sanitary or
phytosanitary protection as that of the importing country.
The concept of SPS equivalence implies that compliance with these “adapted” standards would be
less expensive than implementation of conventional international measures, while achieving the
same results so far as the objectives of the SPS standards of importing countries are concerned. Some
of these measures are as follows:
•  Trade in animal products instead of live animals.
•  Delimitation of zones and compartments as alternatives to vaccination or to obtaining
the status of a disease-free zone.
•  Creation of certifying agencies (for the establishment of travel permits) in the absence of
“competent authorities”.
•  Implementation and co-ordination of regional-level SPS standards to facilitate intraand inter-regional trade in animal products and live animals.
In the current debate on equivalence, stress is increasingly being laid on “recognition of equivalence”
rather than on drawing up formal agreements on equivalence.

products from chicken cuts. These by-products are of little value on the domestic markets
and are therefore exported at a low price to countries with weak purchasing power. They
compete on the consumer’s plate not only with local poultry meat (produced under
both traditional and industrial systems), but also with cattle and small ruminant meat,
through a phenomenon of price-driven substitution.
Most of the SWA countries, especially those in the UEMOA area, have common and not
conflicting interests in the development of modern poultry sectors. They do not compete
with traditional “bicycle chickens”, whose sensory qualities are particularly appreciated
by local people even though they cost more than industrial chickens. UEMOA has
already supplied professional organisations in its area with a better classification of
inputs and products intended for modern poultry rearing. For all poultry sectors, it is
important not to neglect information on (1)  health control and combating livestock
diseases – avian flu makes this vital – and (2) effective mechanisms and information
systems concerning “future” prices, and the training of actors and consumers.

imports of frozen chickens (5 830 t in 2004) showed a rise of 80% over 2003, threatening local sectors that
had already been in difficulty since the introduction of the UEMOA CET.

58

 Given their vulnerability, special attention must be paid to poultry sectors when implementing animal health and bio-security measures in the context of cross-border trade
in animal products from the UEMOA and ECOWAS areas, in order to bring about a
sustainable resurgence that will stimulate trade in the region.
4.3 Compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPS): advantages and
costs
For various complex reasons, Africa plays a very small role in the international trade
in animal products. The continent’s meat and dairy exports amount to only 0.7% and
1.2% respectively of production (Tambi, 2005). There are livestock health and biosecurity requirements and controls to be complied with before it is possible to export to
the international market. Details are contained in regulations currently in force, such
as the Codex Alimentarius, the prescriptions of the World Organisation for Animal
Health (OIE), the WTO Statement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and the WTO
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards (known as the
SPS Agreement). The most restrictive of the many obstacles to increasing trade with the
rest of the world is still the need to comply with sanitary and phytosanitary standards
(SPS) established by the OIE as guarantor of WTO norms in order to ensure the health
safety of food and protect human and animal health (see Box 4).
The SPS Agreement stipulates that each country must establish its SPS measures on a
scientific basis, with an objective appreciation of the risks involved. The measures adopted must aim to ensure the level of protection selected by the country in question. The
agreement calls on Member States to take account of international SPS measures before
defining their own, and to accept the SPS measures of their trading partners as equal to
their own, insofar as they objectively show that their application allows achievement of
the same level of protection.
In sub-Saharan Africa, only Botswana and Namibia export to the European Union.
Considering these sanitary measures, animal products from SWA countries in particular
could not be placed on the world market in their current condition, despite their competitive prices. Apart from the OIE regulations, developed countries – for example, the
United States, the European Union and Japan – have introduced even more stringent
legislation dealing with the traceability of products. African countries very often lack the
necessary resources to train staff and invest in new infrastructure and equipment so that
they can comply with SPS standards. This exacerbates the difficulties of access to more
remunerative international markets and makes it hard for African countries to maintain
their market share at current volumes. Between 1999 and 2003, the continent’s meat
production rose by 1.58%. On the other hand, exports rose by only 0.65%, while imports rose by 12.83%. Dairy production rose by 2.61%, while exports fell by 4.14%.

59

 UEMOA encourages progressive medium- and long-term compliance with international SPS standards in order to increase the flow of animal products on intra-regional
markets and create opportunities to enter international trade1. Meanwhile, the Union is
beginning to face up to the demands of globalisation with the development of industrial
fishing. Studies have been commissioned and are currently under way to assess the conditions of regional-level compliance with SPS standards and food security procedures.
The creation of disease-free zones for exports to outside the region is part of the easing
of international standards through application of the principle of “SPS equivalence”
encouraged by the OIE (see Box 5). In West Africa, these measures are still in the draft
stage2 and do not seem very promising, given the mobility of the livestock systems
involved and the difficulties of surveillance (Renard et  al., 2005). The creation of
disease-free areas within a country might even be considered in order to meet export
requirements. However, surveillance services from the importing country would have to
be accepted and paid for in order to guarantee the sanitary quality of animal products
before export.
The production of animal products and their trade cannot be envisaged without a
healthy sanitary environment. In West Africa, major efforts have been made in the
sphere of animal health and the boosting of national veterinary services, thanks to the
Pan-African Programme for the Control of Epizootics (PACE). Nearly all the countries
in West Africa have set up good cordons sanitaires with control arrangements at border
posts that are operational and fairly effective. This has led to a reduction in the incidence
of certain diseases – or at least rinderpest, with the majority of the 30 Member States
now rinderpest-free. On the other hand, there is still much to be done with regard to
such restrictive diseases as contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease
and peste des petits ruminants. In the meantime, given that the West African sanitary environment is fairly uniform, exports must continue to the coastal countries. Combined
efforts should then be made to ensure that exports continue, as is clearly in the interests
of producers, traders, processors, retailers and consumers. However, with the health crises that have shaken the agriculture and food sphere in developed countries, the sanitary
The Conference of Ministers of Livestock Resources or in Charge of Animal Resources held in Abidjan
on 20–22 September 2006 to consider animal health and biosecurity measures in the cross-border cattle
trade formulated relevant resolutions for UEMOA, the Member States and the Confederation of National
Cattle and Meat Federations (CFNBV). The issues covered concerned the UEMOA countries: the need to
boost veterinary monitoring and surveillance services; difficulties experienced in promoting trade within the
region and gaining access to international markets, due particularly to problems in applying international
standards; the lack of sufficient well-structured professional organisations for the sector and of the resources
allocated for their funding; difficulties in financing the activities of veterinary monitoring and surveillance
structures to ensure their sustainability; inadequate dissemination and application of legislative and regulatory documents; the major role of UEMOA in co-ordinating policies regarding livestock development and
animal health prevention and surveillance; and the need to take the existence of regulations into account.

1 

2 
For West Africa, an African Union–InterAfrican Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) study suggested the creation of an export zone (free of disease) for live cattle in Burkina Faso, Chad and Mali, and a
similar zone for small ruminants in Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania and Niger (Tambi, 2005).

60

 Box 6. Socio-economic impact of avian flu in Burkina Faso (CEDEAO/MRA/MAHRH,
December 2006)
The appearance of a proven case of avian flu in Africa in January 2006 led to a major change in
the poultry sector in Burkina Faso after March 2006 (the date when the presence of the disease in
the country was officially declared). Concerned to acquire more information on the sector and the
socio-economic impact of the disease on actors, the CILSS and the Burkina Faso State launched a
study to determine the position of the poultry sector in the national economy and its traditional role
in improving the socio-economic conditions of actors in the sector in terms of income, employment
and food security, with a view to analysing the socio-economic impacts of avian flu at all levels in
the country.
Poultry rearing in Burkina Faso, with a total of more than 33 million birds of all species, is
based on a traditional system that produces “bicycle chickens” and covers more than 60% of local
consumption. Alongside this system, there is the intensive commercial system, with 250 000 birds
producing eggs for local consumption. The psychosis arising from the appearance of the disease
brought consumption in the country’s large urban centres to an abrupt halt, resulting in a sharp
break in the supply chain. Significant losses of income from the slump in sales and the fall in prices
have been recorded among poultry distributors. The disease has had a whole series of consequences,
ranging from unemployment or the simple abandonment of the activity to the total loss of invested
capital. For those engaged in processing (grilling and roasting meat), sales have dropped by an
average of 86%, corresponding to a daily shortfall in earnings of CFAF 63 000 per processor. For
rural producers, income from poultry rearing has fallen by up to 75%. For peri-urban producers
practising a semi-intensive system, losses are ongoing because of the difficulty in renewing flocks and
the aging of laying chickens, which means a drop in the laying rate and problems over culling. For
fishmongers and butchers, there have been considerable changes, with a shift to the consumption of
red meat and fish that has had varying effects depending on the type of actor.

security of food has become a major issue for their inhabitants (Le Bigo et al., 2004).
The situation has led to a proliferation of regulations, giving rise to trade barriers, with
varying degrees of justification.
The case of avian flu
The presence of the H5N1 virus of avian flu in a good number of African countries,
five of which lie in the SWA region (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger and
Nigeria), requires immediate measures to contain the epidemic, as has been done with
the support of the international community. However, it would be a mistake to relax
preventive measures in the absence of an early detection system for avian flu and the lack
of diagnostic capacities or adequate resources to send samples of isolated strains to specialised laboratories. Avian flu has a considerable economic and social impact in affected
countries and could potentially evolve into a human pandemic (see Box 6). ECOWAS is
drawing up a strategic plan with the help of the African Development Bank (ADB) and

61

 USAID. This plan will be accompanied by a regional emergency fund for the prevention
and eradication of avian flu in West Africa (ECOWAS, 2006).
If avian flu is to be eradicated, affected countries must be equipped with veterinary services and reliable supply and information systems. Recent experience has shown that the
virus can spread very fast when such measures are delayed and control actions do not
follow immediately. Although propagation by migratory birds is the most likely source
of infection, this theory can result in serious threats to the survival of barnyard production systems and hence mean the end of a traditional rearing system that provides food
for a large section of rural Africans.
On the whole, African countries that are potential exporters of animal products to the
international market need information and cost-benefit studies that can provide information on the advisability or otherwise of complying with SPS standards. In the meantime, each SWA country must:
•  Intensify monitoring, epidemic surveillance and eradication of restrictive livestock diseases in order to reassure importers of West African animal products that
the latter are free of disease, infection and residual chemical waste, and that their
sanitary security is therefore guaranteed.
•  Build institutional capacities in terms of adequate support policies, legislation on
the use of veterinary medicines and products, and reliable approval and certification systems for animal products intended for markets.
•  Refine diagnostic tools and systems so that a vaccinated animal can be distinguished from an infected one.
•  Participate actively in international consultations and forums to formulate SPS
measures.

62

 CHAPTER THREE

ECONOMIC, SOCIAL

AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES INVOLVED
IN PASTORALISM

1. Definitions and importance of transhumant pastoralism

V

arious authors, such as Lhoste et  al. (1993), have provided definitions of transhumance, and these may be summarised as follows: “Transhumance is a system of
animal production characterised by seasonal movements of a cyclical nature and to varying extents. These movements take place between complementary ecological zones, under the care of a few people, with most of the group remaining sedentary.” Transhumant
herds usually move away from environments that are out of balance, harsh and changing, such as Sahelian zones. In such a context, transhumance can be seen as a form
of adaptation of these environments and optimisation of ecological complementarities
between Sahelian and Sudanian regions. It is a livestock system based on a strategy of
ecologically viable, ad hoc management of pastoral resources, which has enabled herding

63

 communities, particularly the Fula, the Tuareg and the Moor, to survive the major ecoclimatic crises that periodically affect the Sahel countries.
In the SWA region, pastoralism is the main rearing system for domestic ruminants
(cattle, sheep, goats and camelids). In the Sahel countries, such as Burkina Faso, Chad,
Mali, Mauritania and Niger, an estimated 70% to 90% of cattle are reared under this
system. Cross-border transhumance is thus the dominant feature of pastoralism in the
region. Although there are no reliable statistics to quantify the numbers of animals
involved, estimates by various professional herders’ organisations during the Mission
of Experts’ consultations suggested that more than two million cattle are driven yearly
in transhumance to Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali and Nigeria. The region of the
Liptako-Gourma Authority (372 000 km2), an intergovernmental (Burkina Faso, Mali
and Niger) agency for rural development, reports more than half the herds of the three
countries as being reared under the pastoral system. It is estimated that the proportions of transhumant herds will grow almost exponentially over the next 20 to 30 years.
Liptako-Gourma is a fall-back zone where flows necessarily increase in the dry season1.
In Mauritania, the flows of transhumant animals towards Mali and Senegal are estimated at more than one million head, i.e. 5% to 10% of Mauritania’s total livestock (IRIN
Afrique, 2006). Seen by Sahelian herders as an opportunity to improve the productivity
of their herds, or even to save animals from certain death, it is not, as one livestock farmer said, that herders have a particular taste for moving around, but is rather something
imposed by natural conditions. Nonetheless, cross-border transhumance is seen by the
inhabitants of reception countries as a plague to be eradicated (back cover)2.
Pastoralism has always played an important role in the regional trade in livestock and
animal products. Its contribution has steadily declined since the 1990s for a combination of reasons, including ecological crises in the wake of recurrent droughts in the
Sahel, rinderpest outbreaks, armed conflicts and the devaluation of the CFA  franc.
These factors have affected the production and productivity of herds, with a negative
impact on the regional availability of livestock and animal products. As the main supplier of animal products, especially meat (see Chapter Two, paragraph 1.1), pastoralism
still has a major role to play with a view to boosting regional trade. A careful analysis of
its evolution is therefore needed in order to identify what could be done to make it more
effective. However, an appropriate policy framework is still a prerequisite for optimising
pastoralism.

Verbal communication to the mission by the Liptako-Gourma Authority, Ouagadougou, 7 September
2006.

1 

The mission gathered statements along these lines from several informants in herd reception zones:
“Nowadays transhumant herders do not follow the same routes. The defined passage zones and transhumance corridors between fields are no longer respected – and this gives rise to conflicts.”

2 

64

 2. Cross-border transhumance movements
Map 3 shows the major cross-border transhumance routes in West and Central Africa.
It is based on (i) field research in Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger and Nigeria, (ii) a study of
the situation of cross-border transhumance in the W Park region (Benin, Burkina Faso
and Niger), (iii) work of the ECOWAS task force on cross-border transhumance and
(iv) other documentary sources on the Internet. Two types of route were found: north–
south routes are the more numerous and indicate dry-season transhumance movements
in the departure zones, while south-north routes are less numerous and indicate wetseason movements. A general observation is that most West and Central African countries are affected by cross-border transhumance, either as departure countries, or as reception or transit countries. Transhumant pastoralism is thus a regional phenomenon
and is quite rightly taken into account in the Common Agricultural Policy of the Union
(PAU) and the ECOWAP.
3. Policy and regulatory framework regarding pastoralism
3.1 Regional agricultural policies (PAU and ECOWAP) and transhumant
pastoralism
The regional agricultural policy documents drawn up by UEMOA (the PAU) and
ECOWAS (the ECOWAP) stress cross-border transhumance as an efficient means of
optimising natural resources and the agroecological complementarities between Sahel
and coastal countries. In view of demographic growth (both human and animal) and
the deterioration in climatic conditions with a consequent drastic reduction in rangelands, transhumance movements can generate problems and conflicts. Interventions are
intended to create conditions for the peaceful practice of cross-border transhumance,
which is clearly in the interests of Member States. To this end, the Regional Action
Plan 2006–2010 for implementation of both the ECOWAP and the NEPAD Detailed
Programme for the Development of African Agriculture (PDDAA) include a programme for the sustainable management of pastoral resources and the management of
transhumance. The programme is built around four major lines of action:
i.  Training and information for herders and other actors involved.
ii.  Development of cross-border facilities and management of transhumant movements.
iii.  Development of rangelands and support for the formulation of rules regarding
the use of common resources (rangelands) at the local level.
iv.  Co-ordination of regulatory measures and development of health services.
The mission’s discussions in the field with those involved in transhumant pastoralism
indicate that regional authorities are not providing effective support to individual States
with regard to the management of transhumance. Various regional studies on transhumance have thus highlighted the constraints, potential and actions to be taken. In

65

 2004, in the context of management of cross-border transhumance in the W Park region, the countries concerned (Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger) requested support from
UEMOA to fund an in-depth study on transhumance and urgent action to suppress illegal exploitation of the park by transhumant herds. In 2002, at the end of an evaluation
of implementation of the ECOWAS Decision on Cross-Border Transhumance among
Member States, strong complaints were expressed regarding the lack of financial support to countries for the development of transhumance corridors and rangelands, and
the installation of livestock infrastructure. Until now, these complaints have received no
response. ECOWAS has neither directly funded activities, nor supported any country
in obtaining funding to undertake such action. This explains the actors’ jaundiced view
of the regional authorities with regard to cross-border transhumance and the livestock
sector in general.

Map 3. Cross-border transhumance routes in West and Central Africa
3.2 ECOWAS Decision A/DEC.5/10/98: a regional regulation to be adapted to
local circumstances
Cross-border transhumance is governed by Decision A/DEC.5/10/98, adopted at the
21st Ordinary Session of the Conference of Heads of State and Government, which lays
down the conditions for the movement of livestock, the care of transhumant animals
and the reception of transhumant livestock. The mechanism for implementation of the
decision is the ECOWAS International Transhumance Certificate (ITC), a type of passport for transhumant herds, which has the following objectives:
i.  To allow management of the departure of transhumant herds.

66

 ii.  To ensure sanitary protection of local herds.
iii.  To provide the inhabitants of reception zones with advance information on the
arrival of transhumant herds.
The decision is intended to complement and reinforce national regulations on crossborder transhumance.
Since it was adopted, the decision has encountered many obstacles to its application.
On the one hand, transhumant herders from Burkina Faso and Niger complain that
transhumant tracks and corridors in reception zones (Benin, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana)
are being occupied and that they are subject to much administrative harassment. On the
other hand, the inhabitants of reception zones accuse transhumant herds of damaging
crops and harvests, illegally grazing protected areas with consequent degradation
of wildlife and its habitat, violence to local people etc. Some of those concerned in
transhumance complain of the inadequate involvement of grass-roots organisations and
the rigidness of the Decision.
Aware of the poor application of the decision, ECOWAS organises a yearly mission to
raise the awareness of all those involved in transhumance – herders, traditional chiefs,
central and decentralised authorities etc. For their part, countries are establishing
bilateral (Benin–Burkina Faso, Benin–Nigeria, Benin–Niger etc.) or multilateral
(Benin–Burkina Faso–Niger) agreements concerning the ECOWAS Decision in order
to manage cross-border transhumance better. These promising initiatives would become
more effective if grass-roots organisations (for example, the Association to Revive
Herding in Niger [AREN] in Niger, the Departmental Union of Professional Ruminant
Rearers’ Organisations [UDOPER] in Benin and the Pastoralism Communication
Network [RECOPA] in Burkina Faso) were made responsible for spreading information
on the Decision1.
The mission’s interviews with institutional actors (the Pastoral Development and Land
Tenure Directorate in Burkina Faso, the Livestock Directorate in Benin) and professional herders’ organisations (notably AREN in Niger and UDOPER in Benin) indicate that
the ECOWAS decision regulating cross-border transhumance is rigid and its application
on the ground requires co-ordination between the departure and reception countries.
Such discussions should take place both at inter-State level (for example high-level joint
commissions) and in the framework of networks of professional herders’ organisations.
At the inter-State level, the issue of cross-border transhumance is discussed by experts
from the two countries concerned and the results are translated into an agreement on
With regard to pastoralism and the management of cross-border transhumance, the Integrated
Development Authority of the Liptako-Gourma region seeks to use discussions at meetings of actors, in
particular experts from Member States, grass-roots organisations (AREN, the Regional Committee of Sahel
Producers’ Unions [CRUS], TASSAGH etc.), leaders of livestock projects in Member States and resource
staff, for strategic thinking and the formulation of practical proposals to be submitted to decision makers
for consideration.

1 

67

 transhumance, which addresses all the problems linked to cross-border movements of
livestock, such as the period of transhumance, entry and exit posts, reception zones
and animal health certificates. In the second instance, discussions should take place
between herders’ organisations in the departure and reception countries in order to make
signed agreements operational. Issues to be dealt with in the framework of networks of
professional herders’ organisations include the provision of information to transhumant
herders and to livestock farmers and other people in the reception zones, and many
other practical aspects of transhumance management, including the prevention and
solution of conflicts.
For both these sets of discussions, the role of ECOWAS should be that of supporting the
countries concerned with technical and financial assistance for the implementation and
operation of the frameworks. It should also support them in seeking the funding needed
to carry out the actions and measures identified during bipartite discussions.
3.3 Rangeland tenure: inadequate legislation
With regard to land tenure, the Final Declaration of the Praia+9 Forum on rural land
tenure and sustainable development in the SWA region is the only regional frame of
reference. It calls in particular on the Member States of the CILSS, UEMOA and
ECOWAS to pay special attention to the aggravation of land tenure crises and commits
them to taking appropriate steps for the discussion, negotiation and eventual adoption
of a subregional land tenure code that fosters security of investments, preserves the
rights of local communities and ensures the national interests of each country.
There is thus no regional regulatory document dealing with rangeland tenure in West
Africa. For each country (especially in the Sahel), laws holding the place of pastoral
codes have recently been adopted (since 2000) and applied with varying degrees of
success, for example the Orientation Law on Pastoralism in Burkina Faso, the Pastoral
Charter in Mali, the Pastoral Code in Mauritania and the Nigerian Pastoral Code,
which is in process of formulation. These legal texts emphasise access and sustainable,
peaceful use of common pastoral resources. Their adoption marks a significant advance
in the management of pastoralism and transhumance. However, they do not prevent the
ongoing shrinking of rangelands in the face of the advancing agricultural front, which
is driven by population growth. Moreover, they do not solve the problem of the tragedy
of the commons1 (Hardin, 1968; Rojat, 1991), which is responsible for the degradation
of collective grazing land and the poor productivity of herds.

The theory of the commons applied to collective rangelands states that the inevitable consequence of the
private ownership of livestock and the collective ownership of rangelands is an excessive increase in the
number of animals, leading to an overloading of the rangelands, a low fecundity rate and a high mortality
rate.

1 

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 3.4 Environmental determinants governing transhumance
The two main factors in domestic ruminant production in the traditional livestock systems of West and Central Africa are green grazing and drinking water. These factors are
primarily dependent on ecoclimatic conditions. Several classifications can be found in
the literature, but the most suitable for natural rangelands is one based on the period
of vegetation growth. Definition of the vegetation growth period is helpful because of
its importance for the pastoral exploitation of grassy vegetation. According to the FAO,
the growth period of vegetation corresponds to the period of the year when rainfall is
higher than half the potential evapotranspiration. During this period, all or part of
natural rangeland vegetation can be grazed green by livestock. For perennial grasslands,
the growth period begins earlier and continues later than that of annual grasslands.
Table 11. Agroecological zones of some countries in West and Central Africa
Ecoclimatic zone

Isohyets
(mm)

Period of
vegetation
growth (days)

≤ 500

0-90

Semi-arid

500–1000

90-180

Subhumid

1000–1500
≥ 1500

Arid

Humid

Benin

Burkina
Faso

Niger

X

X

X

X

X

180-270

X

X

270-365

X

Source: adapted from Hans E. Jahnke (1984).

Using the classification of areas according to the growth period of grassy vegetation, the
ecoclimatic situation of some West African countries is given in Table 11. According
to this table, the Vegetation Map of Africa (White, 1986) and the map of changes in
the length of the growing season established by the CILSS/SWAC/OECD (2005), the
pastoral ecosystems of the Sahel countries (arid and semi-arid zones) are covered by a
vegetation dominated by savannahs of annual grasses with a growth period of 20 to 180
days. In these zones, rainfall varies greatly from one year to the next, giving a variation
co-efficient of more than 30%–33%, the threshold above which an ecosystem is considered out of balance1 (Illis, 1999). The coastal countries lie in the humid and subhumid
ecoclimatic zones, with a vegetation growth period of more than 180 days. In these
areas, the vegetation is dominated by savannahs of perennial grasses that can produce
re-growth of excellent quality fodder during the dry season, which is highly sought after
by livestock. This comparative advantage of the coastal countries over those of the Sahel
in terms of ecoclimatic conditions, including better watering conditions, determines
The theory of the balance or imbalance of ecosystems defines those out of balance as ones in which the
local population does not live in sustainable harmony with the other elements of the same system, particularly the resources and the climate.

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69

 north–south transhumance flows. The proposal to turn the northern savannah zones of
the coastal countries into fattening zones is based on this advantage.
4. The future of pastoralism in the face of restricted access to resources
Given the constraints on access to resources, the future of pastoralism depends on the
ability of the region’s countries to find adequate solutions to the three problems facing
transhumant herders. These problems are described below1.
4.1 Vulnerability of access and use of pastoral resources
Pastoralism is based on a certain number of principles that give it its effectiveness and
legitimacy:
i.  Herd mobility.
ii.  Use of common natural resources.
iii.  Access to a variety of resources.
iv.  Pairing of zones with different aptitudes in complementarity.
v.  Reciprocity of access to resources.
During the colonial period, transhumance was known and well defined as a seasonal
north–south movement. Since the 1970s, pastoral and agropastoral livestock systems
have been seriously affected by climatic and socio-economic phenomena that challenge
all or some of these principles. In some regions of West Africa, the situation of livestock
rearing has become very precarious and pastoral and agropastoral systems extremely
vulnerable in terms of access to pastoral resources (the Lake Chad network, the cotton
basins of Mali – Koutiala and Ségou, Benin – Borgou and Alibori, the Zou, and river
valleys – Niger and Senegal). The development of pastoralism is facing major obstacles
– in terms of the principles listed above – including the reduction in grazing areas, resource degradation, the occupation of strategic pastoral areas and the blocking of transhumant tracks and corridors.
Several factors are contributing to a dramatic reduction in rangelands and threatening
pastoral systems. In most of the SWA countries, the agricultural front is advancing by
3% to 6% a year, at the expense of rangelands. The colonisation of silvipastoral areas
is growing in the Sudano-Sahelian regions in the south of the Sahel countries and the
north of the coastal countries. Agricultural surpluses are often re-invested in livestock,
thereby increasing pressure on resources.
The degradation of pastoral resources, which has accelerated drastically following the
great droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, is constantly reducing pastoral potential. Apart
from climate deterioration, the increase in animal numbers is overloading pastures and
causing degradation, especially in cases where herds are not so mobile. In the Sahel,
1 

Summary of results of consultation by the mission and a review of documents.

70

 degradation is also seen in a lowering of the water table, with negative consequences for
browsing pasture, and the silting up of ponds, lakes and rivers (the Gambia, Niger and
Senegal), thus reducing their pastoral potential (degradation of flood plains and reduced
possibilities of watering livestock).
Access to Sahelian ponds, valley bottoms and rivers is an important link in the chain
of annual grazing, especially for the use of surface water and dry-season fodder reserves
(flood plains). The agricultural development of these strategic grazing areas with offseason crops and the installation of irrigation schemes in the 1970s and 1980s have
deprived herders of key resources. For example, the large-scale schemes carried out in the
valleys of the Niger and Senegal Rivers did not incorporate livestock rearing sufficiently
into their development plans1. The river valleys have become mosaics of crops where it is
sometimes hard to find a way through for livestock (IRIN Afrique, 2006). The situation
is similar with regard to agricultural occupation of the rangelands around Lake Chad.
Nowadays, most of the livestock routes are blocked by fields, forcing herders to make
wide detours to reach water or fodder resources. Certain transhumance corridors have
to pass through protected areas, where grazing is forbidden. In the border regions of
Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger and Togo, for example, transhumant herds have to cross
the “forest barrier” of the WAPO park complex (W, Arly, Pendjari and Oti-Mandouri
wildlife parks, reserves and hunting zones) to reach reception zones in Benin and Togo
via the two unequipped corridors of Kondio and Arly. These corridors have no rest areas,
so that herders have to enter forbidden zones and thus commit offences that are severely
punished.
4.2 Vulnerability to climatic variability and change
Climatic conditions in West Africa, especially in the Sahelian zone, have been suffering
chronic major variations since the early 1970s. The drought cycles that have afflicted
the Sahel over the past 30 years have taken the form of a decline in rainfall and a greater
variation in its distribution both geographically and in period, a decrease in flow in
water courses etc. The decline in annual rainfall since 1970 ranges from about 15% to
more than 30%, depending on the zone (UICN, 2004), so that isohyets have slipped
about 200 km southwards. The decrease in flow in the region’s main water courses – The
Gambia, Niger and Senegal Rivers – ranges from 25% to 60%.
The deterioration of climatic conditions has reduced the carrying capacity of rangelands
and the possibilities of watering livestock. The strong link between rainfall and grassy
biomass means that any reduction in the former brings about a reduction in the
This situation is illustrated by the observations of Moktar Fall, Director of the Livestock Department at
Mauritania’s Ministry of Rural Development and the Environment at the signing of the Agreement on
Transhumance with Senegal: “This agreement is important because of the increasing competition between
farmers and herders.”

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71

 productivity of natural pastures. Moreover, the productivity of flood plains, which are
strategic dry-season fodder resources in the Sahel, is seriously affected by any change
in the level of water courses and lakes. Lastly, the decline in rainfall threatens the
permanence of some bodies of water (ponds, dams, lakes etc.) with negative consequences
for the watering and productivity of livestock. Extreme events (drought, floods etc.)
have become increasingly frequent, affecting livestock. Thus, the major droughts of the
1970s and 1980s wiped out more than 30% of the livestock and ruined many Sahelian
herders, while in 2002 torrential rains killed more than 50 000 cattle and 50 000 small
ruminants in the south of Mauritania and the north of Senegal.
4.3 Problems and conflicts linked to cross-border transhumance
In cross-border reception zones, transhumant livestock share the use of renewable
natural resources with such other activities as agriculture, forestry, wildlife tourism
and fishing. Cultivated areas have expanded considerably under pressure from the
population growth of indigenous inhabitants, the arrival of immigrants from other
regions (including agropastoralists) and the promotion of cash crops, especially cotton.
Agricultural and forestry pressure on land has resulted in the occupation of pastoral
areas (livestock routes and transhumance corridors, reception zones, key resources). This
situation considerably increases difficulties of movement for transhumant herds and
hampers their exploitation of natural resources, thereby setting the scene for conflicts
over land tenure. There has thus been a resurgence in clashes, sometimes resulting in
fatalities, in transhumance zones. Between 1986 and 1994, Benin recorded 90 deaths,
57 alone in the department of Zou, where excellent grazing is found. In view of this
situation, in 2000 Benin decided to suspend cross-border transhumance throughout
the country. Despite the suspension, transhumance has continued in the country, albeit
with varying amounts of administrative harassment, according to herders.
Conflicts in transhumance zones (transit and reception areas) arise from the opposing
interests of herders and other users of natural resources, and sometimes those of different
herders when fodder resources become scarce. The causes of conflict vary according to
those involved. Table 12 summarises the various types of conflict and is based on a study
of the situation of transhumance in the area of the W Regional Park (Benin, Burkina
Faso and Niger). Apart from conflicts with other users of natural resources, transhumant
herders have to face other kinds of problem, particularly the lack of security, with armed
bandits holding herders to ransom and the total or partial loss of their herds.
5. The future of pastoralism in the face of communalisation in rural areas
Apart from the traditional factors involved in the vulnerability of pastoralism, the recent
development of other institutional factors in the various countries in the region raises
other questions on the future of pastoralism. Two institutional changes deserve special
attention.

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 Table 12. Types of conflict between transhumant herders and other users of natural
resources
Type of conflict

Main causes

Transhumant herders vs
farmers

- 

Transhumant herders vs
forestry services

- 

- 

- 
- 

Occupation of pastoral areas (cattle tracks, grazing
areas, access routes to watering points)
Damage to crops or harvests in fields
Non-existence or lack of development of
transhumance corridors, forcing exhausted animals
to make wide detours
Grazing of protected areas, degradation of wildlife
and its habitat
Ill-treatment of confiscated animals, systematic
slaughtering of animals

Transhumant herders vs
holders of hunting concessions

- 
- 

Degradation of wildlife and its habitat
Bad image of hunting zones among foreign visitors
because of the presence of domestic animals in
concession areas

Transhumant herders vs
resident livestock farmers

- 

Night-time grazing, damage to fields, exacerbation
of conflicts with farmers
Overgrazing, forcing resident livestock farmers to
move

Transhumant herders vs
uniformed bodies (local and State
police, customs officers, forestry
officials)

- 

- 

- 
- 

Administrative harassment, including “wildcat”
taxes
Failure to respect national and regional regulations
on cross-border transhumance
Human injury (women raped, men killed etc.)

Source: adapted from Toutain et al. (2002).

5.1 Communalisation and transfer of responsibility for natural resource
management
Since the 1990s, most of the SWA countries have been engaged to varying degrees in
the process of decentralisation. Communalisation in rural areas is marked by a transfer
of responsibility for natural resource management from the central government level to
local communities. The management of common resources by grass-roots communities, through their representatives (municipal councils, village development councils),
provides opportunities to take account of the concerns of herders and the management of pastoral resources (see Table 12). However, there are risks that pastoralists and
agropastoralists will be sidelined still further in any decision making. The mission was
informed of the points of views of the various parties, particularly in Burkina Faso, Mali
and Niger.

73

 5.2 Decentralisation in rural areas: a risk or an opportunity for pastoralism?
Decentralisation can further contribute to curbing herders’ mobility and increasing their
insecurity with regard to access to pastoral resources. By strengthening local powers,
decentralisation gives more power mainly to sedentary inhabitants in decisions concerning
the sustainable use of resources. This could lead to a much greater marginalisation of
pastoral minorities in traditionally agricultural regions. The main risks for livestock
rearing from decentralisation are as follows:
•  No or poor representation of pastoralists in decentralized authorities.
•  Increased pressure on pastoral resources through the granting of concessions and
the promotion of hydro-agricultural schemes benefiting private investors.
•  Threats to the integrity and concerted management of strategic pastoral areas
following the division into communalised lands.
•  Risks of abuse in the search for greater contributions from herding to the budget
of local communities.
Apart from these risks, the mission saw real opportunities offered by communalisation
in rural areas. These concern better organisation and non-conflictual management of
local and cross-border transhumance. In Mali, for example, the communes of Menaka
and Ansongo have instituted grazing taxes for transhumant livestock. The money raised
also enables the communes to combat the insecurity suffered by herders and their livestock because of armed bandits (with ransom demands and livestock rustling). In Benin,
the mayors of rural communes have become special dialogue partners of the National
Transhumance Committee and its local representatives regarding organisation of the
annual transhumance (internal, rather than cross-border) seasons. In this way, 56 rural
communes have been made aware of rural zoning and the creation of transhumance
corridors and grazing areas.
In the transhumance zones of West Africa – as has been done in North Africa, for example – grazing taxes could constitute a means of resolving conflicts over access to pastoral
resources between Sahelian herders and the local inhabitants of the reception zones. The
monies collected would then be used to fund local development and the rehabilitation
of degraded rangelands. The communes and local inhabitants of the reception areas
would then no longer see transhumance as a curse, but rather as a “business opportunity”. The study carried out in the west of Burkina Faso by Lalba et al. (2005) confirms
the feasibility and socio-economic viability of such a proposal.
To sum up, decentralisation in rural areas entails both risks and opportunities. It is
important to promote good communal relations in order to make pastoralism more
secure.

74

 Box 7. The West African Pilot Pastoral Programme (WAPPP)
The WAPPP was implemented in six West African countries (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali,
Mauritania, Niger and Senegal) with technical and financial support from the World Bank. The
aim was to apply an integrated approach to rangeland management.
The programme had the objective of reshaping the landscape of irrigation schemes in order to
make pastoral activities possible through a sustainable improvement in the water cycle, the flow of
organic and mineral matter and the ecological succession. The following activities were carried out:
(i) organisation and training of herders in integrated rangeland management; (ii) identification
and development of grazing zones, including subdivision and mapping; (iii) formulation and
implementation of a management plan for grazing zones; (iv) rangeland management: rotational
grazing that respects the minimum rest time and maximum use time, promotion of excellent quality
fodder species, fencing off, rehabilitation of degraded areas etc.; (v) herd management: grazing
herds on the same plots; and (vi) monitoring and evaluation of rangelands and herds. After six years
(1995–2000) of implementation, the final evaluation of the programme noted a positive impact of
integrated rangeland management in the pastoral zones of certain countries. In Chad, for example,
evaluation by herders reported: (1) regeneration of species to be promoted (vanished or threatened
pasture species); and (2) an improvement in the weight and numerical productivity of herds.

6. Challenges regarding environmental preservation
The challenges of pastoralism in terms of environmental preservation can be summarised in three points.
6.1 Exploiting rangelands while preserving their productive capacity
While transhumance can relieve pressure on rangelands in home grazing areas, it can
also lead to the degradation of pastoral resources in transit and reception zones: on
the one hand, the increase in livestock numbers caused by a combination of transhumant herds and increased numbers of local livestock and, on the other, the reduction
in grazing areas can lead to an overloading with livestock and hence the degradation
of rangelands. The carrying capacity of pasture zones must therefore be respected, and
management rules drawn up and applied. All these elements must be incorporated into
an integrated management plan for pasture zones. Rangeland management has been
tried out with varying degrees of success in some countries in the SWA region (Chad,
Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal) under the West African Pilot Pastoral
Programme (WAPPP) (see Box 7).
6.2 Preserving and improving biodiversity
In ecosystems that are out of balance, such as those in the arid and semi-arid zones,
mobile herding is recognised as the most ecologically viable and economically profitable
system. However, transhumance is also the cause of environmental degradation, because

75

 the situation of insecure access to resources in which the livestock system has evolved in
agropastoral zones leads herders to exploit protected areas. An aerial census carried out
in April and May 2003 clearly confirms the heavy pressure being exerted on protected
areas by grazing livestock (Bouché et al., 2003): 1 171 herds of cattle, totalling 101 309
animals, were counted in and on the edges of the WAPOK complex. Herds of cattle
have been observed in nearly all protected areas, with high densities in the W National
Park and the Djona Hunting Zone in Benin, the Tamou Total Faunal Reserve in Niger,
and the Oti-Mandouri Faunal Reserve and Keran National Park in Togo. Transhumant
herders see these areas as free access zones or as controlled access zones with browsing
rights (with payment of penalties), and as preferable to village lands where the consequences of conflicts with farmers are more serious.
In order to preserve biological diversity in protected areas, herding should be made
more secure by creating the right conditions for mobility and grazing in transhumance
zones (see Box 7). Improvement in the conditions of mobility and in access to a range
of resources will also enrich biodiversity through zoochory1.
6.3 Maintaining the fertility of agricultural land
In the pastoral livestock system, herds primarily exploit fallow land, marginal areas
(sylvopastoral zones) and crop residues. The biomass thus ingested is largely transformed
into organic manure to fertilise agricultural land in a transfer of fertility that some
farmers and herders formalise in “manure contracts”. Grazing animals can also speed up
the recycling of nutritive elements contained in agricultural by-products, thus helping
to restore soil fertility.
Lastly, the evolution of the pastoral livestock system toward agropastoralism in the
transhumant transit and reception zones will exploit the advantages of combining
agriculture with livestock rearing, inasmuch as the livestock provide the manure and
energy to expand crop production.
7. Ongoing changes in pastoralism
For some decades, transhumant pastoralism, the most widespread system of rearing
domestic ruminants in the SWA region, has been steadily evolving toward the sedentary
agropastoral system, also called the mixed farming and livestock system (see Chapter 2,
paragraph 3.1.3 above). According to the actors met, this trend is being driven by various
factors, including the ecological crises caused by the great droughts of the 1970s and
1980s, the transfer of livestock ownership and the difficulties and conflicts connected
with transhumance.
i.  Climatic variability and changes, in this case the great droughts of the 1970s
and 1980s, provoked major ecological disruptions in the Sahel, in particular the
1 

Zoochory is the dissemination of seeds by animals.

76

 degradation of pastoral resources. Rangeland productivity declined dramatically,
and ponds and water courses became silted up, reducing the pastoral potential of
the Sahel. Herders then sought to contain the risks by diversifying toward cereal
crops to reduce exploitation of their herds.
ii.  One of the harmful effects of the droughts was decapitalisation of herds,
impoverishment of herders and the transfer of livestock ownership to farmers.
This transfer is also the result of capitalisation of agricultural surpluses in
livestock, especially in the cotton zones (west Burkina Faso, the Malian Textile
Development Company [CMDT] zone in Mali, north Benin and Côte d’Ivoire
etc.). Most of the herds are entrusted to the care of Fula herders. Today, 44.5%
of the cattle herds in Burkina Faso belong to Fulas (MRA, 2004), whereas cattle
rearing was the “private reserve” of this ethnic group in the 1960s.
iii.  The third major factor leading to sedentarisation is the difficulties and conflicts
connected with transhumance, inasmuch as transhumant herders are facing
increasing numbers of difficulties (administrative harassment, loss of animals
etc.) and more serious disputes (communal conflict, sometimes resulting in
deaths). Confronted with these problems, some herders are abandoning this way
of life and others are adopting a strategy of semi-sedentarisation of their herds in
reception zones (Bernardet, 1984).
The sedentarisation policies adopted by certain countries have not had the anticipated
results. In response to the successive droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, some governments
also encouraged herders to settle in reception zones by establishing infrastructure to
increase livestock productivity. Particularly good examples are the agropastoral zones of
Burkina Faso (Sidéradougou, Samorogouan and Yallé) and the north of Côte d’Ivoire.
These equipped zones have in fact been used as reception zones for Sahelian herds
suffering from drought and as fall-back zones for herds during the cropping season. In
spite of the efforts and resources devoted to the matter, most herders continue to practise
transhumance, whether on a small or large scale.
The failure of sedentarisation policies can be attributed to a lack of understanding of the
real determinants of transhumance. One of the main determinants is risk management
(with regard to food, health, socio-economic factors etc.). The Sahelian environment
is an unbalanced ecosystem, in which resources are uncertain, with uneven distribution in both time and space. The best possibility of exploiting these resources lies in
herd mobility, which also allows exploitation of complementarities between the Sahelian
and Sudanian zones. Hence the need for regional organisations (ECOWAS, UEMOA,
CILSS, ROPPA etc.) to focus on transhumant pastoralism.
However, support for transhumant pastoralism does not amount to a rejection of intensification. It should be noted that intensive livestock rearing concerns (fattening,
dairy production, animal traction) are supplied by pastoral breeding herds. Moreover,
the sectoral policies of most Sahel countries are aimed at supporting pastoralism and

77

 promoting the intensification of livestock systems; for example, the Action Plan and
Investment Programme for the Livestock Farming Sector (PAPISE) in Burkina Faso and
the document on rehabilitation of the livestock sector in Niger.

78

 CHAPTER FOUR

WHAT ROLES CAN

LIVESTOCK SECTOR
ORGANISATIONS
PLAY?

T

his chapter centres on several key questions: what types of organisations, restructuring, and operations are necessary to enable actors and operators in the livestock
sector to play a predominant role in facilitating trade in animal products, the protection
of producers’ rights, and the well-being of consumers?
1. A look back at history
In West Africa, trade in livestock and animal products flows from north to south.
Statistics show that three countries—Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger—supply the bulk
of such products to end markets in the Gulf of Guinea countries. Livestock sector
operators in these three Sahel countries have received some governmental support in
organising associations of livestock producers or traders to improve meat supplies for
coastal countries. Institutions created as a result of economic and political integration

79

 initiatives during the 1970s, i.e. Economic Community for Meat and Livestock (CEBV),
West African Economic Community (WAEC), and the CILSS, developed a number of
instruments to simplify trade and lower tariff and non-tariff barriers to facilitate the
movement of animal production between the Sahel countries (producers) and the coastal
countries (consumers). The results were not always commensurate with the efforts, due
to the individualism of the actors and the lack of will by government decision-makers to
effectively support the efforts of those institutions.
The economic reforms of the 1980s and 1990s have opened up a new era for the
economic agents involved in the rural sectors. Also, the democratisation process has
created a framework that is conducive to the emergence of professional associations in
the livestock sector. Today these organisations vigorously defend the interests of their
members. They have begun to join together in federations at the national and regional
levels. This momentum can be seen in the production, processing, and marketing
chains of animal products. A systems approach to animal production is gaining ground
among actors in the livestock sector within each country and more recently, although
incipiently, in the SWA Region.
2. Organisation of the actors—a prerequisite for change in livestock production
Organisation of the social actors is an indispensable prerequisite for technical, economic,
and socio-political change (Lloyd, 1975; Le Nay et al., 1991). Aware that social capital is
now a factor in the improvement of technical and economic performance, agricultural
operators and, in particular, livestock operators are banding together in associations,
cooperatives, or economic interest groups. This new momentum has promoted the development of a number of livestock chains in the SWA. The most visible chains in trade
at the regional and international levels are:
•  The animal-meat chain
•  The poultry chain (traditional and modern)
•  The hides and skins chain
Discussions with national institutions and operators in the region confirm the important
place and role played by the animal-meat, poultry (traditional and modern), and hides
and skins (raw or semi-processed) chains in subregional supplies and trade. Alongside
these chains which concern the regional market, the dairy chain is always seeking a
national development strategy in the different countries of the region.
Organisation of the direct actors in the animal production chains is supported by public
authorities (governments, subregional institutions, bilateral and multilateral partners).
The latter are aware of the economic and political importance of livestock production
and are organised to better reinforce the technical, commercial, and information capacity
of the direct actors in the chains. A number of countries are beginning to give more
importance to the livestock sector by creating ministries to design policies and lead the

80

 sector, which had long been buried in the ministries of agriculture. This is the case in
Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, Senegal and even in Côte d’Ivoire. The objective is to
raise the visibility of livestock production and spur momentum in this sector, which is
important in many respects. Starting in the mid-1990s, multi-year policies to develop
the sector have been designed in several SWA countries (MRA/Burkina Faso, 1997;
MEP/Mali, 2004, MRA/Niger, 2001, ME/Senegal, 2004).
But the livestock sector also faces difficulties in finding competent human resources able
to help implement the policies. Governments no longer recruit staff and existing human
resources (animal technicians and veterinarians) are insufficient. The privatisation of
veterinary services undertaken by governments requires support to make them more operational and more effective. Regulatory frameworks need to be developed that are more
beneficial for veterinarians and animal technicians. In countries such as Benin, Mali
and Togo the regulations authorise animal technicians to work as veterinarians. But in
Burkina Faso, steps in this direction have not yet been regulated. Private veterinarians,
who are few and far between, establish themselves in cities and do not like to work on
the outskirts because government services compete with them in the field. Apart from
these considerations, the human resources of the ministries responsible for livestock are
basically composed of veterinarians and animal technicians, despite the fact that the
technical and socio-economic knowledge needed for livestock production requires support from the economic and social sciences. It is therefore essential to promote a multidisciplinary approach in the composition of teams of policy makers and technicians in
the livestock sector of the SWA countries. That would make for better knowledge of the
actors, their socio-productive organisations, and their microeconomic operations, which
are the essential platforms for true change in this major productive sector for the region’s
economies. Furthermore, organisation of the actors as the foremost factor in steering the
livestock sector toward more productive and economically profitable and ecologically
stable systems is not solely the concern of institutional actors; nongovernmental actors
have understood this and are organising to follow the current.
3. Types of sector organisations
In West Africa, an analysis of the structure of animal production chains has identified
a host of actors and products placed on the market through different trade circuits. For
each animal species and each product there is a chain with actors involved at every link.
Specialisation by product is the rule, as noted by Renard et al. (2004). A cattle exporter
is not involved with sheep and goats any more than a beef butcher is.
Actors in the animal production chains can be grouped according to their main functions. In general, agricultural chains involve three main groups of functions (production, marketing, and/or processing) before the product reaches the consumer. In the
case of animal production chains in West Africa, these three functions are performed
by actors who are nominally different but who in practice perform several functions at

81

 once. However, this breakdown is useful to facilitate the analysis and simplify the organisational complexity of animal production chains.
3.1 Producers—a productive system undergoing change
Production is organised around raising ruminants and animals with short life cycles and
is predominantly practiced by the Fulbé, Targui, Arabes, and Toubous ethnic groups.
In the absence of formal surveys, the information obtained during this study suggests
that producers are mainly rural dwellers. However, more intensive forms of production
have been appearing in the last dozen years or so, in which the actors are urban. This
new category of producers, known as “Sunday farmers,” produces milk on the urban
periphery and is mainly composed of senior bureaucrats or large merchants, particularly
in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, etc. They use native African breeds (Goudali, Azawak)
and practice artificial or natural insemination using exotic breeds. Some have blatantly
imported genetic resources from Europe or South America, particularly Brazil1.
Short-cycle animal production is carried out by two types of actors: farmers and new
actors who are increasingly investing in rearing poultry or hogs. Intensive poultry
farming is considerably more developed in Gulf of Guinea countries or the Atlantic
coast, where there is a broader range of dietary opportunities to develop. The actors in
this chain are generally women, particularly in Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal.
Generally speaking, SWA producers are socio-economically very heterogeneous. This
affects the individual producers’ bargaining power. The establishment of associations,
cooperatives, or economic interest groups is the only way to increase that power.
3.2 Producers who band together in a country to increase their strength
In the SWA countries, producers’ organisations take various forms which generally
start at the local level (towns, provinces/departments, districts, regions) to culminate at
the national level in federations of local units and, finally, at the regional level, where
national units form groups. This study focuses on regional groups, but the information
may be taken from national groupings.
Producers involved in modern poultry and hog farming are organised into socio-vocational structures (MDA, MPE). These structures make a relatively significant contribution to the productive functions of their members by providing inputs. In some
countries, such as Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, and Senegal, they are actively involved
For example, in 2005 the Customs Service and the DPRAs of Burkina Faso recorded the import of 1,872
mules from Niger, 168 greater cane rats from Benin, 2,467 head of cattle from Brazil, Mali, and Niger,
145 sheep from Mali and Niger, and 22,790 poultry from Ghana, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom,
and France. These imports are on the rise, either to provide fresh blood in herds (cattle and sheep) or for
purebred production (modern poultry farming).

1 

82

 in operations. They have the advantage of bringing together socio-vocational categories
that are generally ‘educated’ and resolutely profit-driven, which can facilitate common
actions, including group procurements and financing. However, the structures are still
ineffective when it comes to supporting their members in applying for individual loans.
That is because bankers still do not see the advantage of adapting their loans to livestock
production cycles. For example, an egg producer can only begin to repay his loan after
nine months, while bankers often require payments begin the month following the
loan.
Cattle producers have the same problem as poultry farmers. They report that bankers
require payments begin the second month after the loan, while they need to complete at
least three feedlot cycles a year (nine months) before they are in a position to repay1.
Aside from these categories of producers, herders form the largest production group
in the zone studied. Relatively large associations have emerged in some countries, for
example l’Association pour la Promotion de l’Elevage au Sahel et en Savane2 (APESS) (see
Box 8). This association, which was created in the early 1990s and is financed by the
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, is active in Burkina Faso, Cameroon,
Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal. It is headquartered in Dori, Burkina Faso, and has offices in Tambacounda, Senegal, Adamaoua, Cameroon, in the Mali delta, and throughout northern Nigeria, where most of the federation’s cattle production is concentrated3.
The Directoire des femmes en élevage4 (DINFEL) of Senegal involved in dairy production.
The association is well entrenched throughout Senegal and is a member of the Conseil
National de Concertation et de coopération des Ruraux5 (CNCR)6.
Based on the information obtained, it is worth noting that the organisational initiatives
under way do not play any particular role in the productive activities of their members,
given the disparate nature of the activities carried out by their members in rural and
peripheral urban zones.
3.3 Livestock and meat traders
Traders of livestock and animal products (milk, eggs, hides and skins) form a second
group of actors, in which there are two distinct sub-groups—collectors and actual
traders.
1 

Field interviews with feedlot operators in Mali and Burkina Faso.

2 

Association for the Promotion of Livestock Production in the Sahel and the Savannah

In Nigeria, APESS is headed by a former president of the Nigerian Federation who belongs to the Fulani
social group.

3 

4 

Female Livestock Producers Directorate

5 

National Rural Interests Coordination Council

Senegal is the West African country with the largest number of associations, economic interest groups, and
federations of livestock operators.

6 

83

 Box 8. APESS
Technical objective
APESS’ technical vision is to support the spread of new practices to help producers adapt to the
new contextual conditions: disappearance of open spaces, degradation of the natural productive
potential, expansion of crop farming, etc. The’ technological package’ involves the promotion of:
(a) harvesting brush, use of animal-drawn carts, and storage of hay in adapted sheds; (b) fodder
growing; (c) improvement of dairy production and processing hygiene; and (d) animal selection.
Socio-cultural objectives/expectations
The many objectives focus primarily on raising awareness to cope with the severe agroclimatic
changes and the changing world economy. APESS also works to integrate herders into the logic of
the market while keeping in mind their socio-cultural and religious references. APESS promotes
solidarity among the Fulbé people by publishing an illustrated newspaper written in French and
Arabic, which is very well received and widely circulated in herding circles. Its title “Jawdi Men”
means “Our Wealth” in Fulfulde.
The main criticism of APESS is its deep ethnic divide. Nonetheless, APESS is an ideal channel for
reaching herders and working to gradually include them in the dynamics of the transformation in
cattle production in West and Central Africa.
Prospects
ECOWAS can also draw on the association when thinking about how to improve the insertion
of herders into the dynamics of regional integration, helping them to band together in regional
federations, either as a federated association or as members of the Réseau des Organisations Paysannes
et des Producteurs Agricoles de L’Afrique de l”Ouest1 (ROPPA) which has a larger base.
1 

Network of Rural and Agricultural Producers’ Organisations of West Africa

Collectors attend cattle markets in the different countries to assemble ruminants (cattle,
sheep, goats) or their products (hides and skins) and other short-cycle animal species
and their products (poultry, eggs). They are generally commissioned by traders and
receive commissions from their ‘employers.’ Membership in this sub-group is tran sitory
and occurs because the collectors do not have the financial means to engage in trade on
their own account.
Although traders in live animals, animal products and/or by-products in West Africa
have had communications channels for some time under the Projet de Fluidification
des Echanges et Rapprochement des Politiques Agro-alimentaires1 (FERAP) supported by
1 

Project for the Free Flow of Trade and Agri-food Policy Harmonisation

84

 the CILSS between 1990 and 1997, they still have not come up with common strategies for consensual marketing, particularly as far as actors in the meat-supplying countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger) are concerned. The Cadres Nationaux de Concertation1
(CNC) have all but disappeared. Trading continues to be informal with each individual
developing their own policy.
A number of traders active in the region have acknowledged that there are no contractual arrangements between livestock producers and traders or between traders from the
Sahel countries and livestock/meat traders in the Coastal countries.
Apparently transactions take place between actors who know each other well, use their
own information circuits on export markets, and refuse to go through official structures that support the private sector. Case in point, Burkina Faso and Mali. The Union
Nationale des Commerçants et Exportateurs de Bétail2 (UNACEB) and the Coopérative de
Commercialisation du Bétail pour l’Approvisionnement de l’Abattoir de Sikasso3 (COBASS)
strive to find solutions to certain constraints faced by livestock exporters, where the
authorities have not yet provided timely support. However, the presence of middlemen4
who operate in the informal sector contributes more today to increasing prices than to
facilitating trade, which increases the transaction costs of shipping livestock to the coastal countries. This relates to the fact that the information system on regional markets is
not sufficiently developed. The Projet sur les Réseaux régionaux de systèmes d’information
de marchés agricoles au service des organisations des commerçants en Afrique de l’Ouest5
(MISTOWA) is working to remedy this shortcoming.
Finally, considerable progress is still required in coordination and making formal contractual arrangements for procurements and supplies in countries that buy meat or live
animals. This situation has many causes, with the most important being:
i.  Persistence of the informal nature of the activity, marked by the scant openness
of existing networks.
ii.  The lack of financing for trade in livestock, which is considered a high-risk
activity.
iii.  Transportation conditions which result in mortality rates of between 2% and 4%,
with the consequent performance losses.
1 

National Coordination Committees

2 

National Union of Livestock Traders and Exporters

3 

Sikasso Slaughterhouse Livestock Supply Cooperative

Formerly, these middlemen played an important role in facilitating trade, saving exporters time and money when checkpoints proliferated on the Côte d’Ivoire route. Today, the myriad of actors at end markets
are inescapable for anyone wanting to sell animals. It has become almost compulsory to go through them
in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger where they are known as “Dhilali.” Otherwise, there is a high risk it will
take a long time before livestock is moved and a long time before payment is received. All these middlemen
feather their nests from livestock sales, sometimes receiving large sums.

4 

5 

Project on regional information systems on agricultural markets for traders organisations in West Africa.

85

 4. The processing segment and its actors
4.1 Conditions from 1970 to the present
Processing is an activity that requires establishments (slaughterhouses, mini-dairies,
butcher shops). Meat and other meat products follow physical and physiological laws
and therefore they can be affected by hot weather, which is why appropriate means of
conservation and transport are required. The economic actors involved in butchering
are wholesaler slaughterers or butchers (chevillards), retail slaughterers, and retail butchers (CEBV, 1974). Once the meat is made available, other economic actors come into
play, i.e. the secondary processors, including rotisseurs, butchers, and restaurateurs. In
the dairy sector, small operators coexist with new actors who have introduced powdered
milk processing in a number of countries since the 1970s (Mali, Niger, Senegal). In
some countries, such as Burkina Faso, other initiatives such as soy-based milk substitutes
were introduced in 1975. In any event, after the 1990s, a new start was made with the
rise of dairies to process local milk.
Slaughterhouses and expert services
Slaughterhouses are divided into three main groups in the SWA subregion: refrigerated
slaughterhouses, secondary slaughterhouses, and areas where animals are slaughtered.
They are places for economic transactions where considerable sums change hands between wholesalers, retailers, and meat exporters. This group is very active, hence public
authorities began very early to work for better organisation of these operators, introducing quality control systems that are the responsibility of veterinary services. These tools
exist in all SWA countries and they are operational.
Butchering: astride traditional and modern practices
(i) National or public sector meat exporters
Meat is a powerful factor for subregional socio-economic integration. In this regard, it
should be noted that during the 1970s, the CEBV prepared instruments on meat quality (CEBV, 1971) and on the harmonisation of customs regulations applicable to the
import, export, and transit of livestock and meat in the Community members. The goal
was to facilitate trade in meat products. A decision was also reached on grade stamps to
indicate the quality of meat (CEBV, 1972). The series of agreements and decisions was
adopted by the WAEC, which adapted them to its own quality stamp. In this favourable legal environment, between 1974 and 1990, the Sahel countries (Burkina Faso,
Mali, Niger) built refrigerated abattoirs up to the standards for exporting meat in the
countries of the subregion (Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Togo). This opportunity to export meat, which reduced the surcharges linked to rogue taxation on export
routes, drifted away due to poor company management. The main government-owned

86

 companies—ONERA in Burkina Faso, OMBVI in Mali, and SONERAN in Niger—
went bankrupt for very obvious reasons when the Structural Adjustment Programmes
were introduced1.
(ii) The current situation
Today, new initiatives are under way, supported by the governments of Burkina Faso,
Mali, and Niger in response to pressure from actors in the livestock and meat products
sector.
In Burkina Faso, the refrigerated abattoir in Ouagadougou has been rehabilitated and
subjected to health and hygiene standards to develop exports. The Société du Bétail et
de la Viande2 (SOBEVI) is just starting up. It appears that it will be dominated by the
Burkina private sector3. Meat will be exported as carcasses from the Ouagadougou abattoir, which has two lines for large animals with an estimated capacity of 400 head/day;
a line for sheep and goats with a capacity of 900 head/day, and a line for hogs with a
capacity of 200 head/day. But exports have not yet begun and there are a number of
reasons why. The Sahelian meat consuming countries prefer live animals so they can
process the fifth quarter, given that the feet and hides are consumed in the coastal countries. Some analysts believe that the shipping costs will be so high that the meat may
not be competitive with other meat, particularly European meat, given the Economic
Partnership Agreements between the European Union and West Africa, which are about
to be concluded. It should also be noted that the coastal countries have made significant
investments in slaughterhouse infrastructure. Promoting meat exports is not profitable
for them. This is one of the reasons for their resistance and their preference for live
animals.
Niger appears to have made progress. The mission’s interviews with actors indicate
that exports are already taking place. Private parties from Gabon in association with
Nigerian nationals have established two companies that export cuts of meat: BIODIX
and VIVANDA. These two companies export to Niger’s coastal neighbours (SWAC,
1 
The reasons for the bankruptcy of ONERA (Burkina Faso) were: (a) the marketers were basically bureaucrats with no deep understanding of the market sub-segments in the consumer countries and, above all,
with no expertise, which led to considerable financial losses when products were shipped; (b) shipping,
which should have been contracted out, continued to be performed by the company and included the cost
of maintaining the refrigerated vehicles, which reduced profits; (c) the absence of a long-term vision.
The
reasons for the bankruptcy of SONERAN (Niger) were: unlike ONERA, SONERAN in Niger avoided
falling prey to the meat shipping company by contracting shipping with a national transport company.
Exports were going well with a slaughter capacity of 250 animals a day, weighing an average of 500 kg.
The activity was halted on the recommendation of the Structural Adjustment Programme for Niger in the
1990s. However, the truth is that poor financial and commercial management lie behind the bankruptcy of
the company, which had to be liquidated.
2 

Livestock and Meat Products Company

Verbal communication by the Secretary General of the Ministry of Animal Resources of Burkina Faso to
the mission.

3 

87

 2006). They also have markets in Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. The operating principle is to slaughter well-fattened animals at the Niamey abattoir and to butcher them in
their own installations1.
In Mali, investments are being made in two abattoirs to bring them up to international
standards with a view to developing meat exports. Interviews with the technical services
indicate that meat exports have already begun, in small quantities for the moment.
A problem exists with the means of transport used, i.e. aircraft, whose costs are high.
Private investors, who are the majority shareholders, will manage operations.
In short, the policy makers in the Sahel countries demonstrated the will to move toward
exporting meat. This supposes that the agreements already reached by the CEBV and
the WAEC will be taken over by ECOWAS, acting as a commission. This institutional
arrangement gives it a free hand to establish a new organisation of livestock and meat
operations that will be easier to impose on all the member States.

(iii) Butchers’ organisations and structures
In all the SWA countries, the butchering trades are well defined in the instruments
(CEBV/UEMOA, 1999) :
•  Wholesalers who slaughter a number of head a day to sell to retailers, butchers,
and restaurateurs.
•  Retail-slaughters who do not have large operations but who slaughter small quantities every day for direct sale to the market. They work on their own account
from the time they purchase the animals to the sale of products to consumers.
Some in this group operate shops selling grilled meat (dibiteries) or have traditional roasting ovens, particularly for mutton and goat.
•  Retail butchers who are small meat retailers in markets in large cities and neighbourhoods. This type of butcher shop is protected by screens to stop flies from
getting in. But given the heat, some sell their meat outside of these infrastructures, which can lead to its contamination. Also, sale by weight isn’t the rule in
all countries. One example is Burkina Faso, where meat is still sold in mounds,
whose cost ranges from 300 CFA francs to 500 CFA francs each.
Burkina Faso has some way to go to improve the structure of butchers’ trades and develop
sales by weight, as in Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, Niger, and Senegal.

Recent information obtained by the mission reports the approval and start up of a project to build a new
modern abattoir with a 20,000 tonne capacity that meets international standards, and the establishment
of a slaughterhouse management company with private capital that, by and large, will resume the modus
operandi of SONERAN by organising the collection, stocking, and finishing necessary to supply the new
abattoir and to market meat exports (MRA, 2006).

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88

 A recent study in Burkina Faso (MRA, 2007) shows that in the refrigerated slaughterhouses in Ouagadougou, Dédougou, and Bobo-Dioulasso, all operators are “certified
butchers.” Regardless of whether an abattoir slaughters just one or 50 head of cattle, 2
goats, or 500 sheep a day, the rules applicable to it are the same. This is a constraint on
the smooth operation of abattoirs and butchering trades. The consequence is anarchy in
the abattoirs, which makes it impossible for leading actors to emerge capable of dealing
with a subregional market, even though efforts to establish a national union of beef and
pork butchers (UNABOC) have been under way since 1997. The organisation is satisfactory at the national level, but its members are mainly small actors who do not have
the wherewithal to export meat. Furthermore, their leaders are much more interested in
exporting live animals.
In the cases of Mali and Niger, the stratification of trades is fairly well respected. Only
the large certified butchers are able to slaughter in abattoirs. They then deliver the meat
to retail butchers. They often work under very short-term credit, which is repaid at the
end of the day or the next morning, before taking possession of a new delivery. This
group includes the majority of livestock producing countries with emerging wholesale
butcheries. They require support so they can band together to export carcasses, given
that African consumers prefer to buy meat that is cut up in front of them.
Despite the shortcomings related to the organisation of actors in abattoirs, they appear
to be interested in banding together on the basis of their size. Although exporters of live
animals predominate, meat processors have a presence in associations and unions in a
number of SWA countries.
The situation in Senegal is different. Although the country imports livestock to
meet demand for meat, it has a national association of livestock and meat operators
(ANPROBVIS) that is a true workers’ union. It is an association than can order abattoirs
throughout Senegal to stop work. It is not unusual for it to engage in tugs-of-war with
the Senegalese authorities, sometimes decreeing “Senegal without meat” for a number of
days. ANAPROBVIS is a real tool in the hands of meat operators to bring pressure on
decision makers, which can extend to the suppression of low-quality meat imports from
Europe and South America.
(iv) Butchers
These operators work in grocery stores, processing meat and increasing its value. This
speciality is scantly developed in the Sahel countries. In Burkina Faso there are a number
of grocery stores, including Marina Market and Palais des Viandes, that offer modern
charcuterie. Marina Market has spread to Niger where it also butchers meat for local
consumption. In contrast, charcuterie is well developed in the coastal countries of Côte
d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Togo. Integrated animal production operations (poultry, hogs)
exist that extend to processing. The main problem with this kind of finished product is

89

 that it is too expensive for modest incomes. Butchers have a very specific clientele who
form a niche market for this type of product.
(v) Grillers/rotisseurs/dibitiers
This category of actors forms the largest group. They have small cottage-type units to
cook meat (beef, mutton, goat, pork, and poultry). They are mainly found in large
urban centres. The grillers and dibitiers, are mainly small economic actors who do not
slaughter the animals. They buy sheep and goat carcasses from wholesale butchers in the
large urban centres. In contrast, in countries such as Mali, Niger and Senegal, grillers
or dibitiers are generally the large wholesalers who slaughter animals, retaining some
for their grilling sites or dibits, depending on the country. Some large dibitiers in Mali,
Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal can sell between 20 and 30 sheep and goat carcasses a day.
The rotisserie sub-segment is mainly concerned with pork. This manner of preparing
meat is highly developed in Burkina Faso. Exports of these cooked meats are not well
developed, but over the last five years, some rotisseurs, with support from the project to
promote bio-foods, have benefited from assistance that has allowed them to set up in the
abattoir in Ouagadougou where they sell smoked or roasted chicken to passers-by. The
recent avian flu crisis appears to have adversely affected this activity.
In the area of processed meats, Nigeria’s kilichi is beef cut into thin slices and dried in the
sun. It can be preserved in good condition for several weeks, in the absence of humidity.
These products are exported in the subregion and Nigerian kilichi is recognised as an
African food. Work is being done in Niger to develop gas drying to reduce the risk of
contamination by pathogens.

Box 9. Dairy products in the traditional system
In Niger, the Fulbé people produce the durable Tchoukou cheese, a product that can be kept for
several months. Efforts should be made to assist actors in mastering simple processes of this kind
in the context of cottage-type technology. In the coastal countries, particularly Benin, Fula women
have developed a long tradition of making a durable cheese known as “Benin cheese” which is easy
to make using simple techniques. The special nature of this cheese lies in the use of a wild plant
(found throughout the Sahel) to coagulate the milk. The plant is Calotropis procera known by the
common name of Sodom apple, whose sap is used for coagulation. The cheese can be eaten fresh or
cooked in oil and used to prepare sauces. Other countries that have mastered the technique include
Ghana and Togo. Efforts can be made to promote the technique, which could be used to process
surpluses in the rainy season.

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 (vi) Restaurateurs
This last sub-segment is operated by women who run food stalls and economical eateries
in the large urban centres in the SWA zones. They cook or roast beef, mutton, goat, and
poultry. In some countries, the meat is cooked in sauce and served with cereal grains
(rice, millet cakes, etc.). In some coastal countries, meat is sold today separately from the
main dish. Certain institutions, such as the armed forces and hospitals, also buy meat
every day so they can prepare meals for soldiers and patients.
The jobs of butchers, grillers, dibitiers, and rotisseurs are important. They offer readyto-eat products but those products can pose a danger to human health. It is therefore
necessary to insist on good hygiene to prevent customers from falling ill. Actions to
control foodstuffs of animal origin are in place in all countries, but they must be stepped
up. Individuals involved in these trades should be required to pay annual visits to the
doctor. Doctors’ visits already take place but need to be more widespread. Furthermore,
the dibiteries need to be upgraded, given that they are makeshift installations in most
countries, except for Mali and Senegal where the operators are required to grill their
meat in enclosed areas to avoid exposing it to dust, which is a leading medium through
which many pathogens spread.
Table 13. Statistics on hides and skins processed and officially exported (kg)
Product

Cattle

Semi-tanned skins

2,500

Semi-tanned hides

Goats

Sheep

Total
2,500

1,232,930

11,7000

1,349,930

Source: Livestock Statistics, MRA, Burkina Faso, 2005

4.2 Local milk processing
The local milk chain is currently seeking a national development strategy in the different
countries of the SWA region. The actors who process this product belong to the traditional dairy system of pastoral peoples (see Box 9). In this field, the activity is performed
by women who are the interface between the farm and the market. A second system being developed, which includes improved peripheral urban systems, and the dairy farm
system is beginning to establish upgraded mini-dairies.
In the traditional dairy system, the functions of collecting and processing are not separated. Women are the main actors and are largely responsible for processing the milk
after they have collected it. Products vary from one country to another. The most frequent are curds, fénè or cream, butter, and Fula soap. These products have a short life
span in the hot climates of most of the SWA countries. However, there is local knowledge in some countries that should be explored for the purpose of extending it to other
countries.

91

 Apart from the traditional processes, after a dozen years of work to promote dairy systems
to supply the large urban centres, dairies that use modern technologies and mini-dairies
that use cottage-type processes are springing up everywhere in West Africa.
The new initiatives involving mini-dairies in towns and regions in many SWA countries
(Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Senegal) are operated by women organised into associations.
They produce yoghurt, pasteurised milk, and butter. Today, food stalls carry products
made in these countries, which are well accepted by consumers. Far from reversing the
trend toward imports, these initiatives allow women to earn income and contribute to
national food security and nutrition policies in the countries.
The industrial mini-dairies, which have been built in some countries such as Burkina
Faso to process local milk, do not produce returns commensurate with the investments.
That is due to the bureaucratic attitude that infuses their management. Putting them
in private hands could improve economic performance in terms of the profitability of
these units.
4.3 Hides and skins processors
As for hides and skins, processors can be divided into two categories—cottage-type and
industrial.
(i) Industrial processors
The hides industry is making advances in the SWA zone, particularly in countries such
as Burkina Faso and Nigeria, where industrial processing is being developed. In Burkina
Faso, for example, the TANALIZ company now works on a subregional scale given that
it collects in several Sahel countries (Mali, Niger) in addition to Burkina Faso. TANALIZ
has recently bought a tannery in Niger which it is refurbishing. Development of this
industry will reduce distances between the point of collection and the tannery and will
create jobs.
In the other livestock-rearing countries, particularly Mali and Niger, industrial processing is not well established among private promoters. Hides and leather are exported by
the nationals of those countries and are collected and bought by TANALIZ, which processes them in its tannery in Burkina Faso prior to exporting them. Statistics for Burkina
Faso on processed hides and skins that enter an export circuit controlled by livestock
services are shown in Table 13.
The most important destination is the Nigerian state of Kano, where the hides industry
is well developed with more than 20 tanneries. Apart from Nigeria, exports are also
made to Western countries (Germany, Italy, United States, etc.) as well as Nigeria. This
is a dynamic industrial chain.

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 (ii) Cottage-type processors
The hides and skins produced in West Africa, particularly in the main livestock-rearing
countries, also enter the leatherwork circuit on an artisanal scale.
The town of Kaya in Burkina Faso is involved in the manufacturing of hand-crafted
objects such as handbags, shoes, and belts. The actors are organised into three dynamic
associations, two in the field of leatherwork and one in the field of tanning.
Niger has a craft centre that is known world-wide. The hides and skins are transformed
into different objects (handbags, shoes, etc.). The degree of perfection is such that it
Table 14. Summary of drawbacks/opportunities and areas in which the capacity of the
actors and their organisations should be built up
Field of action

Forces/opportunities

Areas in which capacity should
be built up

National producers

Membership in national
federations of livestock and meat
trades and, in some cases, in
national agriculture councils.
National federations that are
members of ROPPA and are
capable of protecting their
interests in ECOWAS territory.
Varied animal genetic resources.
Training for members of national
federations through NGO
programmes.
Participation by national and
subregional leaders in meetings,
training workshops, seminars,
internships, etc.

Insufficient training and
information on production
techniques, design of microprojects, markets, and prices.
High illiteracy rate among the
members of national federations.
Weak managerial capacity of
leaders of rural organisations.

Regional apex
organisations of or
including producers

Presence of ROPPA which has
broad regional coverage.
Attempt to establish a regional
federation in the UEMOA
countries.

Support in organisational
management.

National exporters

Membership in the Réseau des
Opérateurs Economiques du secteur
agroalimentaire (ROESAO).

Training in Internet tools, in
communications and information
on regional markets; information
on the laws and tax requirements
of buyer countries and on SPS
rules; support in preparing the
documents for procuring suitable
means of transport.

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 is difficult to tell the difference between products made at the Niamey centre from
products made in Italy.
The chain is dynamic. However, that should not be allowed to mask the difficulties,
which stem from the lack of expertise among the actors involved after the production
stage. The hides are often disfigured by holes, which mean that they must be turned into
edible leather for export to the countries of the subregion (Ghana, Nigeria, Togo). To
improve actors’ skills, a subregional project involving Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and
Senegal, has been undertaken with financial support from the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO). The goal is to train actors to produce goodquality hides (Djibrillou, A., 2002 and 2004) and support the satisfactory operation of
the Association des professionnels des cuirs et peaux de l’Afrique1.
In short, to overcome the constraints and make the most of opportunities, the direct
actors in the animal production chains require technical, financial, and organisational
support from governments and regional integration institutions. Food and nutritional
security, which is a condition for the other stages of socio-economic development, requires the development of local chains. Industrial fluidity can be established in the SWA
countries by reorganising production. Subregional integration also means striking a balance among countries that join together. The countries in the interior should be able
to sell meat instead of live animals so that they too can build up profitable processing
operations instead of exporting raw materials as in colonial times. They require welltrained and well-equipped people to be able to produce more processed goods.
In effect, the significant changes in social capital in the West African livestock sector are
linked to the involvement of direct actors, but there are also many indirect actors who
provide support for their development and empowerment with regard to government
structures. The indirect actors in developing trade in animal products include regional
institutions, projects and programmes, and international NGOs. The following section
examines the strengths and weaknesses of these indirect actors.
5. A variety of indirect actors who should be better coordinated
An institutional environment is present in the countries, taken individually, and at
the regional level, that could help the livestock sector to respond to demand for meat
products in the region.
5.1 Livestock ministries and technical services
As mentioned earlier, ministerial institutions are emerging that work full time on livestock development. This process has enabled countries to establish long-term development policies for the sector (MRA/BF, 1997; MRA/N, MEP/M, 2004; ME/S, 2004).
1 

African Hides and Skins Trade Association

94

 These policies are intended to make livestock farming more productive by improving
production conditions for farmers through phenotypic selection programmes and genetic improvement practices with the aid of exotic breeds.
Apart from productive considerations, all these policies involve support for the organisation of actors in the different chains and, particularly, access to national and regional
markets. But the insufficient budgets assigned to the ministries of livestock continue to
be a recurring problem. This concerns public authorities as well as national and international financing institutions. In particular, livestock has had very little visibility in the
funding granted by international institutions, at least until recently.
Given the imbalances in the distribution of financing among the rural productive
sectors, in some countries such as Nigeria, authorities have chosen to clearly distinguish
the amounts allocated to the livestock sector from those allocated to other specific areas1.
This is a good approach because it makes it easier to understand interventions in the
sector.
Major efforts have also been made in the field of animal health and the reinforcement
of national veterinary services thanks to the support provided by the Programme panafricain de lutte contre les épizooties2 (PACE). One important aspect that could be included
in the process of promoting subregional trade relates to vaccine production. In this
field, a number of laboratories are capable of producing vaccines against diseases that
afflict the ECOWAS region. For example, the livestock diagnostic laboratories in Mali,
Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal can or already do produce a number of different vaccines,
particularly for local use. Interaction in the field of vaccines already exists between Niger
and Nigeria. Burkina Faso imports vaccines from Mali and Senegal. This is an opportunity for market integration of production factors. Under UEMOA and ECOWAS, it
is envisaged that the production capacity of the above-mentioned laboratories will be
stepped up so they can supply the region as a whole. One of the visible gaps is the need
to strengthen laboratories in the quality control of human and veterinary medicines. A
recent audit of veterinary medicine quality control laboratories located in the UEMOA
zone indicates that: (i) not all member countries currently have a laboratory capacity of
controlling the quality of veterinary medicines, (ii) just seven laboratories currently have
the capacity to acceptably control the quality of veterinary pharmaceuticals, and two are
able to control the quality of veterinary vaccines, (iii) it is therefore necessary to establish
a network that will initially involve these nine laboratories (Boisseau, J., July 2005).

Verbal communication to the mission by the Federal Department of Livestock and Pest Control Services,
Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development , 18 September 2006.

1 

2 

Pan-African Programme to Combat Animal Epidemics

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 Box 10. The Economic Community for Meat and Livestock (CEBV)
Birth of an economic cooperation institution
The CEBV, which was headquartered in Ouagadougou, aimed to respond to the basic objectives of
the Entente Council which consisted of the economic promotion of its member States, particularly
the rural environment and its population, meeting nutritional requirements, particularly with
respect to animal protein, and promoting in a regional context, the production and sale of livestock
and meat within member States, between members States, and to third parties, regardless of whether
they shared common borders (CEBV, 1983).
The results achieved in 27 years
•  Financing and coordinating programmes to combat rinderpest and supporting veterinary
coordination, which reduced the economic impact of the disease.
•  Introducing the livestock passport and re-activating the livestock corridors helped develop
pastoralism and reduce theft and conflicts between crop and livestock farmers.
•  Supporting the opening of a branch of the l’Institut d’Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire
des Pays Tropicaux (IEMVT) [Institute of Tropical Breeding and Veterinary Medicine]
in Bobo-Dioulasso in 1975. The branch, with its influence in the Entente Council area,
was able to considerably reduce the incidence of the tsetse fly in Bobo-Dioulasso and the
northern Côte d’Ivoire, promoting the establishment of a number of Fula communities
in that area (Bernardet, 1984).
•  The CEBV was the principal institution that led to the creation of the Centre International de Recherche sur le Développement de l’Elevage en Savanes humides (CIRDES)
[International Centre for Subhumid Livestock Research and Development] headquartered in Bobo-Dioulasso.
From the decline to absorption by UEMOA
Like a number of regional integration institutions in Africa, the CEBV lacked financial and human
resources, among other problems. The institution’s contracting States were never able on their own
to carry out the tasks that are essential for the development of the sector, always relying on the help
of the international community. For all its actions and sometimes even to ensure that the basic
structure could operate, it was necessary to call on France or other donors. Under these conditions,
it was difficult to implement a sovereign policy (Sanon, 2003). Despite its effectiveness, the CEBV
was absorbed by UEMOA because the new institution is easier to sell today to donor agencies. The
overall results achieved by CEBV, particularly the animal passport, are also losing momentum. The
passport is a document that permits a cattle farmer or dealer to avoid customs and police harassment
at borders. Unfortunately, this mechanism is no longer functional. Livestock exporters who hold
such passports are still subject to extortion by law enforcement authorities (police, gendarmerie,
and sometimes even foresters who have nothing to do with livestock exports). Livestock farmers in
possession of a transhumance certificate are hounded in countries that have signed the agreements
and never repudiated them.
Actions that have survived the institution’s disappearance
The livestock passport and the transhumance certificate have been improved and introduced in 15
ECOWAS countries since 1998.

96

 In short, much has been done to improve animal health but much remains to be done,
particularly with regard to building the capacity of the institutional actors and improving communications and information channels with herders.
The main demands of the institutions relate to building the capacity of veterinary services in terms of logistics, human resources, and technical assistance in the diagnosis of
diseases. In the field, better technical tools should be provided for agents at border posts,
including the security forces, for sensitisation and information on actors involved in the
trade of livestock and animal products.
5.2 Continental and regional organisations
A number of regional, continental, and international institutions support countries in
improving animal production conditions and also in gaining access to financing for the
livestock sector. This group of institutional actors helps to prepare policies that promote
the transformation of the livestock sector and closer integration of actors into the different chains in the West African marketing circuit.
At the continental level, the African Union/Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources
(AU/IBAR) is the main reference point in support for agricultural development in general and the livestock sector, in particular. At the West African regional level, a number
of institutional actors work to improve the standard of living of the population, with
the most significant in the area of political, economic, and monetary integration being
ECOWAS and UEMOA1.
UEMOA was created in 1994 as a means of curbing the impact of the devaluation of
the CFA franc in January of the same year in Dakar. This devaluation of the CFA franc
compared to the French franc coincided with the end of the WAEC which, although
it had foundered, had already made significant progress, at least invoking the idea of
the customs union. This progress also related to the common currency under the West
African Monetary Union. In the UEMOA zone, livestock is one of the key economic
sectors. Reflecting this importance, UEMOA follows a strategy to develop livestock
chains (beef and sheep, hides and skins) and also the poultry chain. Headway has been
made and ECOWAS can draw inspiration from it to bolster its agricultural policy, by
conducting complementary studies on livestock systems in other countries that are not
covered by the UEMOA studies.
This progress made by UEMOA results from the fact that the institution has benefited
from the knowledge of certain institutions, such as the Communauté Economique de
Bétail et de la Viande (CEBV) [Cattle and Meat Economic Community]. The latter has
been one of the instruments for economic cooperation used by the Entente Council
which was established in 1959 for exclusively political reasons, i.e. to block the Mali
1 

See Chapter 4 on pastoralism and transhumance.

97

 Federation led by Mali and Senegal which had socialist leanings (Diouf, 1984). Upper
Volta was on the verge of joining them. It was not until much later that seeking more
mobilising actions would be needed. The CEBV was created in 1970 in the environment of subregional institutions, bringing together Benin, Burkina Faso (former Upper
Volta), Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, and Togo. The institution survived from 1970 to 2000,
when its activities were transferred to UEMOA (Sanon, 2003). Although the CEBV had
encountered many difficulties related to financing and the renewal of human resources,
among others, it was successful in developing certain areas of the livestock sector, such
as the introduction of a livestock passport and the reactivation of the livestock corridors
(see Box 10).
Shortly after the CEBV was created, another institution with a geographic base limited
to the Sahel countries, the Permanent Inter-state Committee for Drought Control in
the Sahel (CILSS). was given the task of helping to design development policies in
different livestock production areas.
Based in Ouagadougou, the CILSS is an institution that is already playing an important role as technical secretariat for ECOWAS’ agricultural policy. It has technical and
research tools through the Sahel Institute (INSAH) based in Mali, which works on
population issues and agro-socio-economic aspects. AGRHYMET based in Niger also
plays an important role in weather forecasting. The CILSS promotes programmes in
which the management of transhumance and the reduction of conflicts over access to
resources are central concerns.
The Niger Basin Authority (ABN) is one of the oldest African inter-governmental
organisations dating back to 1964, when it was known as the Niger River Commission.
It is an institution involving West African countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire,
Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria) and Central African countries (Cameroon, Chad). The
ABN deals with shared water resources of its members, taking concerns over access to
water for stock watering and pasture into account.
The Liptako-Gourma Authority (ALG) is a subregional cooperation institution among
neighbours, whose mission is the comprehensive and harmonious development of an
area covering 370,000 km2 that straddles the borders of Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger,
known as Liptako-Gourma. The ALG has been operating in the region for more than
30 years to develop mineral, energy, water, agropastoral and fisheries resources in the
intervention zone. A recent programme for livestock development in the zone includes
training for producers, water and animal health infrastructure, and pastoral planning.
Momentum exists for the indirect actors in the livestock sector to band together which,
at present, depends heavily on external financing. This poses the problem of the sustainability of the actions undertaken on behalf of the direct actors in the sector, given
their scant financial, technical, and operational resources. If the combining of ideas is
a strength, combining resources enables this strength to be maintained. The different

98

 institutions should build strategies to boost resource mobilisation and reduce their dependency on external institutions for financing.
5.3 Subregional projects and programmes
There are other institutional actors that do not necessarily belong to the institutions
mentioned earlier. They are projects and/or programmes whose financing and implementation modes often lie outside national and/or regional institutions, but whose development objectives for the region are similar.

(i) The project to strengthen regional market information systems and traders’
organisations in West Africa (MISTOWA).
The project is financed by two bilateral partners—the United States government
through USAID and the Netherlands through AGRITERRA. MISTOWA is led by
the International Centre for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC-Africa
Division). It is intended to promote regional agricultural trade and to boost food security. It is regional in scope, covering the entire ECOWAS area. Launched in September
2004, the project currently covers a number of countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte
d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo). Its actions are intended to link market information systems and services to private sector users and to
work with regional partners to study and react to client feedback in order to adapt to
their needs. Producers’ and traders’ organisations are the target public. The approach is
based on training through a dialogue network that enables the various actors to obtain
sufficient information to help promote production and trade in the subregion. Three
networks of direct actors in the livestock sector participate in this project:
•  Network of West African Agri-food Sector Economic Operators (ROESAO)
•  Network of West African Farmers’ and Producers’ Organisations (ROPPA)
•  The African Federation of Associations for Trade in Agricultural Inputs (FACIA)
 
(ii) International NGOs
The involvement of international NGOs in the livestock sector dates back to the ecological crisis that lasted from 1968 to 1985 in the Saharan-Sahelian belt from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Red Sea, after severe droughts that led to famine and economic disaster
for crop and livestock farmers (Spittler, 1993; Piguet, 1998). The most active NGOs
include ACORD and its member agencies—in particular the Catholic Committee
against Hunger and for Development (CCFD), German Agro Action (GAA), OXFAM,
Nederlandse organisatie voor internationale ontwikkelingssamenwerking1 (NOVIB), and
Vétérinaires Sans Frontières2 (VSF) (France, Belgium, and Switzerland) (Oxby, 1990).
1 

Netherlands Organisation for International Development Cooperation

2 

Veterinarians Without Borders

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 These organisations have worked in particular in the Sahel countries and the Horn of
Africa with herders, agropastoralists and former herders because the droughts had completely wiped out certain pastoral groups who needed help rebuilding their livestock or
help converting to other activities. The descriptive analysis here is limited to three experiences: (1) Heifer International, headquartered in Ghana and radiating out from there;
(2) Services d’Appui aux Initiatives Locales de Développement1 (SAILD) headquartered in
Cameroon but extending into many African countries; and (3) OXFAM/Great Britain.
Heifer International (HI)
This NGO covers 41 countries, three of which—Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and Ghana—
belong to the SWA countries. Its objective is to combat hunger and poverty by developing livestock rearing through a livestock credit program. The approach is driven by social
demand, in other words, the communities chose how to improve their living conditions.
Heifer International provides training for producers in sustainable and ecologically balanced agriculture. It promotes knowledge sharing between rural communities through
study trips organised for producers from different countries where it is active. It facilitates trade in resources by importing breeder animals from the Sahel countries into the
coastal countries to establish starter stock for livestock rearing.
Services d’Appui aux Initiatives Locales de Développement (SAILD)
The poultry industry in Cameroon has suffered from dumping, with imports of frozen
chicken parts rising from 978 tonnes in 1998 to 22,154 tonnes in 20032. This situation has threatened the modern farming system and many poultry farmers, particularly women, have given up. With SAILD’s help, the poultry farmers belonging to the
Association Citoyenne de Défense des Intérêts Collectifs3 (ACDIC) have been able to influence Cameroon’s authorities who have ended imports of poultry cuts that constituted
unfair competition for domestic production. The cuts (wings, tails, feet, backs) are waste
that is traditionally recovered by industries that manufacture animal feed and are not of
interest to Western consumers, who prefer the soft parts.
OXFAM/Great Britain
The struggle by ACDIC in Cameroon has left its mark elsewhere. Côte d’Ivoire and
Senegal were inspired by the experience. Senegal’s domestic market, for example, has
been flooded with broiler cuts worth 10 billion CFA francs/year and eggs worth 18.7
billion CFA francs/year (Duteurtre et al, 2005). Modern poultry farming in Senegal
collapsed between 1998 and 2002. The West African Regional Office of OXFAM/Great
Britain responded to the demands of modern poultry farmers’ by organising a national
1 

Services to Support Local Development Initiatives

2 

Collectifs d’Organisations Non Gouvernementales: CCFD/CFSI/GRET.

3 

Citizen’s Association for the Protection of Collective Interests

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 campaign together with the actors. Following the example of Cameroon, the platform
included Senegalese NGOs, school and university groups, the main labour unions, consumers’ associations, radio stations, women’s groups, and local authorities, who were
able to bring strong pressure to bear. The Senegalese government heeded the message
and ended imports of poultry cuts.
In conclusion, there are two main concerns with regard to the institutional actors in
the livestock sector: lack of coordination and insufficient inter-agency communications.
ECOWAS established a taskforce in 2000 on the instructions of the Heads of State and
Government. It is a technical entitly for deliberation and proposals that should enlarge
its mandate beyond matters of cross-border transhumance and focus on preparing a
general document addressing the direct and indirect actors in the animal production
systems in all the member States.
Although a number of national and regional institutions and NGOs are striving to
promote the empowerment of actors and different livestock operators, the operators still
have little political influence in the design of national and regional policies in the field
of livestock. This situation is explained by the fragmentation of actors which, although
being a sign of democratic growth, is also a cause of weakness that undermines the cohesion of efforts.
Consequently, a different organisational model should be used. It should promote the
organisation of actors in the different production chains into associations. The associations
should meet to appoint a national council of livestock sector operators. If the national
councils operate normally because they are representative of the collective of actors,
without distinction, it is not a necessity to establish a regional body as a pressure group.
It is far more important to establish a regional observatory with antennae in the different
countries whose leadership would be exercised directly by the national federations.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

LIVESTOCK POLICIES

AND STRATEGIES
FOR RESPONDING
TO REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL
MARKETS
CROSSCUTTING ISSUES

1. Financing policies: Support for production and marketing

F

inancing policies to support production and marketing in the Sahel and West Africa
are currently being harmonised. There are large regional groupings (see Table 15)
whose role is to assist the countries involved in speeding up regional integration of
national economies. To be sustainable and have a positive impact, the reactivation of
the livestock sector needs to increase its economic returns, which can be guaranteed by
regional organisations, and implies:
i.  Better organisation of production
ii.  Modernisation of circuits
iii.  Closer ties with the rest of the economy

103

 The objectives of the various agreements in force in the study zone are similar, as well as
the required tools. However, the extents to which objectives have been attained and the
tools that have been made available differ. UEMOA presents some progress compared
to the other agreements (ECOWAS, CEMAC). How can the different policies be
harmonised and integrated into a coherent space? If harmonisation can be achieved
relatively easily between the UEMOA and the ECOWAS countries (given that the
UEMOA countries are all members of ECOWAS), the same does not hold true between
ECOWAS and the Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC), whose
six member countries that use the CFA franc as their currency form the Economic and
Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC).
The groupings should take account of countries that are geographically remote from
each other in a different economic climate. National economic development policies,
particularly in the livestock sector, need to be devised in a complex context of this
kind.
It is assumed that national transhumance policies are based on ECOWAS texts as
ECOWAS is currently addressing the transhumance issue.
1.1 Financing policies
Economic development programmes for different sectors exist in the study zone. The
programmes have been designed on the basis of Community financing policies. In
UEMOA, some programme activities have gotten under way thanks to support from
the European Union under the UEMOA support programme (7  ACP 576). The
programmes are:
•  Coordination and harmonisation of agricultural adjustment policies.
•  Financing for agriculture.
•  Water control: Integrated management of shared water resources.
•  Establishment of a regional information network for technical, commercial, and
economic information in the field of agriculture.
•  Development of meat production systems: establishment of classification and
quality standards for livestock and meat.
•  Emergence of trade organisations in the agriculture sector.
The actions mainly involve studies, follow up on validation meetings, and turning the
outcomes into Community instruments (recommendations, decisions, directives, or
regulations).
The development of meat production systems is supported by the FAO and the UNDP.
A regional workshop on the management of genetic resources for farm animals in West
Africa was organised under the auspices of UEMOA, CILSS, and CORAF to prepare a
regional project.

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 Table 15. Regional integration agreements in the study zone
Regional integration
agreements (date
established)

Objectives

Instruments

Comments

UEMOA (1994)
Replaces WAEC
(1972)

1. To promote
cooperation and
development through
trade projects of
Community interest.

1. Single tax (taxe
unique) on trade
to replace customs
duties.

1. Common market
not established.
2. The regional
preference only
extends to 428
products (including
animal products).
3. Partial labour
mobility.

2. To introduce a
common external
tariff.

2. Harmonisation of
investment rules.
3. Project financing.

ECOWAS (1975)

1. To promote
economic, social, and
cultural cooperation
and development.
2. To raise the
standard of living
in the member
countries.
3. To preserve
economic stability.
4. To eliminate
customs duties and
other barriers to trade
and create a common
market by 1990.

1. Elimination in
10 years of customs
duties and other
non-tariff barriers to
foreign trade.
2. Adoption of a
common external
tariff by 1990.
3. Compensation and
development fund.
4. Removal of
barriers to the
free circulation of
production factors.
5. Harmonisation of
monetary and budget
policies.

1. Trade liberalisation
programme not
applied to date.
2. No national
payments into the
compensation and
development fund.
3. No labour
mobility.

CEMAC (1998)
Replaces UDEAC
(1964)

1. To promote
economic
development to
raise the standard of
living.

1. Single tax (taxe
unique) on internal
trade to replace
customs duties.
2. Elimination of
tariff barriers.
3. Joint investments.

1. No common
external tariff.
2. No labour
mobility.
3. Large barriers to
internal trade.

2. To establish a
customs union.

Source: Adapted from ADB (2000) quoted by Hugon (2002).

105

 The African Development Bank (ADB) is involved in financing livestock farming at
the country and regional levels. Information provided to the mission indicates that the
ADB supports development in a number of livestock chains, including ruminants and
poultry, with a dramatic offensive in the wake of the avian flu crisis. A programme
for specific support was carried out in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Ghana,
Niger, Nigeria, and, more recently, in Côte d’Ivoire.
One of the main handicaps for the development of livestock farming in humid and subhumid zones on the continent is African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT). The Bank supports the efforts of the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign
(PATTEC) of the African Union to eradicate the tsetse fly in three countries (Burkina
Faso, Ghana, and Mali). More recently, it provided financing of US$26 million (ADB,
2005) for a programme for sustainable management of ruminants in West Africa, supporting a project to conserve animal biodiversity in West Africa (the Gambia, Guinea,
Mali, and Senegal). The aim is to prevent the disappearance and dilution of local livestock breeds (the Ndama breed of cattle).
As mentioned earlier, most of the countries in the study zone have given more prominence to the sector by establishing a specific ministry to allocate spending and consolidate leadership of livestock activities. Despite this, the budgets allocated to the ministries in charge of animal resources in the countries of the region do not match the stated
ambitions or the macroeconomic importance of the sector (see Box 11). An analysis of
the 2005 Budget Act of the government of Burkina Faso presents spending (including
external financing) on priority sectors in the fight against poverty, such as basic education (13.3%), health care (7.3%), agriculture (14.3%), and transport and infrastructure
(13.5%). Although its potential to reduce poverty is recognised, the livestock sector
received just 0.7% and 0.9% of the national budget in 2004 and 2005, respectively,
although this is an improvement on the previous 0.2%.
In Benin where livestock comes under the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Fisheries, the budget is relatively higher for these sectors, taken together (26.01%).
Spending is basically allocated to goods and services that are important in the government’s agricultural development policy, which will be topped up with sizeable foreign
financing (20,590,000 CFA francs) this year. Farming and fisheries are included among
the priority sectors of activity for 2006, with reform of the cotton segment being the
largest budget item. Mali has created a Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries. Until recently, the livestock sector was included in rural development and environmental affairs.
Expenditures for this group accounted for 4.75% in 2004, 5.16% in 2005, and 4.85%
in 2006. The percentage that will finally be allocated to the livestock sector will become
clearer when the results of intensive lobbying by the cotton industry are known.
In Côte d’Ivoire, the Ministry of Animal Production and Fisheries Resources (MPARH)
has been separated from the Ministry of Agriculture. The 2005 Budget Act gives priority

106

 Box 11. Government financing for livestock production in some SWA countries
In Nigeria, all external financing allocated to rural areas should clearly identify the share reserved
for livestock production, which reflects the political will to further the sector’s development and also
lend visibility to the financial resources invested in a sector that is the driving force behind crop
farming in most of the SWA countries (verbal communication, Federal Ministry of Agriculture,
September 2006).
In Niger, cumulative financing for livestock farming has made great progress. In 2000, when the
ministry was created, livestock production received just 600 million CFA francs in pubic funds for
its development. The political importance attached to the livestock sector has boosted financing to 30
billion CFA francs over the last four years, for about 7.5 billion a year, not including investments
under the government’s general budget, which hover around 0.2% as in Burkina Faso.
In Burkina Faso, the cumulative amounts are lower than in Niger. A recent report by the Ministry
of Animal Resources suggests that cumulative financing will not exceed 18 billion CFA francs
including the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (MRA, 2006). Not only is public
sector financing low, making that financing readily available is still a bottleneck that needs to be
unblocked.

to seven ministries that receive 85% of the budget after debt service. In declining order
they are: education (28.2% of the total), economic affairs and finance (17.7%), defence
(13.1%), health care (7.4%), higher education (7%), economic infrastructure (6.1%),
and security (6%). The livestock sector was expected to receive less than 6% of the
budget at a time when the MPARH was preparing a master plan for the development of
the sector which had already been weakened by a lasting socio-political crisis.
The situation in Niger is not different, but it appears to be evolving favourably to the
benefit of the sector whose role is now recognised as crucial in the country’s rural development. Livestock has been promoted to a full-fledged ministry. The information
obtained by the mission from government authorities reports a budget estimate of 20
billion CFA francs in government funding for 2007 compared to an earlier period when
the budget for the livestock sector was 1-2 billion CFA francs.
The general trends in the countries of the region point to low levels of government
investment, averaging less than 5% of ministerial allowances. Even adding the sums to
be allocated to the livestock sector by the rural development ministries, total spending
on the sector in the zone will not exceed 10% of total expenditures.
As mentioned earlier, for the private sector, the animal production system and the high
vulnerability of livestock to external factors, particularly diseases, does not lend itself
easily to financing. Financial institutions and banks in general refuse to run the risk,
since returns on livestock farming are often marginal.

107

 1.2 Policies to support trade
Work must be done to harmonise trade policies within the Community. UEMOA has
adopted a common external tariff policy which was used as the basis for negotiations in
ECOWAS. In the UEMOA member countries, a two-level trade policy was established
in 2001 and has been in force since then. The policy differentiates between the union’s
member countries and non-members.
Non-UEMOA countries. A common external tariff is applied to products imported from
non-UEMOA countries. It is composed of:
•  A four-level customs duty (0%, 5%, 10%, 20%) for the four categories of products (0,1,2,3).
•  A statistical charge of 1%.
•  A community solidarity levy of 1%.
The general customs duty is therefore:
•  2% for products in category 0
•  7% for products in category 1
•  12% for products in category 2
•  22% for products in category 3
For UEMOA countries: There is community preference consisting of tax free entry for
products originating in the member States. Foodstuffs must be classified in the first
category to be considered necessities.
In the private sector, trade in animal products is limited by a glaring lack of support for
livestock farmers, particularly those who have invested in more intensive production
and who count on fluid trade to obtain income. Livestock traders in general suffer from
a lack of working capital. Financial institutions do not pre-finance trade because of the
risk—as recently demonstrated by the impact of the crisis in Côte d’Ivoire on Mali and
Burkina Faso. For the same reason, credible traders are not ready to undertake commitments with banks that do not offer them a product tailored to their requirements. They
generally finance their activities with their own funds and sometimes with supplier’s
credit at usurious rates, which can drive the cost of an animal up by 20% to 25%.
2 The challenges and opportunities of research and development (R&D) policies
The role of research in support of animal production, processing, and marketing is to
make animal products available at affordable prices and ensure that only healthy products reach local, regional, and foreign markets. This should be addressed by national
agricultural research services by organising the research process to respond to social demand, taking account of market requirements (supply systems, motivation/reward systems). However, apart from the difficulties and budget constraints that are widespread

108

 in national agricultural research structures in almost every one of the SWA countries,
research & development (R&D) programmes in livestock production are the least well
endowed with financial, material, and human resources. Table 16 shows that the position of West Africa is relatively worse than in other parts of the continent in terms of
investments by the public and private sectors in R&D. Nigeria ranks first in this area,
accounting for 34% of all the funds spent on R&D in West Africa.
Total public spending on agricultural R&D as a percentage of the gross agricultural domestic product—defined as the agricultural research intensity ratio (IR)—is a common
indicator of investments in research and permits a country’s spending to be compared
internationally. In 2000, the African continent invested 0.70 cents for every 100 dollars
Table 16:.Public and private agricultural R&D investments in Sub-Saharan Africa,
2000
Region/country

Expenditures
(millions of 1993 international dollars)

Shares
(percentage)

Public

Private

Total

Public

Private

East Africa (7)

341.4

5.4

346.8

98.4

1.6

South Africa

365.6

15.6

381.2

95.9

4.1

Other southern
Africa (5)

62.4

2.8

65.2

95.7

4.3

Nigeria

106.0

-

106.0

100.0

-

Other West Africa
(13)

209.3

1.8

211.1

99.1

0.9

Total (27)

1,084.7

25.6

1,110.3

97.7

2.3

Source: Beintema and Stads, 2005 @ www.asti.cgiar.org/pubs-africa.htm, accessed on 11 November 2006.

of agricultural domestic product (in 1993 international dollars), which is lower than
the 1981 figure of 0.95 cents. The intensity ratios range from 0.2% or under in the
Gambia, Niger, and Sudan to over 3.00% in Botswana, Mauritius, and South Africa.
In 1995, which is the most recent year for which world statistics are available, the average IR for agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa was slightly higher (0.79%) and
was also higher than the average for the developing countries taken together (0.62%).
West Africa still trails behind East Africa in average IR. Its IR is less than one fifth of the
southern African countries and was lower than the continental averages in 1981, 1995,
and 2000 (Figure 7).
There is no official recommendation on the preferred IR for investments in agricultural
R&D. In the early 1980s, the World Bank established a target of 2% which was often
quoted afterwards. However, some consider a ratio of 1% to be more realistic, but very
few of the Sub-Saharan countries are even able to attain this lower objective.

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 Table 17 compares the IRs for agricultural R&D and other important parameters for
the potential or the performance of national agricultural research services in the region.
The country parameters point to trends that reflect the agropastoral resources and the
agricultural endowment of the groups of countries, but the general situation can be assessed in different ways. Senegal has the highest ratio for the number of researchers per
1 million population in the Sahel countries (66.1), while Côte d’Ivoire ranks first among
all the countries (103).

Source: Adapted from Beintema and Stads, 2005 @www.asti.cgiar.org/pubs-africa.htm.

Figure 7. Intensity ratios for agricultural research in different periods in Africa and in
the world
As for gender, Burkina Faso with 0.5% full-time equivalent female researchers has a long
way to go to catch up with other countries—8% in Côte d’Ivoire, 19% in Mali, and
22% in Nigeria. Expenditures on R&D appear to reflect a long tradition of agricultural
research, as in Senegal (145,374 dollars/researcher). It appears that the target of 1% or
more has only been attained by Senegal (which had surpassed it by 1995) and Mali,
which has recently made noteworthy efforts.
Nigeria still stands out as a separate entity in terms of the macroeconomic aggregates
(more than 2 million dollars/researcher/year) but its IR (0.38%) is below that of Burkina
Faso (0.50%). It should be noted that the number of full-time equivalent researchers
assigned to livestock programmes is invariably lower than the number assigned to other
programmes (crops, natural and other resources, forestry, fishery), with the notable
exception of Mali where 32.3% of full-time equivalent researchers work in livestock
compared to 39.1% in crops.
i.  In the SWA as a whole, the regional institutions have special roles to play, in
particular:
ii.  Lead the process of identifying regional priorities through dialogue and
consultation with the regional agencies.

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 Table 17. Agricultural research staff in some Sahel and West Africa countries
Parameter

Burkina
Faso

Mali

Senegal

Niger

Côte
d’Ivoire

Nigeria

Ratio researchers/1
million population
(1992)

35

93

66.1

29.1

103

36.1

Percentage female
researchers/total

0.5

19

10

7

8

22

Total spending/
researcher (dollars)
(2001)

82,917

91,575

145,374

57,958

n.d.

2,639,174

Research intensity
1999 (%)

0.5

1.03

1.0

0.17

0.63

0.38

Breakdown by type of research:
Crop

32.5

39.1

49.5

66

53.7

42.7

Livestock

8.5

32.3

20.1

16

8.1

23.2

29
(other)

30.7
(other)

14

2.8

0.7

Natural resources or 20.9
other

Source: Adapted and calculated with country data: @www.asti.cgiar.org/pubs-africa.htm.

iii.  Formulate research topics with eco-regional perspectives.
iv.  Harmonise research methods to save resources and increase the chances of success
and broader impact.
v.  Design capacity building approaches that produce high quality personnel in the
region. Regional research based on these new models will contribute to regional
integration.
At the institutional level, there are a number of regional research centres and entities,
including the International Centre for Sub-humid Livestock Research and Development
(CIRDES) based in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; the International Trypanotolerance
Centre (ITC) based in Banjul, the Gambia; and the Sahel Institute (INSAH) based in
Bamako, Mali, which comes under the CILSS. A number of regional livestock research
programmes and projects are either directly led by the national agricultural research
services which host them, or are financed through CORAF/WECARD.
R&D in livestock production in the coming years should be linked to the revitalisation of the regional and international market for animal products in West Africa. The
increased demand for animal products means that advantage must be taken of progress
in the fields of biology, and physical, social, and environmental sciences to overcome the
new constraints on producers, processors, and consumers. Expertise in molecular biology, genomics, biotechnology, and bioinformatics is also essential, not just to better
understand problems and discover previously untapped potential to quickly remove

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 obstacles to improved production, but also to effectively address emerging issues, including the safety of animal products.
There is not enough FTE in most of the NARS, and even in the regional centres, to carry
out on-farm socio-economic research to analyse chains (competitiveness in regional and
international trade) and macro-economic policies. This research is topical and should be
provided to producer and consumer organisations. It should also feed into general and
sectoral policies that can underpin the development of technologies to reinforce food
security and reduce poverty.
3. International initiatives for livestock development
The Sahel and West African countries also benefit from activities to promote the livestock sector undertaken through several international initiatives, including:
•  African Livestock (ALive)
•  Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative (LEAD)
•  Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Facility (PPLFP)
•  World Initiative for a Sustainable Pastoralism
Table 18 presents the objectives, countries where active, modes of action, and coordination/management structures relating to opportunities for cooperation and possible
synergies among actions to develop markets for animal products in West Africa. A brief
overview of the objectives of each initiative follows.
3.1 African Livestock (ALive)
The general objective of ALive, created in 2001 on the initiative of the World Bank
(operational since 2004), is to compile information on all livestock development
programmes to identify their shortcomings, and promote the sector’s role in making a
significant contribution to poverty reduction and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa
(SSA) through growth in trade, market development, and a sustainable institutional
framework. ALive intends to address the challenges in the livestock sector in SSA in
three ways:
i.  Assure the means of livelihood and working capital to boost productivity of
pastoral systems in dryland zones.
ii.  Improve access to markets through competitiveness, the creation of value added,
and the quality of animal products for urban markets in SSA.
iii.  Promote intensive farming for high performance and increased production in
zones with constraints on land and animal feed, to better supply urban markets.
By way of example, in implementing its action plan and investment programme for
the livestock sector (PAPISE), Burkina Faso could ask for methodological and financial
support under the African Partnership for Livestock Development, Poverty Alleviation,

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 and Economic Growth (ALive), in which it participates actively as a founding member.
From ALive it can expect support at the national level to encourage more attention to
be paid to livestock production in poverty reduction and economic growth, and a better
grasp of subregional problems so that policies and arguments in favour of the livestock
sector can be harmonised.
3.2 Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative (LEAD)
LEAD’s general objective is to protect and promote natural resources for the development of livestock farming while working to reduce poverty. The specific objective is to
introduce decision-making tools to maximise the positive impacts and minimise the
negative impacts of livestock-environmental interaction. LEAD works in hotspots in
Africa, which are dryland and semi-arid grazing areas, and in zones where there is conflict between livestock farming and wildlife.
3.3 Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Facility (PPLPF)
The general objective of this initiative is to contribute to poverty reduction through the
development of healthy livestock production, specifically by building capacity to formulate effective livestock policies for poverty alleviation. The PPLPF initiative works in
East and West Africa, South Asia, South-East Asia, and the Andes. Its mandate includes
institutional development and the development of negotiating platforms.
3.4 World Initiative for a Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP)
WISP promotes the empowerment of pastoralists to enable them to sustainably manage
drylands resources. This permits them to demonstrate that their land-use and production systems are an effective and judicious way of using national resources in the world’s
drylands. WISP works to empower pastoralists and their institutions by enabling them
to gather knowledge and influence policies that affect the integrity of their means of
survival and that hamper their capacity to manage their lands and resources sustainably.
WISP offers socio-economic and environmental rationale to pastoralists to improve the
perception of pastoralism as a viable and sustainable system for managing resources. The
initiative also advocates the creation of an environment that is favourable to sustainable
management of natural grazing land, higher incomes for pastoralists, and their empowerment.
With the notable exception of the ALive Programme, whose mandate is limited to SubSaharan Africa, the other initiatives target ecologies around the world that are fragile
for sustainable livestock farming, specifically for the benefit of the poor. The linkage of
a number of projects and R&D activities that would revive and promote the development of animal rearing in West Africa is an action that should be encouraged among

113

 PPLPF

WISP

General objective

Initiative ALIVE
A larger
contribution
by the livestock
sector to poverty
alleviation and
economic growth
in Africa.

Higher income
from livestock
production
in a protected
and improved
environment.

Poverty reduction
among groups of
livestock farmers

Sustainable
management of
drylands resources.

Development
of a platform
of multiple
actors for the
coordination and
implementation
of livestock
initiatives.

Support for
decision-making
on beneficial
interactions
between livestock
farming and the
environment.

To build capacity
to formulate
livestock policies
to favour the
poor by better
managing health
and environmental
risks.

To empower
pastoralists
and pastoralist
institutions by
enabling them to
gather knowledge
and influence
policies.

Africa

Global, with stress East Africa
on hotspots.
West Africa
South Asia
South-East Asia
Andes

A common
regional vision;
building capacity
and management
of knowledge at
the subregional
level.

The physical
and social
effects of animal
production on the
environment.

Focal theme

Geographic
mandate

LEAD

Specific objectives

Table 18. Table of international livestock development initiatives

Support for
national studies
and operational
assistance.

In Africa :
Interaction
between livestock
and wildlife;
leading-edge
measures
to control
drought; and
natural resource
management in
dryland grazing
areas.

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Role of livestock
production
in economic
development
and poverty
alleviation.
Development
of markets and
market access.
Livestock services,
policies, and
actors.
Management of
information and
the dynamics of
change.

Drylands around
the world, with a
pilot zone in West
Africa.
Creation of an
environment that
favours sustainable
management of
natural grazing
land, higher
incomes for
pastoralists,
and their
empowerment.

 Target groups

Initiative

ALIVE

LEAD

PPLPF

WISP

African institutions,
donor governments,
research institutions,
producers’
organisations, NGOs,
and the private sector.
End beneficiaries:
poor producers and
consumers.

Policy makers in
donor agencies
and developing
countries.

FAO, national policy
makers, international
regulatory and policy
agencies.

Pastoralists,
policy
makers.
donor
agencies,
International
regulatory
agencies.

Regional:
Preparation of a
common policy
strategy and vision.
Subregional:
Building capacity for
better management of
knowledge.

Research on
the interaction
between
livestock
and the
environment.
Development of
tools for policy
decisions.

To sensitise the
public to the
contribution of
livestock production
to poverty reduction.

Pilot phase:

Activities

National:
Analytical support and
operational assistance.

To generate
a portfolio of
livestock-related
interventions for the
reduction of poverty Support
through institutional for the
change and policies. emergence
of pastoralist
organisations
(unions,
To develop
federations,
effective systems
etc.).
for information,
interchange, and
analysis, and
decision-support
and monitoring, and
evaluation tools.

To establish effective
mechanisms for
representation
of poor livestock
farmers in the
negotiation of
institutional change
and policies.

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Training for
pastoralists
(cooperative
management,
sustainable
management
of resources,
submissions,
etc.).

 LEAD

PPLPF

General Assembly Virtual LEAD
for all actors
Centre

Steering
Committee

Operating structures

ALIVE

Executive
Committee

FAO for
coordination
of the regional
hubs in the target
geographic zones
to facilitate policy
dialogue with
the countries
concerned.

Program implementation

Initiative

All partners
FAO on behalf
(coordination and of multilateral
cost-effectiveness) donors,
Denmark,
Switzerland,
France, IFAD,
USAID, UK,
World Bank,
ILRI, CIRAD.

Secretariat and
Programme
Coordinator

Partner research
institutions in
different regions

WISP

IIMA, NDDB,
IUCN
EIMVS,
UNDP/GEF
GEMOA, IGAD, CILSS
CONDESAN
National and
local governments

lending and/or aid agencies. Therefore the various international initiatives should work
cooperatively to pool financial and other material and human resources to facilitate and
speed up the search for solutions to the development problems of the livestock sector in
the SWA countries. This includes protection of working capital for the majority of small
herders who still engage in extensive farming, higher productivity, and better access
to markets. This approach would benefit the restructuring efforts by the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGAIR) in the World Bank.
4. Livestock production and strategies to combat poverty and raise the standard of
living (employment income, food security)
The livestock sector has enormous potential for combating poverty and raising the
standard of living of rural and urban populations (also see Chapter 1, paragraph 3).
Despite its potential, the sector has long been marginalised in economic development
programmes, even in countries where it accounts for a significant part of GDP and
export revenues, as in the Sahel countries. Serious studies on the role of animal rearing
in generating income of small farmers conclude unequivocally that it is an important
source of revenue that makes a contribution, however modest, to raising the standard
of living of rural populations (see Box 12). As noted in Chapter 2, the livestock sector

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 distributes revenue to a host of economic agents, contributes to the diet and improves
nutrition, while serving as a driving force for crop farming through its contribution to
animal-drawn cultivation and the use of organic manure.
For small livestock farmers, rearing animals is often their only possibility of building up
resources and diversifying risks, which can prevent poor farmers in marginal zones from
sinking into indigence.
Box 12. Livestock rearing and income in rural Burkina Faso
A review by Somda (2005) highlights the roles of livestock rearing in the fight against poverty in
Burkina Faso. At the macroeconomic level, the value added of livestock is an estimated 14.9%
of national value added. At the microeconomic level, livestock ranks fifth as a source of revenue,
after non-agricultural activities and before cash crops, which rank sixth. In the sector, 49% of
households raise poultry. Goats are raised in 44%, sheep in 28%, and cattle in 25% of households.
Animal production contributes to risk management, through sales that offset between 15% and
30% of fluctuations in income. Other studies conducted in Burkina Faso and in the subregion
(Somda et al., 2004; Somda et al., 2005) suggest that about 30% of family milk production was
for self-consumption, 65% was sold, and 5% was lost or distributed to members of society. Income
from milk sales covers the variable costs of livestock rearing, with some left over for the consumer
requirements of farmers and their families. Dairy production in extensive livestock farming is an
economically and socially profitable activity.

However, livestock farming has been neglected in poverty-reduction strategy documents
(PRSPs) until recently. The PRSD model, although first conceived in the context of the
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC Initiative), is today a centrepiece
in policy discussions in all the countries that receive loans from the World Bank and
the IMF under concessional conditions. The PRSDs were recommended to bolster the
interaction between donors and beneficiary countries with the aim of improving the effectiveness of programmes to combat poverty.
Many poor countries, including those in SWA, rely heavily on livestock rearing although
this is hardly mentioned in the PRSDs. Niger, for example, only mentions the sector in
passing. Some countries, such as Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone, ignore it completely.
Only a few countries, such as Mauritania, come closer to the objective by underlining
the importance of livestock farming in their PRSPs.
Even if they are not explicitly mentioned in the PRSPs, action plans to promote livestock farming exist or are in preparation in the SWA countries, and indicate that the
public authorities have realised the importance of the sector in the fight against poverty.
These actions reflect the momentum toward regional harmonisation of interventions to
promote livestock farming. The PRSPs set out actions to promote animal production
through the use of chains (animal-meat, dairy, poultry, rabbits, hogs, sheep and goats,
greater cane rats, and snails). The main systems identified as having a significant impact

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 on poverty reduction are those that provide work for a large part of the rural population and/or have the potential to create related jobs and downstream linkage with crop
production.
Small Ruminants: For poor families that want to raise animals, goats are the best adapted to the context because of their hardiness, high production, and prolificacy. Needy
families living in pockets of poverty in the countries of the region should be targeted.
Poultry: Estimates of the poultry population are relatively unreliable, given the poor
statistics currently available. Large-scale poultry farming in pastoral environments is in
its infancy. But it is relatively more developed in the agropastoral environment. Families
or women’s cooperatives should preferably be introduced to local poultry farming.
By-products (hides, skins): They have enormous potential that has scarcely been tapped
to raise the income of farmers and other processors of these products (a large part of
this potential is used in the food industry by the coastal countries). These by-products
are underdeveloped (exports of hides and skins are limited to Europe). This potential
alone can provide a livelihood for a significant number of people and raise the income of
livestock farmers, butchers, and other workers in traditional cottage industries. It could
make a large contribution to earning the foreign currency necessary for development.
Development of animal-drawn cultivation and use of organic manure: Animal-drawn
cultivation can contribute to reducing poverty in zones with rain-fed crops or dike farming, due to the enormous potential of animals for traction (mules, horses, oxen, etc.).
Promotion of animal-drawn cultivation would significantly increase the arable area and
therefore boost farm production (food self-sufficiency) and free up time for farmers to
spend on other activities. Official documents indicate that livestock farming is now
recognised as a sector capable of quickly reducing poverty, given that the promotion of
cash crops has reached its limits (lower productivity and world prices).
However, in this dynamic of redefining priorities for governments, little attention has
been paid to complementarity, as promoted by the regional organisations (UEMOA,
ECOWAS, and CEMAC). Documents that refer to development policies in the livestock sector make no mention of the need for targeted and complementary interventions based on natural comparative advantages or the results obtained so far by national
governments. Is this a sign of a hidden desire for national sovereignty with regard to
self-sufficiency in animal products? Or is it because poverty in the different regions is
so great that a wide variety of means is required to eradicate it? In practice, it appears
to be impossible for each country individually to assure that its population can be selfsufficient in animal products.

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 CHAPTER SIX

STRATEGIC VISION OF
THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR
IN THE SAHEL AND WEST
AFRICA: FOOD SECURITY,
POVERTY REDUCTION, AND
CONSTRUCTION OF A REGIONAL
MARKET FOR ANIMAL PRODUCTS

T

he purpose of this study is to contribute to the Community’s agricultural policy
objectives (ECOWAP) in the area of food security and poverty reduction. The
mission’s work relates to one of the main ECOWAP fields which requires a regional approach given the principle of subsidiarity—the development of the livestock-meat and
dairy products systems, the promotion of processing, stocking, and preservation, harmonisation and alignment of the sanitary and phytosanitary standards, and support for
the organisation of actors and the promotion of regional dialogue. The mission is comforted by the existing political will in the regional integration institutions (ECOWAS
and UEMOA) and in the SWA countries to recognise the role of livestock in reinforcing
the macroeconomy and its contribution to poverty alleviation, particularly through the
establishment of ministries of livestock, and acknowledgement of the importance of the
sector in the PRSPs. The strategic orientations proposed here summarise the conclusions
that the mission reached through its consultations in the field in the SWA countries,
documentary research, and interaction with all the resource persons encountered and
the SWAC Secretariat partners.

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 1. Strategic short- and medium-term orientations/recommendations
1.1 Respond to rising West African demand
•  Make inexpensive good-quality meat available for a growing population.For the
two strategic products (meat and milk), total demand will need to be met for
beef, mutton, goat, poultry, and pork in the order of 3.54 million tonnes a year
and of 4.5  million tonnes for dairy products by 2015. Given today’s population growth rate, particularly in cities, and the increasing purchasing power
of consumers in the SWA countries, current demand could rise by about 0.55
million tonnes if growth in animal production does not exceed the current figure of 2.58%. As for dairy products, where it can reasonably be admitted that
there are few chances of greater protection for domestic production in the
large importing countries, demand by 2015 will most likely reach 4.5  million
tonnes for the SWA region, opening up a regional deficit of about 2.5 million
tonnes. The strategy to be adopted focuses on the following priority options.
•  Intensify agropastoral systems to improve their technical and economic performance. This can only be done by improving the quality factors that limit production, such as animal feed. Public authorities will play an important role in this
process of intensification. They will be required to make inputs accessible through
polices to reduce taxes on zoo-technical and veterinary inputs, and livestock
equipment. Efforts in this direction are already under way in UEMOA (Niang
and Vindrinet, 2005). Also, easier access to credit should make for effective support for tax reduction. The use of better-performing dairy breeds should be combined with outreach and training programmes for families and private operators.
•  Diversify animal production to make the most of comparative natural advantages
of the Sahel (meat and milk) and coastal (short-cycle feedlot operations)
countries. The coastal countries can develop socially-acceptable models
and strategies for access to pastoral resources available in Sudan’s northern
savannas to be used as finishing areas for Sahel ruminants. The agroecological
diversity and the zoo-genetic potential of the region underpin the possibilities
of specialisation and the potential of the zone for animal production.
•  Encourage the development of intra-regional trade increasingly based on finished or processed products. The development of a mixed system can be envisaged in which trade
in live animals is combined with modernisation for meat exports by vertically integrating high rates of animal rearing in rural areas, collection and stocking for finishing, and slaughter- and meat-distribution chains in a segmented regional market.

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 •  Improve systems for processing animal products starting by renovating the
existing infrastructure to modernize it and expand processing capacity. In
most of the SWA countries, the abattoirs are obsolete and/or have limited
capacity and do not permit enough animals to be slaughtered even to meet
domestic demand. It is impossible to envisage large meat product exports in
the region under current conditions. Existing potential and experience show
that exports of meat products are feasible and can be profitable. From the
standpoint of regional trade, processing centres can be established in countries
with a comparative industrial advantage. Countries such as Côte d’Ivoire,
Ghana, and Nigeria, could act as centres for processing Sahelian ruminants.
•  Improve internal distribution systems and intra-regional trade. The study recommends that trade policies in the SWA countries be focused on better organisation of animal product markets in order to boost trade flows to match the sales
aspirations of Sahelian producers and make more goods available for export to
the coastal countries. The strategy would also include boosting the competitiveness of products through lower transaction costs and greater tax effectiveness. The
traditional chains still play an important role in product distribution systems.
Adequate means of transport should be promoted. Routes need to be improved
and the number of barriers reduced since they hamper the flow of intra-regional
trade for traditional chains.
1.2 Increase the livestock sector’s contribution to poverty reduction
•  Rural poverty in the region is reduced by 34% in the next 20 years through
stepped-up promotion of the development of animal production
Building on the performance of each country in poverty reduction, the mission
recommends the establishment of a poverty line based on the lowest rate in the
region. Working on the premise that if one country can achieve good performance
in today’s regional context, the other countries ought to be able to draw on the
experience of the best country in reducing rural poverty. Therefore the poverty rate
in Ghana has been taken as the regional target and the vision is formulated as follows:
The vision calls particularly on the Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, the Gambia,
Guinea Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal, etc.) which, despite
their comparative natural advantage in livestock farming, have rural poverty
rates of over 50%. In these countries, the promotion of actions to develop and
profitably exploit the livestock sector should be aimed at poverty reduction.
This vision also extends to some coastal countries given their current levels of rural
poverty. They include Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.
For these countries, actions to promote short-cycle livestock rearing could allow

121

 them to capitalise on their comparative advantages in locally-produced agroindustrial by-products. Ghana, viewed as the target by the other countries, needs
to continue its actions to reduce rural poverty so that it will not fall behind again,
as has often been the case in most of the countries of the region. The challenge for
Ghana is to follow through on its role as leader in rural poverty reduction
•  In food security, consumption of animal products in the region is at least 10 g
of animal protein equivalent/adult/day by 2020. xxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxx
Consumption of animal products in West Africa is the lowest in the world, particularly in rural areas. Nutritionists recommend 20 g of animal protein per person per
day, while consumption in the region only ranges from 5.9 g on average in Nigeria’s
trade region, to 8.5 g in the Senegal basin, and to 7 g in the Côte d’Ivoire basin1. The
strategy to increase the value and dynamism of intra-regional trade assumes a rise
in the consumption of good quality meat for the population’s nutritional balance.
Turning this vision into a reality requires the following actions:
i.  Development of short-cycle feedlot operations so that meat products
can be obtained more quickly and a larger number of urban and rural
consumers can be served.
ii.  Promotion of unconventional livestock to diversify animal products and
increase the overall supply.
iii.  Upgrade local dairy production so that imports can be cut by at least one
half, through the development of infrastructure for collection, cottagetype processing, and conservation of products.
iv.  Development of the production of goats’ milk, a product that is still not
exploited in countries with large herds.
•  To profitably exploit niches (“bicycle” or farmer’s chicken, grass veal or lamb,
greater cane rats) where the SWA region is well endowed. This strategy should
go hand-in-hand with the introduction of procedures to ensure the traceability
of products.
1.3 Fluid trade integrated into the financial system to increase the supply of animal
products in areas with strong demand and improve the technical and economic
performance of actors
•  The mission recommends the following:
i.  Facilitate customs formalities for livestock, particularly by installing one-stop windows for the payment of duties and taxes.
Tacher and Letenneur, «Quelles productions animales en Afrique sub-saharienne dans une génération?»,
CIRAD-EMVT, 2000.
1 

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 ii.  Remove all barriers to free movement in the form of rogue taxes that cause
intra-regional trade to fester. Taking countries that do not guarantee the
free movement of primary products in their territory to court should be a
possibility.
iii.  Harmonise for all the countries (UEMOA and ECOWAS) measures
linked to internal taxes (VAT) levied by governments as part of their national sovereignty, but whose differences in application are criticised by
operators as abusive.
iv.  Work to harmonise health policies through the regional integration bodies
(UEMOA, ECOWAS, CILSS etc.) on several levels and in various fields
such as: (a) regulation of cross-border transhumance; (b) reinforcement of
national veterinary services; (c) networking of national veterinary services
for the quality control of veterinary medicines and the restructuring of the
regional market for those medicines.
•  Stronger policies for the protection of local production for products or countries in
the zone that demonstrate growth potential. The experience of some countries
in this regard shows that reinforcement of community protection mechanisms
with national mechanisms can spur local production. This is true in Côte d’Ivoire
which imposes countervailing duties on poultry products. As a result, local production performs quite well in intra-regional and extra-regional exports (were it
not for the crisis). The duties are paid by importers. It is no longer a matter of recycling financial resources obtained from livestock into livestock, but of an effective financial contribution to the livestock sector if the duties are used properly.
1.4 Support the organisations of agropastoralists, livestock exporters, and
processors
•  The rise of more dynamic trade organisations of (agro) pastoralists at the national
and regional levels can orient the countries’ pastoral development policies and
lead to better-adapted and more flexible regulations. The gain in internal momentum for the organisation and association of pastoralists in certain SWA countries
(AREN in Niger, RECOPA in Burkina Faso, UDOPER in Benin, etc.) is worth
noting. These initiatives for networking and managing cross-border transhumance
by pastoralist organisations should be supported by the regional institutions.
•  The mission also notes the importance of moving toward a different model for
organising operators and actors in the different lines of animal production (livestock-meat, poultry, hides and skins) into associations. The associations should
meet in each country to appoint a kind of national council of livestock sector
operators. If these national councils operate normally because they are representative of the set of actors, large and small, it is not a necessity to establish a
regional body as a pressure group. It is far more important to establish a regional

123

 observatory with agencies in the various countries whose leadership would be
exercised directly by the national federations.
1.5 Protect pastoralism
•  Steps for the protection of pastoralism and for sustainable management of pastoral resources from now to 2020 should be taken in the Sahel countries and
in the receiving countries. In the case of the Sahel, the mission recommends
that governments respect the interests of extensive livestock farming in all land
management plans. Steps should be taken to reduce the range of transhumance
movements (limit the size of the animal population and delay departures) by developing large grazing areas and taking livestock requirements into account in the
management of Sahelian rivers, lakes, and seas. In cross-border receiving areas,
pastoral facilities should be provided (grazing areas, water supply points, tracks
and corridors for transhumance, livestock infrastructure, etc.) for the benefit of
sedentary and nomadic agropastoralists.
•  The mission recommends that an observatory of cross-border transhumance
be established with the objective of producing information for decision makers
through: an in-depth analytical study of cross-border transhumance; monitoring
and evaluation of the application of ECOWAS regulations in the member States,
bilateral agreements, etc. and implementation of regional policies with a view
to formulating recommendations; performance of a follow-up study to identify
directions for cross-border transhumance. The observatory would be based on a
multidisciplinary research mechanism led by AGRHYMET or INSAH, with a
participative approach.
•  Prevent and manage the negative impact of climate crises (protect capital). If
managed poorly, climate contingencies (droughts and floods), attacks on forage
resources by predators, and conflicts, can lead to decapitalisation in the rural
world (mortality, overexploitation of herds with the sale of breeders, etc.).
•  The regional strategy for the prevention and management of food crises established by the CILSS’ AGRHYMET Regional Centre needs to be strengthened
for the Sahel countries. It is based on information and early-warning systems,
mechanisms to coordinate crisis response, and crisis management instruments. A
number of urgent actions are required: (a) establishment of a regional structure
to take charge of crisis management; (b) protection of livestock capital through
the creation of livestock centres to re-establish the herd after a crisis; (c) establishment of reserves (fodder, by-products) that can be mobilised immediately to
address animal feed crises; and (d) close involvement by livestock farmers’ organisations in the mechanisms for crisis prevention and management.

124

 2. Long-term strategic orientations
2.1. Provide the means necessary to conquer the international market for animal
products
•  For the UEMOA and ECOWAS member countries, it is necessary to:
(1)  provide reinforced veterinary control services; (2) provide sufficient
financing for veterinary control structures to make them sustainable;
and (3) strengthen the central roles of UEMOA and ECOWAS in the
coordination of policies for disease prevention and animal health surveillance.
•  Harmonisation and conformity of sanitary and phytosanitary norms and standards
for the use of products and inputs forms part of the regulation of regional and
international trade, given that it defines the conditions for fair competition among
producers while protecting consumers from abusive and dangerous practices.
2.2 Step up the contribution of science and technology to enable livestock
production to respond to future challenges
Agricultural research able to respond to the demand for good-quality and safe meat
products for balanced nutrition by a growing population that is becoming more demanding
•  In 2000, the African continent invested 0.70 cents for every 100 dollars of agricultural domestic product. The mission recommends that a ratio of at last 2% (suggested by the World Bank) be attained by all the SWA
countries. Full-time jobs in livestock programmes should be upgraded.
•  R&D in livestock in the coming years should focus on revitalizing the regional
and international market for animal products in West Africa. The size of increasing demand for animal products makes it necessary to harness progress in the
fields of biology, and physical, social, and environmental sciences to overcome the
new constraints on producers, processors, and consumers. Expertise in molecular
biology, genomics, biotechnology, and bioinformatics is also indispensable, not
just to better understand problems and discover previously untapped potential to
quickly remove obstacles to improved production, but also to effectively address
emerging issues, including the safety of animal products.

125

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143

 ABBREVIATIONS AND

ACRONYMS

ABN
ABP
ACDIC
ADB
AFD
AGRHYMET
AIBP
ALG
ALive

Autorité du bassin du Niger (Niger Basin Authority)
Agricultural by-product
Association citoyenne de défense des intérêts collectifs
African Development Bank
Agence française de développement (French Development
Agency)
Centre régional agro-hydro-météorologie
agro-industrial by-product
Authorité du Liptako-Gourma (Liptako-Gourma Authority)
African Livestock

145

 ANPROBVIS
APESS
AREN
ASF
AU-IBAR
BSE
CAPES
CARDER
CBPP
CCFD
CEBV
CEMAC
CET
CFAF
CFNBV
CIDT
CILSS
CIRDES
CIRES
CMDT
CNC
CNCR
COBASS

Association nationale des professionnels de la viande du Sénégal
(Senegalese National Association of Livestock and Meat
Operators)
Association pour la promotion de l’élevage au Sahel et en Savane
(Association for the Promotion of Livestock in the Sahel and
Savannah)
Association pour la re-dynamisation de l’élevage au Niger
(Association to Revive Herding in Niger)
African swine fever
African Union–Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Centre d’analyse des politiques économiques et sociales
Centre d’action régionale pour le developpement rural (Regional
Action Centre for Rural Development)
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
Catholic Committee against Hunger and for Development
Communauté économique du bétail et de la viande (Economic
Community for Meat and Livestock)
Communauté économique et monétaire de l’ Afrique Centrale.
(Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa)
Common External Tariff (UEMOA)
CFA franc
Confederation of National Cattle and Meat Federations
Compagnie ivoirienne de développement du Textile (Ivorian
Textile Development Company)
Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the
Sahel
Centre international de recherche-développement sur l’élevage en
zone subhumide
Centre ivoirien de recherches économiques et sociales (Ivorian
Centre for Economic and Social Research)
Compagnie malienne de développement des textiles (Malian
Textile Development Company)
Cadre national de concertation
Conseil national de concertation et de coopération des ruraux
(National dialogue and cooperation Rural People Council)
Coopérative de commercialisation du bétail pour
l’approvisionnement de l’abattoir de Sikasso

146

 CORAF
CRUS
DINFEL
DIREL
DPRA
EBID
ECOWAP
ECOWAS
EMCCA
EMVT
FAO
FEBEVIM

FAOSTAT
FERAP
FMD
FU
g
GAA
GDP
GNP
H5N1
IEMVT
IITA
ILRI
INERA
INSAH
IR
IRIN

Conseil ouest et centre africain pour la recherche et le
développement
Comité régional des unions de producteurs du Sahel (Regional
Committee of Sahel Producers’ Unions)
Directoire des femmes en élevage (Board of Women in Livestock)
Direction de l’élevage (Livestock department)
Direction provinciale des ressources animales (Provincial
Direction of Animal Resources)
ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development
Economic Community of West African States Agricultural Policy
Economic Community of West African States
Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa
École de médecine vétérinaire de Toulouse (Toulouse School of
Veterinary Medicine)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Fédération des groupements interprofessionnels de la filière bétail
viande au Mali (Federation of Interprofessional Livestock and
Meat Groups of Mali)
FAO Statistical Database
Projet de fluidification des échanges et rapprochement des
politiques agro-alimentaires
foot-and-mouth disease
fodder unit
gram
German Agro Action
gross domestic product
gross national product
Influenza A virus subtype
Institut d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
International Livestock Research Institute
Institut de l’environnement et de recherches agricoles
(Environmental and Agricultural Research Institute)
Institut du sahel (Sahel Institute)
intensity ratio
Integrated Regional Information Networks

147

 ITC
ITC
l
LEAD
MISTOWA
mm
MPARH
MPE
MRA
NEPAD
NGO
NOVIB
OECD
OIE
OMBVI
ONERA
PACE
PDAP
PAPISE

PATTEC
PAU
PDDAA
PNPDL
PPLPF
PROCORDEL

RECOPA

International Transhumance Certificate (ECOWAS)
International Trypanotolerance Centre
litre
Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative
Network of Regional Market Information Systems and Traders’
Organizations of West Africa
millimeter
Ministère de la Production animale et des Ressources halieutiques
(Ministry of Animal Production and Fisheries Resources)
Ministère de la Pêche et de l’Élevage
Ministère des Ressources animales
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
Nongovernmental organization
Nederlandse organisatie voor international
ontwikkelingssamenwerking
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
World Organisation for Animal Health
Office malien du bétail et de la viande
Office national d’exploitation des ressources animales
Pan-African Programme for the Control of Epizootics
Projet de developpement de l’agriculture Périurbaine (Peri-urban
Agricultural Development Project, Mali)
Plan d’action et programme d’investissement du secteur élevage
(Action Plan and Investment Programme for the Livestock
Farming Sector, Burkina Faso)
Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign
Common Agricultural Policy of the Union (UEMOA)
Detailed Programme for the Development of African Agriculture
(NEPAD)
Programme national pilote de développement laitier (National
Pilot Dairy Development Programme, Burkina Faso)
Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Facility
Programme concerté de recherche-développement sur l’élevage en
Afrique de l’Ouest (Concerted Action Programme on Livestock
Research Development in West Africa)
Réseau de communication sur le pastoralisme (Pastoralism
Communication Network, Burkina Faso)

148

 R&D
ROESAO
ROPPA

Research and Development
Réseau des opérateurs économiques du secteur agroalimentaire
Réseau des organisations paysannes et de producteurs de l’Afrique
de l’Ouest (Network of Farmers’ and Agricultural Producers’
Organisations of West Africa)
RVF
Rift Valley Fever
SAILD
Services d’appui aux initiatives locales de développement
SOBEVI
Société du bétail et de la viande
SODECOTON Société de développement du coton du Cameroun (Cotton
Development Corporation, Cameroon)
SODEPRA
Société de développement des productions animales (Animal
Production Development Company, Côte d’Ivoire)
SOFITEX
Société des fibres et textiles du Burkina (Burkina Textile and Fibre
Company)
SONERAN
Société nationale d’exploitation des ressources animales du Niger
(Niger Company for the Exploitation of Animal Resources)
SPS
sanitary and phytosanitary standards
SWA
Sahel and West Africa (region)
SWAC
Sahel and West Africa Club
t
tonne
TBT
technical barriers to trade
TLU
tropical livestock unit
UDEAC
Union douanière et économique de l’Afrique Centrale
UDOPER
Union départementale des organisations professionnelles des
éleveurs de ruminants (Departmental Union of Professional
Ruminant Rearers’ Organisations, Benin)
UEMOA
West African Economic and Monetary Union
UICN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
UNABOC
Union nationale des bouchers et charcutiers (National Union of
Beef and Pork Butchers)
UNACEB
Union nationale des commerçants et exportateurs de bétail
UNIDO
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
USD
United States Dollar
VSF
Vétérinaires Sans Frontières
WAPO
W, Arly, Pendjari and Oti-Mandouri protected areas
WAPOK
«W»-Arli-Pendjari-Oti-Mandouri-Keran

149

 WAPPP
WECARD
WISP
WTO

West African Pilot Pastoral Programme (World Bank)
West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and
Development
World Initiative for a Sustainable Pastoralism
World Trade Organization

150

 Livestock rearing in West Africa plays a key role in the economies of West African countries
providing between 8 and 15% of overall GDP, 44% of agricultural GDP and nearly 50% if the
work force and organic fertilizer are also included. Livestock rearing accounts for 34% of rural
household revenues and for the most part is a key factor in food and nutritional security and
livelihoods of the poor rural populations.
With 60 million heads of cattle, 160 small ruminants and 400 million poultry, the Sahel and
West Africa have enormous livestock rearing potential. However, this potential is currently
under-exploited and the region continues to be too dependant on extra-African imports in
order to satisfy demand of certain animal products such as milk and meat. This situation is
paradoxical with Sahel countries having great potential with regard ruminants as well as that
of coastal countries for pork and poultry production. Why are such comparative advantages and
complementarities between zones not sufficiently optimised in order to satisfy the increasing demand
for animal products in the region?
Political and economic solutions must also be sought in addition to technical responses to
improve productivity and meet the required health and quality standards. Livestock rearing
can better contribute to food security and poverty reduction through the stimulation and
modernisation of the marketing system, the strengthening of the agro-food processing industry,
and supporting the professional training of actors and the promotion of agricultural and trade
policies encouraging domestic production.
This book is a result of a joint ECOWAS – SWAC/OECD initiative, in partnership with the
CILSS, ROPPA and UEMOA. It analyses the potential of livestock rearing for the region with
a view towards fostering decision-making so as to strengthen the regional economy and West
African populations’ livelihoods.

Transhumant herd moving from Niger to Benin, on the edge of the W Park in Burkina Faso, May 2001. (Source: Toutain et al., 2001