mm fm? Mm mg; mam aww?; %mm5? mm {Wm REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMISSION FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FACTS CONCERNING BACTERIAL WARFARE IN KOREA AND CHINA Preamble From the beginning of 1952, phenomena of a very unusual character occurring in the territories of Korea and China led .to allegations by the peoples and governments of those countries that they had become the objective of bacteriological warfare. Since the peoples of the world had long manifested their disapproval, and indeed detestation, of such methods of war, the gravity of the situation was well understood. This was the reason for the formation of an International Scientific Commission which should examine the evidence in the field. The members of the Commission, who, conscious of their responsibility, made every effort to free themselves from preconceived ideas, have carried out their investigations according to the strictest scientific principles known to them. The details of this work, and the conclusions tefore it. The Commission wishes to thank all these colleagues, for whose scientific attainments and probity it conceived a deep respect. As regards the conduct of the meetings of the Commission, the Chairmanship rotated in an approximately consecutive manner among the members. M. Malterre was elected Scientific Secretary. The first meeting of the Commission took place in Peking on the 23rd. June, and a brief ehronological summary of all the meetings held will be found in App. A. Of the general methods of the Commission it may be said that it worked in close contact with the Ministers and ministerial secretariats 'of the central and regional Ministries of Health at Peking, Shenyang (Mukden), and Pyongyang. It naturally had the help of all those scientists whose fields of work were relevant to the problem before it. Besides those already mentioned, the Commission wishes to thank Dr. WANG Pin and Dr. P AI Hsi-Ch'ing, Minister and Vice-Minister of Health respectively for the North-Eastern Region of China (Manchuria), who spared no pains to lay before the Commission all information that it was in their power to. give. Its thanks are similarly due to Dr. RI Ping-Nam and Dr. LU Tche,n-Han, Minister and Vice-Minister of Health respectively in (North) Korea, but these could not be offered without an expression of admiration for the cool manner in which these distinguished medical officials conducted all their business while suffering the constant inconveniences and dangers of heavy air bombardments. f,' In this connection, too, the Members of the Commission wish to voice their profound admiration for the devoted service to their country of all the Korean bacteriologists and other specialists whom they had the honour to meet duJing their visit. The Commission renders homage to three Qf the best Korean bacteriologists who have perished while carrying out their professional duties. It also wishes to place on record its admiration of the selfless service of the eminent Chinese specialists seconded to the Korean Epidemic Prevention Corps, such as Dr. CH'EN Wen-Kuei, Dr, WEI Hsi, and Dr. HO Ch'i, who thought fit to leave the quiet amenities · - 5- of their laboratories in far-away parts of China to share all the hardships and dangers of their Korean colleagues in the front line of anti-bacterial defence. The meetings of the Commission varied in character. Sometimes the members discussed scientific for many hours in closed session, on other occasions Chinese scientific experts were present, and again at other times large rooms were required for the hearing of evidence of numerous eye-witnesses who came from all walks of life. Among the witnesses there figured a captured intelligence agent (App. JJ) and four airmen (App. 00). From time to time specific sub-committees of two or three members were delegated to look into particular problems in conjunction with Chinese colleagues, and then to report back to the Commission. From time to time whole days were spent in laboratories, at Peking, Shenyang, and Pyongyang, where the Chinese and Korean scientists demonstrated in great detail the results of their investigations. As occasion demand.ed, too, members of the Commission made use of the very good library facilities available at Peking and Shenyang. The material on the cases prepared by the Chinese and Korean specialists forms the bulk of the Appendices to the. present Report. They will be found briefly described in the paragraphs which follow. It should be understood that they are not isolated cases, but represent a sampling from a larger mass of material. If the bulk of what is here presented is Chinese rather than Korean, this is because the Koreans were working under far more difficult conditions, a.nd because the Commission was in Korea for a shorter time, and indeed at a particularly difficult moment. At the same time the C01hmission felt that it must familiarise itself with the original scientific data which had formed the basis for the documentation issued from Prague during the earlier part of the year. It was necessary that these documents should be validated or otherwise, if possible, and it proved that clarifications were indeed necessary; misunderstandings, tentative identifications afterwards withdrawn, sheer :mistakes of translation, etc. being found. After a great deal of work along these lines, the results of which may be seen in many of the Appendices, the general conclusion of the was, in fact, to confirm the main statements of the Reports of ear investigating groups which had been disseminated· through Prague. The main travels undertaken by the Commission were as follows. Having uriravelled the main threads of the situation in Peking from the 23rd. June to the 9th. July, it proceeded to Shenyang (Mukden), where it worked from the 12th. to the 25th. Accompanied by the members of the Reception Committee, it then passed across the Yalu River into North - 6- Korea and held meetings in Pyongyang (subject to interruptions by airraids) from July 28th. to 31st. Then returning north, the Commission spent two days at a rendezvous with the captured airmen before re-crossing the frontier into Northeast China on Aug. 6th. It should be recorded that the technical organisation of this expedition was faultless. An earlier one, which took a shorter time, had been undertaken on the 15th. and 16th. July, when the Commission went by special plane, train, and jeep, via Chichihar and Laha to visit the localities in the KanNan district which had been the scene of the dissemination of plagueiufected rodents (see App. M). These places are located in Heilungchiang province on the border of Inner Mongolia. Other official journeys were of a minor character. It is important to say something regarding the difficulties of language necessarily attendant upon any enterprise such as that of the present Commission. Within the Commission itself seven languages were represented, but it was found that French was the one spoken and understood by the majority of the members, and this therefore became the working language. Russian, English, and Italian, when spoken, were at once tram:llated into French. On the Chinese side, the fact that so many Chinese scientists speak excellent English or French was of great value to the work, but during meetings, for protocol reasons, they spoke in Chinese, interpreted immediately, and often independently, into French, Russian, and English. This was effected by Dr. YANG Shih-Ta and Mr. TING ChiCh'ien for French, Dr. CH'EN Shu for Russian, and Dr. YEN Jen-Ying for English. At a later stage of the work, Dr. WU Huan-Hsing rendered valuable literary and linguistic assistance. The Commission had further the advantage that one of its European members spoke and understood the Chinese language, which was of particular value during the interviewing of witnesses, and could also read and write Chinese, which facilitated the consultation of literature and the examination of documents. Another member was able to maintain direct English-Russian linguistic contact. In Korea conditions were even more complicated, for very few Chinese scientists understand Korean, but the Commission had there the services of a remarkable linguist, Dr. OK In Sup, who interpreted perfectly from Korean into French, English or Chinese at will. Other KoreanChinese interpreters were also available. A parallel check was obtained · by translation into one of the European languages through Chinese, and also simultaneously from Korean to Russian dir.ect. Since frequent comparison of notes took place, it will be seen that there was not much likelihood of any mistake on points of substance. Lastly, the proceedings at some of the meetings were recorded by magnetophone for subsequent reference. For all these reasons, the Commission . . considers itself protected against - 7- any criticisms that it did not succeed in apprehending the full mind of Chinese and Korean specialists and witnesses. The names of the members of the Commission signed below bear appropriate indications as to the qualifications and fields of competence of the signatories. Their diverse experiences were pooled in laborious and extended discussions. Each contributed equally in all matters where a knowledge and understanding of the scientific method as such sufficed, and when the problem was remote from their own fields, the critical expositions of the better qualified members carried the conviction of the others. The present Report is thus a truly collective work. Besides those things which the members of the Commission themselves saw and heard, and for which therefore they take the responsibility of witnesses, the Commission depended on Korean and Chlnese documentation. Although there was no reason to doubt the competence and probity of the medical men and other scientists in China and Korea, the Commission left no precaution untaken. It never wearied in analysing the cases, and took the greatest pains to enter into direct contact with the original facts whenever this was at all possible. Its members 'held themselves · continually on guard against political, ethical or emotional influences, and its work was done in an atmosphere of calm and scientific objectivity. Its final convictions naturally rested. to some upon the reliability of the hundreds of witnesses interviewed and interrogated. Their testimonies ·were too simple, too concordant, and too independent, to be subject to doubt. ' I In the descriptions which 1vill be found in the body of Report it was obviously impossible to incorporate in every sentence· the Korean or Chinese authority upon which the statement is based. Personal tests, examinations, interrogations, etc., carried out by the members of the Commission, have g-enerally been mentioned in the text. In all cases, full details will be found in the relevant documents and commentaries indicated by the references to the Appendices. A final Appendix (App. TT) gives biographical details of all the Chinese and Korean scientists whose ·names are mentioned in the documents published.. 8 Documentation At the time when the members of the Commission :first assembled, the only documents available to them were those which had been released by the Korean and Chinese Governments and disseminated in the western world from th(:l secretariat of the World Peace Council at Prague or through the various Chinese official news agencies in the various countries. The First Report of the Korean' Medical Service (SIA/1) * dealt only with events of Jan. and Feb. 1952. The material contained in it was worked over again in the International Democratic Lawyers' Commission (Korea) Report (SIA/4), which added data on the appearance of plague cases in Korea, and of course the results of examination of eye-witnesses by international personnel. The two most detailed reports were those of the Chinese Commission for Investigating the American Crime of Germ Warfare which carried out investigations both in Korea and in NE China (Manchuria) during the month of March. The main one of these was that of the sub-commission in Korea printed in Peking in April, given in full in NCNA/85 and abridged in SIA/13. The report of the sub-commission, in Northeast China (Manchuria) was similarly printed in Peking and abridged in SIA/3. This report is that which contained the fullest entomological information. Nothing of strictly scientific significance was added by the International Democratic Lawyers' version of the same material, again printed in Peking, and fully reproduced in SIA/8. A special report by certain European scientists consulted by the Secretariat of the World Peace Council confirmed the entomological identifications by photographs, and appeared as SIA/2; it covered both Korean and NE Chinese data. A further special report by four Chinese scientists, again based on the same material, appeared as SIA/12. Those who wish to examine the earlier reports would be well advised to study them in the above order. By the time that the members of the Lawyers' Commission returned to Europe (mid* The following document identifications will be used: Prague series, SIA/ ; New Cbina News Agency, NCNA/ ; Documents furnished to the International Scientific·· Commission, in China, ISCC/ ; in Kore'a, ISCK/ . · - 9- April), a considerable amount of new duplicated and typescript material was ready for them to take with them, especially a series of ten important, but at that time only partially analysed, incidents, which, as they carried numbers 00001 to 00010, are termed the "Four-Zero Series". The remaining material, while by no means lacking in scie.ntific significance, was predominantly legal and personal. Eye-witness depositions, some of which concerned cases also described elsewhere (e.g. 00005), were collected in SIA/6 and 10. Statements of various American prisoners of war and agents were collected in SIA/7, while many papers were devoted to the elaborate statements of captured American pilots (SIA/14, 15, 16, 17, 18), and these themselves were photolithographically reproduced in a document publishe<:l by the World Peace Council probably in May. A collection of relevant press excerpts on bacteriological warfare was brought together in SIA/5. 10 The Relevance of Japanese Bacterial Warfare in World War II No investigation of allegations of bacterial warfare in East Asia could fail to take cognisance of the fact that it was undoubtedly employed by the ,Japanese against China during the second world war. The Commission was relatively well informed on this subject since one of its members had been the chief expert at the Khabarovsk trial, and another had been one of the very few western scientists in an official position in China during the course of the events themselves. In 1944 it had been part of his duty to report to his own government that although he had begun with an attitude of great scepticism, the material collected by the · Chinese Surgeon-General's Office seemed to show clearly that the Japanese were, and had been, disseminating plague-infected fleas in several districts. 'rhey were thus able to bring about a considerable number of cases of bubonic plague in areas where it was normally not endemic, but where conditions for its spread were fairly favourable. As is generally known, under normal circumstances, bubonic plague is endemic only in certain sharply circumscribed areas (e.g. Fukien province) out of which it does not spread. From the archives of the Chinese Ministry of Health one of the original reports dealing with the artificial induction of plague at in Hunan province by the Japanese in 1941 was laid before the Commission (App. K ISCC/1). This document is still today of considerable value and indeed historical interest. Official Chinese records give the number of hsien cities which were attacked in this way by the Japanese as eleven, 4. in Chekiang, 2 each in Hopei and Honan, and 1 each in Shansi, Hunan and Shantung. The total number of victims of artificially disseminated plague is now assessed by the Chinese as approximately 700 between 1940 and 1944. The document reproduced below has, moreover, historical intere13t. It is known that the Chinese Surgeon-General at the time distributed ten copies among the Embassies in Chungking, and it may well be more than a coi:acidence that according to the well-known Merck Report of Jan. 1946, large-scale work in America on the methods of bacteriological warfare began in the very same year, 1941. The Commission was happ;i to have the opportunity, during its work in Korea, of meeting the distingqished - 11 - plague specialist who wrote the original memorandum from Changte, and of hearing his views on the failure of the Kuomintang Government to follow up the evidence which was already in their hands by t.he end of the second world war (App. L). As is generally known, his conclusions were subsequently fully confirmed by the admissions of the accused at the Khabarovsk trial. By the publication of the "Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons" (Moscow, 1950), a wealth of information about the practical work carried out under the direction of the Japanese bacteriologjst Ishii Shiro (who was unfortunately not himself in the dock) was made available to the world. It was established beyond doubt that techniques had been employed for the mass-production of bacteria such as those Gf cholera, typhoid and plague, literally ·by hundreds of kilograms of the wet paste at a time .. Techniques, quite simple in character, had also been used for the breeding of large numbers of rats and very large numbers of :fleas, though in practice only the latter seem to have been disseminated. Moreover, the various witnesses were ready to give chapter and verse as to the dates upon .which they had proceeded to various Japanese bases in China to superintend the methods of dissemination used. Abundant details were also forthcoming about the special secret detachments (such as the notorious "731") and their laboratories, pilot plants, and prisons in which Chinese and Russian patriots were made use of with perfect sangfroid as experimental animals. In the course of its work, as will be mentioned below (p. 42) the Commission had the opportunity of examining some of the few remaining specimens of the earthenware "bombs" which were manufactured for Ishii in a special at Harbin. It would seem that the Japanese militarists never abandoned their visions of world-conquest by the aid of biological weapons in general and the dissemination of insect weapons in particular. Before they departed from Dairen they systematically tore out from all volumes of journals in university and departmental libraries articles which had any connection with bacterial warfare. It should not be forgotten that before the allegations of bacterial warfare in Korea and NE ·China (Manchuria) · began to be made in the early months of 1952, newspaper items had· reported two successive visits of Ishii Shiro to South Korea, and he was there again in Match. Whether the occupation authorities in Japan had fostered his activities, and whether the American Far Eastern Command was engaged in making use of methods essentially Japanese, were ques.. tions which could hardly have been absent from the minds of members of the Commission. - 12 - Incident Analysis Adopted by the Commission On account of its very nature, the use of biological -vveapons is an act exceptionally difficult to prove. Perfect proof might require, for example, that an airplane be forced down with its biological cargo intact and its crew prepared to admit their proceedings forthwith. Obviously this would be a very unlikely occurrence for many reasons. It is therefore necessary to envisage a manner of grouping events into a coherent pattern so that they can throw light upon each other and perhaps build up a circumstantial case. A first necessity, therefore, for the thought and work of the Commission was some kind of scheme which could serve as a framework for the facts which it would have to study in each particular investigation. The simplest scheme, in which, under ideal conditions, every component would be present and positive, was the following:bacteriological plane-- seen t o - container- mass of exam1natioll + I throw I animals or objects -other ,-I out I cases of disease points seen heard something ' or epidemic seen found l follov.·ing course brought . seasonal zoological or I plotted down anomaly ge-ographical l I I anomaly seasonal anomaly -1--1 anomaly of type other cargo crew other anomalies anomalies intact admit --.1--,1,--l' I I I -- Naturally this complete pattern will rarely or never be encountered. There are, nevertheless, cases which come near enough to it to.be decisive. In this way it is possible to reconstruct the activities of those who have utilised such methods, and to elucidate the effects which have been produced by them. The Commission paid particular attention to those assemblies of facts which attained most nearly the demonstrative character of the ideal pattern. When the general complex of facts resulting from the confrontation of numerous patterns is examined, the whole situation becomes clear, (cf. p. 55 below). 13 Entomological Data of the Prague One of the first tasks which presented itself to the Commission when it began its work in Peking was the systematic examination of the scientific material on which the Prague documents had been based, and one of the first aspects of this work was the tabulation of the entomological evidence in conjunction with the Chinese scientists of Academia Sinica and other learned bodies who had been responsible for the identifications. The opinion of the Commission was soon formed that there •could be no doubts whatever as to their high competence (App. B). They are, moreover, provided with very extensive library facilities including a rapid loan system between institutes, and the .various collections of insects are maintained in excellent order. The m:,ly real difficulty, which remained insuperab:e, was the fact that even after the work of half a' century, the systematic classification of many groups of insects in the Chinese subcontinent remains imperfectly ·known. It was therefore impossible to assert that all new introductions could be definitely recognised as such; and the Commission had to be content with the fact that in certain cases certain insect species had at least never before been recorded from areas in which they now appeared in great numbers. The species identified from specimens sent to the Chinese experts as representatives of unusual multitudes of insects found after the passage of American planes, are given in Table (A;PP· H). They include nine species of Diptera (six species of flies and three of mosquitoes and midges), one of Plecoptera, one of one of Siphonaptera, and three of Orthoptera, as well as two spiders (Arachnida). In all,. eighteen species ·including a beetle to be mentioned below. One of the original· impressions which the documentation (e.g. :SIA/4) had given in Europe was that certain arthropods had been found which belonged, not only to species, but to genera, never known before in the · relevant regions of continental Asia. . This was not confirmed. 'Nevertheless, in three cases there were phenomena clearly anomalous in this respect. The species of Hylemyia (anthomyiid fly) identified. repeatedly from numerous swarms collected, proved definitely not the same as any one of the four species common in Northeast China, nor with, :any one of the fifteen species previously recorded from all parts of China. ,. Docmnents published in Prague, "Palais SIA." 14.- The genus, however, has some 600 species, counting all parts of the world, and the true faunal areas of all of them are not yet perfectly known (App. H). Similarly,.the found (Helomyza modesta Meigen) were certainly not identical with the single species of this genus previously recorded from China (App. H). Exactly the same observation applies to the midge Orthocladius. These zoological and geographical discrepancies must be allotted due weight in the consideration of all the evidence. In any case, the anomalies proved to be much more extraordinary on the oecological than on the zoological-geographical side. While the various species .might or might not be strange to the region, it was certainly exceedingly strange to find them appearing in very large populations during the first three months of the year, when the snow is still on the ground in North and Northeast China and in Korea. The Commission found no difficulty in substantiating that these masses had been seen (and destroyed as quickly as possible) by very many ordinary men and women in all walks of life. Of the eighteen species so far referred to, no less than twelve exhibited marked seasonal anomalies of appearance. In other words they appeared in mass with a precocity varying from 6-14 weeks earlier than the time of year at which, according to the personal experieRce and published works· of competent entomologists, they ought normally to be expected to appear. The average shift was one of 9 weeks; more than two months (App. H). Here several points of interest arise. The collection of many tens of thousands of flies of approximately the same size as can easily be imagined, but the size of the spring-tail (lsotoma negishina Borner) is so small (only 2 mm. in length) that immense numbers in high density must have been present to have attracted any attention at all (App. H). · Wherever possible, concrete figures for assessed densities have been given in a Table (App. G). An observation of importance made by one of the Chinese entomologists in SIA/12 was tha-t certain contained masses of Hylemyia appearing when the temperature was .a high proportion of individuals ready to lay eggs, thus still further deepening the mystery of-their origin. Similarly striking was the case of the field-cricket Gryllus testaceus, the life-history of which happened to have been the subject of an elaborate paper written ,in Peking in 1951 (App. G). Thousands of adults of this species appeared in March near K'uan-Tien in Liaotung province, NE China (Manchuria), adjoining Korea, i.e. at a time when even in Peking, which has a warmer temperature than NE China, there should be present no individuals except those in the egg stage. Now it may be granted that isolated and sporadic instances of the .appearance of swarms of various kinds of insects in winter are to be found - 15 -- in entomological literature. But it is hardly conceivable that such phenomena could occur for so many species at once if its causes were purely natural. The Commission 1ascertained th..l.t the meteorological conditions pertaining in the past winter in NE China (Manchuria) and Korea were strictly normal (App. H). It was therefore not at all surprising that the Chinese and the Koreans associated the unusual phenomena with the passage of American planes which oh many occasions were seen by eye-witnesses to throw down non-explosive objects whence insects emerged. The Commission interviewed such eye-witnesses (App. W, Y & BB), and assured itself of their good faith and rational credibility. As we shall see (p. 37 below) containers of types both banal and highly peculiar were found and studied. Unfortunately in some of the documentation which reached Europe (such as the Four-Zero Series) the essential statements of the passage of the planes beforehand were not. included, but the Commission was able to clear up this important point (App. G). Another argument would admit that there had indeed been a shift of the times of appearance of a considerable number of species of insects, bu:t would urge that even if this could not have been due to abnormal meteorological conditions, some other natural factor had been at work, shifting systematically all the apparitions backwards by the same amount. A test of this was fortunately very easy. It was only necessary to arrange the various species in the order of their normal appearance, and then to plot on the same graph the order of their abnormal appearance. If a uniformly-acting natural factor had been at work, the two curves or lines should run parallel, but a glance at Fig. 1. (App. H) is sufficient to show that they do not. The order of abnormal appearances is so haphazard as to indicate the intervention of an artificial factor. One argument which .had a. certain success in various countries before the Commission began its work was that napalm bombing had notoriously been going on, and that this might well have led to intense and localised heating of the earth. Such an effect might have disorganised the normal life-cycles of various kinds of insects so as to lead to their appearance several weeks or even months before their proper time. The Commission therefore noted with interest the fact that many dozens of accounts of masses of insects including 33 principal incidents (some of which are given in Table, (App. G) originated from places in NE China, a region in which there has, of course, been no napalm bombing. All the foregoing remarks apply to the species of insects mentioned in the SIA and parallel documents. A few species mentioned there by common names, such as "ants" and. "horse-flies", could not .be confirmed ·by the Chinese entomologists, and there may well have been some con- 16 - fusion due to terms used by non-scientific eye-witnesses. At a later stage the Commission examined new evidence concerning a coleopteran (beetle), Ptinus, (App. AA) ; this will be dealt with it in its place. Both in this and other. cases of infected insects, the material assembled in the Appendices is available for the study of the connections between the vectors and the outbreaks of disease. Relevant also here is the question of the measures taken in China and Korea to control insect populations (see App. PP), and that of the occurrence of pathogens on random samples of normal insects (App. D & E) . .....,. 17 - Medical Notes on the Insects Disseminated The reader may encounter in the following paragraphs certain insects snd spiders the names of which are likely to be unfamiliar to non-specialists. The follovving lines are intended to supply brief descriptions of them, and they are arranged in correspondence with the order adopted in Appendix. The insect most frequently found to be disseminated is the anthomyiid fly, Hylemyia sp. Flies of this genus are particularly common in North America, ·and there are in all more than 500 species, some of which frequent human habitations. Since they breed in human excrement they are naturally important as mechanical vectors of intestinal diseases. Many of the species pass the winter uncterground in the pupal stage, and in general their appearance in large numbers does not occur earlier than the month of May. Under natural conditions the·se flies can be infected by various bactei·ia pathogenic. to plants (cf. p. 23 below). Helomyza sp. (family Helomyzidae), the sun-fly, is insect which frequents dungheaps. There are several dozen rpecies most of which live on the excrement of man, bats, small mammals and birds; not only in the larval but also in the adult stages. Some species of these flies frequent human habitations, where they soil food and become the mechanical vectors of any human disease due to pathogenic bacteria. The house-flies, Musca domestica and its southern form Musca 'l.'icina., live invariably with man, and are well recognised as carriers of the agents of his diseases. More than sixty different species. of pathogenic bacteria have been found on them. The large bouse-flies, or stable-flies, Muscina stabulans, are· also recognised as insects associated with man, and mechanical vectors of human diseases. All tbe above belong to the Diptera. The Pkcoptera have been represented by N emoura sp., one of the stone-flies. These multiply in streams and running water, their larvae feeding on the micro-organisms in the water. The adults do not like to stray far from this environment of their growth. Contact with man. can occur through water .and plants. The Collembola, primitive wingless insects, have been represented by lsotom,a sp. These develop in. decomposing plant material and damp soils - 18 - rich in humus, and in the roots of vegetables. Some species develop on the surface of standing water. In natural conditions, it has been proved that P'ttlex irritans, the flea parasitic on man, is capable of causing serious outbreaks of plague, (Blanc and Balthazar). It will later ];:>e seen that this vector has been utilised in bacteTio warfare. The beetle Ptinus fur (Coleoptera) belongs to a genus comprising 80me 35 to 40 species most of which have the same habits, and some of which live in the neighbourhood of man. The species in question is most frequently found in human habitations, storehouses, stables, lofts anrl mills, libraries, and factories. It lives on husked grain, cereals, cottonseeds, stale bread or biscuits, flour, stra'\>v, furs, carpets, leather, etc. Among these things it lays its eggs. The process of metamorphosis lasts from 3 to 4 months, so that at least three generations can be produced in one year. The adult beetles can live for five years. They are to be met with in Europe, Asia, and North America, so that the species is widespread. Virulent anthrax bacilli have been isolated from Ptimts in the natural. state (App. AA & BB). Among the spiders, the representatives are Lycosa sp. and Tarentula sp. of the family Lycosidae. They are carnivorous, feeding on mosquitoes, flies, ants, and other species among which there may be some which are vectors of human diseases. When such a spider attacks a man, the pathological phenomena seen are provoked not only by the venom of the bite, but also by the fact that pathogenic bacteria may be injeeted at th.e same time. The excreta of these spiders may also contain pathogenic bacteria. Their length of life is considerable, attaining several years. The adults are capable of living for two years without food, and several months without water; they can also \VIthstand light frosts. In the scientific literature there are descriptions of methods for the · artificial production of insects and arachnids on a large scale.. The most complete .information on this subject will be found in a collective work prepared by American entomologists o.nd entitled "Culture Methods for Invertebrate Animals" (New York, 1937). As can be seen from the above commentary, some of the insects disseminated are known vectors of diseases, while others do not figure in the text-books as having anything to do with such transmissions. Thus the flies Hylemyia and Iielomyza frequent human habitations from time to time, while other insects, such as the Collembolan Isotoma sp., have only remote contacts with man. It would tl.lerefore seem unlikely at first sight that such arthropods could· have any importance in the transmission of human diseases. However, one must take into consideration not only the - 19 - great latitude of the so-called specificity of vectors, but also certain aspects of the vector-host relationship not yet clarified. Thus the connection of man with the fowl mite Dermanyssus gallinae is possible only in peculiar and narrowly-defined conditions. Before 1944 nothing was known of the important part played by this ecto.:parasite in the transmission and conservatiou of the virus of encephalitis. Before then it would have seemed absurd if anyone had made use of Dermanyssus to provoke artificially an epidemic of encephalitis. It can not be accepted as a general rule that those species which are in intimate contact with man are necessarily more effective disease vectors than wild species. Thus among many examples one may take that of the mosquitoes Aedes scapularis and Haemagogus spegazzinii. Under laboratory conditions these species transmit yellow fever. Now the first. of these is very domestic and frequents human habitations located in forest regions, while the second one never enters them. Yet the human commensal has no important role in the t':·ansmission of yellow fever, while the wild species is well known as a vector. As for the case of Isotoma, for example, various hypotheses may be formed, so long as one does not lose sight of the fact that they are only speculations about experiments of whkh we know nothing. For example: a) lsotoma infection of lower mammal mites, etc.) ill'&--+ infection of man. b) Isotoma ill'&--+ ecto-parasites (fleas, of food or c) lsotoma, multiplication of the pathogen in, genital disease infection of lower mammal infection of man. d) lsotoma infection of man. lsotoma, conecto-parasites infection of plants. Many other hypotheses would also be plausible. The same kind of suppositions apply also to the stonefly, N but here there are probably yet other possibilities, hard to state precisely at present. There is no difficulty in understanding the role of the semidomestic flies as vectors, especially when artificial laboratory conditions permit an augmentation of the percentage of infection, and an increased virulence of the pathogenic agent. One further important point is worth emphasising. A single species can be semi-wild in one region and domesticated in another. As an example, one may cite the Anopheline mosquitoes of the genus Kerteszia which have no domestic habits north of the 24th degree of iatitlide in South America, and therefore play no part in the transmission of malaria. 20 But of that line, on the contrary, they become very domestic, and consequently attain importance in the transmission of the disease. Lastly, it is well known that prolonged researches were necessary before it became possible to establish definitely the role of arthropods as vectors in parasitic and bacterial diseases, such as the anopheline mosquitoes for malaria, fleas for plague, lice and ticks for Rickettsias, and so on. The part which arthropods play in the transmission of disease agents is something which requires continued study. Little knc•wn vectors may well have been employed in the hope that the methods of control of these unusual species of insects had not been worked out. Thus with regard to the methods of bacteriological warfare it can be seen that the artificial establishment of new biological inter-relations is quite possible, and though the researches required to elucidate them may be arduous, they are not likely to be unsuccessful. - 21 - Phytopathological Data Several references were made in the earlier literature to the dropping of packets of plant material from American airplanes. They were usually seen by the eye-witnesses to burst at about 1000 ft. and scatter the leaves or other parts of plants over a wide area. Incidents of this kind occurred at Chong-Ju in Korea on 20th March (NCNA/85, p.9; SIA/13, p.4) and at more than ten other localities in Northeast China and North Korea. In one case the descent of the material was seen personally by a British war correspondent (SIA/6, p.2). Members of the Commission were able to discuss the botanical and mycological identi:fications with Chinese phytopathologists and botanists of international repute (App. Ja). It was established that the stalks and pods of soya-beans were infected with purple spot fungus, Cercospora sojini Hara, (syn. Cercosporina lcikuchii Matsumoto and Tomoyasu). This fungus is a plant pathogen which has been reported- from Korea and China, and which could cause serious damage and loss to soya-bean crops. As in the other cases here discussed, the pathogenic organisms were found inside the tissues of the plant material, showing that it was thoroughly and not merely superficially infected. Among the fragments of leaves some were infected vvith anthracnose (Glomerella, sp., the asexual stage of which is called Colletotrichum). The organism found has a wide host range, attacking apple-trees, peartrees, and cotton-plants, as experimental inoculation tests demonstrated. Ordinary cotton anthracnose (Glomerella gossypii (South) Edg.) only attacks cotton and related plants, while the apple bitter-rot fungus (Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman), S. & S.), though attacking more than thirty host plants, does not attack cotton. Both these have been reported from China. The fungus found, however, has morphological differences fr_om them, as well as a much wider host range. A third case of dissemination of a plant disease occurred. as late as July, after the Commission had begun its work, near Hsiu-Yen in the south of Liaotung province. Peach-leaves, (not its natural host) were found to be infected with Macrophoma kuwatsukai Hara, the fungus causing apple and pear fruit rot (ring-spot) and also canker and twig blight of those trees. The fungus isolated proved to be highly infectious. - 22 -'- In the above three cases, precise accounts of the dropping of the packets of plant material were available. A furth.er incident in this phytopathological warfare which came to the attention of the Commission, was the appearance of scattered corn (maize) grains (kernels) after one of the constant American air intrusions over Liaotung province in NE China (Manchuria), at the village of Sun-Chia-Pao-Tzu near Antung. These grains were found to be infected with a species of Thecaphom similar to, but not identical '\vith, Thecaphom deforrnans, which is known as a pathogen of legumes in America and Europe. The plant pathog.3n here found had never previously been reported from China. Although the leaves were sometimes in a fragmentary state, there was only one consignment (the anthracnose case) in which they could not be fully identified. In the first incident the material was Glyci:aa m.ax (G. hispicla), in the third Prunus persica, and in the fourth Z ea mays. Other consignments frequently consist€d of Quercus sp. (oaks) and Sorghum vulga,1·e (kaqliang). Among them two are of particular interest (App. Jb). At Dai-Tek San in North Korea a mass of leaves was dropped which were identified as those of the deciduous oak Quercus aliena, Bl. var. rubripes, Nakai, a tree the distribution of which is strictly limited to regions south of the 38th pa,rallel of latitude. At Hai-Loon hsien in NE China another mass of leaves was dropped on May 3rd, which Bl., a tree only found in South were identified as those of Lindera Korea and quite unknown in Northeast China. Allusion should be made to the possible use of insects as vectors of plant as well as human diseases. It is well known, for example, that the· anthomyiid fly Hylemyia spp. (cf. p. 18 above) carries fire-blight of pear and apple (E1·winia am.ylovora), corn (maize) wilt (Phytomonas stewa'rtii), and soft rot of vegetables (Erwinia carotovora)-three bacter-' ial diseases-together with the fungal of cabbage (Phoma lingam.). It is also well known that Muscina stabulans c8:rries fire-blight of pear and apple. Chinese phytopathologists have isolated strains of bacteria from the insects (and leaves) disseminated, and research is: proceeding. In general it may therefore be said that the dissemination of plant diseases has certainly played a part in the biological warfare which has been carried on in Korea and Northeast China (Manchuria). - 23 - Incidents 1n l(orea (plag·ue) As has already been observed, the classical method of bacteriological warfare involving plague, that adopted by the Japanese during the second world war, consists in delivering, whether by container or spray, large numbers of fleas infected with plague bacteria. Since the beginning of 1952 numerous isolated foci of plague: have appeared in North Korea, always associated with the sudden appearance of numbers of fleas and with the previous passage of American planes. Seven of these incidents, the earliest dating from 11th Feb., were reported in SIA/1, and in six of them the presence of the plague bacteria in the fleas was demonstrated. Document SIA/4 added the statement that after a delivery of flP-as to the neighbourhood of An-Ju on the 18th Feb., fleas which were shown bacteriologically to contain Pasteurella pestis, a plague epidemic broke out at Bal-Nam-Ri in. that district on the 25th. Out of a population of 600 in the village, 50 went down with plague and 36 died (App. G). According to the best information which the Commission was able to obtain, for the past five centuries there has been no plague in Korea. The nearest endemic centres are three hundred miles away in NE China (Manchuria) and a thousand miles to the south in Fukien. Moreover, the month of February would be no less than three months too early for the normal appearance of human plague cases in this climate. Above all, the fleas appearing were not the rat fleas which more usually carry plague bacteria in a state of nature, but human fleas (Pulex irritans). It was these which were used by the Japanese during the second world war. as we know from identifications on the Chinese side (App. L) and from other indications (App. S). While in Korea the Commission was invited to study two special cases (App. R & T). In the first of these, at Kang-Sou towards the end of March, a farmer went to a jar near 'his well one morning after a plane had circled over his village the previous night. He found that numerous fleas were floating on the surface of the water in the jar. He was probably bitten by other fleas of the same sending, for he died of bubonic plague a few days later, the diagnosis being abundantly confirmed by pathological and bacteriological tests, carried out by Korean and Chinese experts. The fleas also were demonstrated to be infected with plague bacteria. Members of the Commission inspected the cultures of micro- 24 - organisms isolated from the, body of the patient by the above-mentioned specialists, and convinced themselves that thE!se cultures were really of Pasteurella pestis; Pathological and histological preparations were also examined. Prompt sanitary measures at Kang-Sou had prevented further cases. In the second of the studies, two lieutenants of the Chinese Volunteer Forces in Korea, found a very dense mass of fleas on a bare hillside near Hoi-Yang. The zoning was so distributed as to indicate that they had been delivered by a container which came down rather slowly in a NNE direction,· but no trace of any container could be found. Somewhat astonished at the density of the population, which darkened the ground and blackened their trousers, the two young men, who were afterwards questioned by the personally, returned to their quarters and brought reinforcements which destroyed the fleas with a fire of petrol and pine branches. In this case the soldiers were protected in a number of ways (App. U) and their prompt counter-measures took effect before any appreciable number of the fleas could find their way to routes of transit frequented by human beings. Tests carried out by the KoreanChinese services showed that these fleas were infected with plague bacteria, and that they were human fleas. The fact that they were fleas (P. irritans) parasitic on man must be emphasised. According to what is known of the oecology of this insect, it would be impossible to find large numbers away from the houses of man. What, then, is to be said of the occurre:p.ce of a number of these insects estimated at many tens of thousands, at one time, on bare waste land remote from any human habitation? Such a witches' sabbath was certainly not called together by any natural means. More relevant was the plane which members of the CPVF billeted in the neighbourhood had heard circling over the place at about 4 a.m. on the day of the discovery. Analysis shows that in these circumstances some of the normal links in the epidemiological chain of plague, in which Pulex irritans participates, are missing. Normally the epizootic disease manifests itself first among rodents, and this is followed by an outbreak of human cases, from which P. irritans is secondarily infected. Only then is this parasite of man capable of giving rise to further cases. In the light of all these and other similar facts, the Commission had no option but to conclude that the American air force was employing in Korea methods very similar to, if not exactly i<;lentical with, those employed to spread plague by the Japanese during the second world war. During the discussions of these cases at Pyongyang the Commission had the help of one of the foremost Chinese experts on plague, the author, - 25 - indeed, of the 1941 report (App. K). He gave evidence to the effect that he had urged the Kuomintang g_overnment to make known to the world the facts concerning Japanese bacterial warfare, but without success, partly; he thought, as the result of American dissuasion (App. L). He also drew attention to the high virulency of the strains of plague bacteria now being used in Korea. , The delivery of plague-infected fleas is of course not the only way in which it might be hoped to induce an epidemic. Other methods can be used and we shall now see that this has indeed been done. - 26 The Kan-Nan Incident (plague) Another case with a relatively complete sequence of component elements which the Commission was invited to consider in great detail was one involving the sudden appearance of a population of voles infected with, and suffering from, plague. On the morning of the 5th. April, 1952, the countryfolk of four villages situated within the area. administered from the town of Kan-Nan (Kan-Nan hsien), awoke to find themselves surrounded by large numbers of a rat-like animal (App. M). This town lies ·on the western border of the province of Heilungchiang in NE China (Manchuria), and its district is thus just on the edge of Inner Mongolia. During the previous night many of the villagers had heard a plane pass overhead, and information provided by the Chinese Air Observer Corps shows that after having crossed the Yalu River just before 10 p.m., it was over Kan-Nan district about 11:30; it then retraced its course as if its mission had been accomplished (App. M). It was identified by the Corps as an American F-82 double-fuselage night-fighter plane. In the morning, the villagers found many of the voles dying or dead in their houses and courtyards, on their roofs,. and even· on their beds, while others were scattered around the outskirts of the settlements. The total number collected and destroyed in and near the inhabited places of an area measuring roughly 3 X 9 miles was 717 (App. M). There was an anomaly of season, for smail rodents do not usually begin to show themselves in this region until a month later, and then in nothing approaching such numbers (App. M). The location was also anomalous, for voles are not frequenters of human settlements. The species concerned also seemed to be regionally anoma]It had never before been seen by the local people. It was possible to identify it as belonging to the genus Microtus, and morphologically similar to Microtus (Stenocranius) gregalis . (PaUas). This species had previously been reported by Tokuda (1941) from parts of Northeast China (Manchuria) northwest of Kan-Nan, and .· by others from points still more to the west. Further taxonomic study · by Chinese scientists is in progress (App. O.P). Moreover, this genus is not among those three which are normally carriers of plague (Pasteurella pestis) in those parts of Northeast China where the disease is endemic (App. M). Analysis of the evidence by the Commission, both at Shenyang QUS. - 27 - (Mukden) and at the villages, showed that a certain role in concentrating the animals must have been played by the cats of the farmers, but it also became clear that the members of the intrusive species were uniformly diseased or dying before the cats found them. Some died in circumstances which excluded the .action of cats. The Kan-N an area has never known any form of plague so far as records are available, and reasons more than adequate were presented to show that a migration of the voles from the nearest endemic areas must be regarded, in view of the distances and ·obstacles involved, as highly unlikely (App. M). Furthermore ·the season was at least a month too early for the normal occurrence of epizootics of plague among rodents in the endemic areas (App. M). Only one individual was preserved sufficiently for bacteriological test, but the evidence of virulent infection with P. ,pestis obtained from this specimen, together with the eye-witness accounts mentioned above, pointed unmistakably to a collection of animals in the full grip of the plague (App. M & N). This evidence was confirmed in personal experiments carried out by those members of the Commission competent to do so, in collaboration with the Chinese scientists, and demonstrated to the whole Commission in the Bacteriological Laboratories of the National Medical College at Mukden. The principaJ gap in the chain of evidence consists in the fact that no container or "bomb" of kind was discovered. However, in view of the fact that in Jan. 1952 there was described in a Japanese journal (Mainichi) a container and parachute made of strong paper in such a manner that it would burn away, leaving no trace, after depositing its cargo of infected rats (App. Q) ; this missing link can hardly be considered sufficient to render nugatory the mass of circumstantial evidence already outlined. Other Japanese press reports (Kowa Shimbun, Aug. 1952) revealed the existence of a breening Institute directed by Ojawa, a former assistant of Ishii Shiro, which produces a large number of rodents, (App. P). It only remains to add that the Commission heard evidence at Shenyang (Mukden) from ten farmers, who, with others, were visited also individually in their homes. It also heard evidence from the epidemiologist who took charge Of the local sanitation arrangements after the incident, from the bacteriologists who investigated and isolated the plague bacteria, and from the zoologist· responsible for the specialised study of the rodents. The Commission considers that the countryfolk owed their escape from plague in this case to the sanitary precautions which they took from the moment of :(irst discovery of the unusual rodents, and to the remarkable promptitude with which they destroyed the whole popula- 28 -- tion of cats and dogs at noon on the same day. Among the precautions taken was a very effective method in common use in NE China for destroying fleas in human ·habitations; a thin layer of dry hay and straw is thrown over the earthen floors and k'angs, after all household goods have been removed, and then set on fire. For these reasons plague-infected fleas were unable to transmit the pathogenic agents to the. human beings. In the opinion of the Commission, therefore, there remains no doubt that a large number of voles suffering from plague were delivered to the district of Kan-Nan during the night of the 4th/5th April, 1952, by the aircraft wh:lch the villagers heard. This was identified as an American F-82 double-fuselage night-fighter. - 29 - The l{'uan-Tien Incident (anthrax) . The Commission studied in detail a case which involved the abnormal and simultaneous appearance of anthomyiid flies and spiders (App. V)·. On the 12th March, 19.52, inhabitants of the town of K'uan-Tien, which lies in the southeastern part of Liaotung province near the Yalu River, saw eight American fighter planes pass over the city about half-an-hour after noon. They recognised them without difficulty for such intrusions "vere a common, almost daily, occurrence. The Chinese Air Observer Corps identified them as F -86 planes and spotted their courses. From one of them there was distinctly seen to drop a bright cylindrical object. Immediately afterwards, and during the following days, the people of the town, including school-boys, organised searches in the region beyond the east gate where the object appeared to have fallen, and collected many anthomyiid flies (Hylernyia, sp.) a11d spiders (Tarentula., sp.). Nine days after the original incident, one of the schoolboys was so fortunate as to discover fragments of a container jn and around a shallow crater at the point of impact of the object (App. V & W). The location was a maize field constituted by a small island surrounded by the beds of rivers · dry at this time of year. The largest "bomb" fragment was of metal, but the most numerous were of a thin porous calcareous substance the naturf' of which was not immediately obvious. This was later identified and will 0e discussed· separately (p. 42). The site of the incident was visited on the following day by two well-qualified entomologists, who had already Rearched in the immediate neighbourhood four days earlier; they collected a further supply of flies, and carefully as many containerfragments as possible, melting the snow with the help of hot water. The presence of snow, at least in drifts between the furrows explains how it was possible for the insects (sluggish at the low environmental to remain for more than a week in the close neighbourhood of the point of impact. It also explains the similar continued presence of considerable numbers of fowl feathers (also delivered at the same time) in the same zone. The insects and arachnids showed an anomaly of seasonal appearance (seep. 15-16 above)· and the former also a regional anomaly as to zoological species (see p. 14 above). Competent bacteriological examination by the Chinese demonstrated the presence of the pathogenic org·anism causing anthrax (Bacillus antkracis) both on insects, spiders and feathers (App. V). The occur- 30 - renee of this in or on the arthropods must be considered a highly extraordinary phenomenon. While its occurrence on the fowl feathers is not quite- so remarkable, bacteriological examination by the Chinese services of control specimens of feathers collected at random in N. China and NE China (Manchuria) yielded negative results (App. F).. Moreover, the feathers may perhaps have been simply packing to ensure the safe passage of the insects, though it must be remembered that in other cases anthraxinfected feathers have been delivered alone. No cases of anthrax in or q.round the town were reported as a result of this In view of the above facts the Commission had no option but to conclude that insects and spiders carrying anthrax had been delivered by means of at least one container of special type from at least one American plane in the neighbourhood of this small town in Liaotung province on March 12th. - 31 - Incidents in Liaotung and Liaohsi (respiratory anthrax) The Commission gave exhaustive study to a group of cases in which American planes coming from across the Yalu River and returning thither were actually seen to drop objects of various kinds (App. AA). Though no containers could be found at the presumed points of -impact when local eye-witnesses immediately ·went to search for them, other things were found, notably large numbers of beetles of the species Ptinus fur (normally a pest of stored grain and other dry stuffs), or alternatively masses of downy feathers of fowls. In some cases large numbers of the house-fly Musca vicina unexpectedly appeared, with the anomaly of season so often noted, snow being still on the g1·ound. Though the beetle was not seasonally anomalous, its appearance in the open air and in daylight in great numbers was oecologically extraordinary. All three of these biological objects were found by the Chinese bacteriologists to be contaminated with anthrax bacilli. And thestrains of bacilli isolated, in spite of the diversity of the objects, all had exactly the same behaviour in fermentation tests, -an unusual and suspicious circumstance. Thorough examination of 24 eye-witnesses was carried out, some of whom had been among those who. saw the objects descending from the planes. Spotting records from the Chinese Air Observer Corps were available in all cases (App. AA) and this information showed that the intruding planes were in general J.?-86 fighters, with the exception of a B-26 bomber on one occasion. In one case several people saw an object like a large red thermos flask thrown down, which seemed to burst with an explosive puff .and a disagreeable s:melllike burning skin or horn when about 30ft. from the ground (cf. the paragraph on Containers). In another case valuable testimony, admitting the absence of any material container at the presumed _point of impact, described the slow dispersion by the wind of a large quantity of feathers from just that point, with the formation of a triangular area slowly extending and broadening. In this instance the description of the container was such as to recall stro:r,tgly the self-destroying "egg-shell" type used at K'uan-Tien, (App. V and p. 42 below). The evidence concerning aircraft, containers, biological objects appearing, and bacteriological tests, was now amplified, for a number of localities - 32 :__ in the provinces of Liaotung and Liaohsi, by concrete and well-analysed data concerning fatal human cases of respiratory anthrax and haemorr(App. AA). Five of these were examined, that hagic anthrax of a railwayman, a tricycle-rickshaw driver, a housewife, a school-teacher, and a farmer. All of these fell sick of a disease which ran a similar rapid course, and all of them presented the same picture to the pathologists on autopsy and subsequent histological analysis. The Commission satisfied itself that none of the cases had the customary occ.upational history connected with anthrax. The beetles appear to have been responsible for two of the deaths, while the flies and the feathers would have accounted for another two: The Commission was fully satisfied with the diagnoses made and the proofs demonstrated by Chinese scientific colleagues. Furthermore, the examination of witnesses brought out (App. BB) what was missing from the document itself (App. AA), namely that four out of the five victims had not only collected the insects and feathers in the general course of such hunts, but were known to have dispensed with the recognised precautions followed by most people; that is to say, he or she had failed to protect the respiratory passages by a mask, or had handled the biological objects without gloves or forceps. Under the dissecting microscope it was clear that the beetle Ptinus would be well adapted for disseminating anthrax by this route, for it has an abundance of brittle chitinous spines on its elytra which could be inhaled, a fact which the document apparently overlooked. It is not to be supposed that these were the only deaths caused by the anthrax-infected objects; the five cases, with their precise pathological analysis, were presented as samples. Nor can the five cases be placed in their proper setting unless the full rarity of this kind of disease in the region previously, is clearly understood. Statistical evidence is presented (App. AA & BB) vvhich shows that not only was the classical cutaneous or pustular anthrax exceedingly rare in NE China in recent times, but respiratory anthrax leading to haemorrhagic meningitis was completely unknown. It is well known that the literature contains proposals for the use of anthrax bacilli in bacteriological warfare. Although, under natural conditions, transmission from man to man occurs only rarely, so that a spontaneous epidemic could riot easily be set on foot, the bacillus has the "advantages" of a wide host range, a high infectivity if virulent, and an extreme resistance to environmental conditions so that it is capable of poisoning a locality for a long time. To these must be added the very insidious character of the disease when the infection occurs by the respiratory route, for all the victims here mentioned remained comparatively normal until they suddenly collapsed, after which death ensued in 48 hrs. or less. 33 - Anthrax infection by the respiratory route is significant in connection with the work on bacteriological warfare carried out in the United States. Researches from Camp Detrick, published in 1946 and 1947 (see App. AA & II), show that it has been possible to obtain new strains of anthrax bacilli cultured on synthetic media which not only possessed unusually high virulence, but which are ,especially adapted to· the respiratory route of infection. On the basis of the evidence presented, and on their own searching and prolonged interrogation of a considerable .number of witnesses, both medical and lay, the Commission was compelled to conclude that the delivery of various biological objects contaminated with anthrax bacilli to many places in the two Chinese provinces had taken place, and that this had given rise to a number of cases of a mortal infection hitherto unknown in the region, namely pulmonary anthrax and ensuing haemorrhagic meningitis. Eye-witness statements impossible to doubt indicated American airplanes as the vehicles of delivery of the"infected objects. 34 The Dai· Dong Incident (cholera) One of the incidents to which the Commission was invited by the (North) Korean Minister of Health to devote detailed attention concerned certain fatal cases of cholera illustrative of those :which have been occurring in rural areas since May, 1952 (.App. CC). Early in the morning after a night (16th May) during w·hich a plane had been heard circling round for an hour or more as if its pilot \Vere trying to find something, a country girl picking herbs on the hillsides found a straw package containing a certain kind of clam. She took some of the clams home and she and her husband made a meal of them raw; on the evening of the same day both fell suddenly ill and by the evenh1g of the following day both \Vere dead. Medical evidence showed that the cause of death was cholera (App. CC). Further packages of clams were found on the hillsides by the local Home Guard, and bacteriological examination by the Korean and Chinese specialists proved that the clams were heavily infected with the cholera vibrio (App. CC). The whole sequence of events becomes more and m,ore extraordinary the more closely it is examined. In the first place, the appearance of marine molluscs (Meretrix meretrix), contaminated in this \Vay, on a hill in the middle of the countryside, can only. be regarded as a highly unnatural phenomenon. The human fatalities, moreover, were epidemiologically very abnormal. Evidence presented convinced the Commission that cholera has never been an endemic disease in Korea; for while there have been a number of outbreaks during the past forty years it was always possible to trace them to a maritime point of entry. Yet here was a purely rural focus. Furthermore, there had only been one previous instance during this century of any cholera in Korea in May; seldom did it appear before the month of August. Then there were several peculiarities about the clams as found. In Korea they are not usually wrapped in · straw for sale, they appeared here a month before their usual season (indeed since the beginning of the war they have not been reaching the markets at all), and if anyone had gone to the trouble of laying the packages down at various places on the hillside it was hard to explain why many of the thick calcareous shells of the clams should have been broken. Light was thrown on the sequence of events, however, when the nature of the locality was examined. The clams were found in a zone some 400 yds. from a pumping-station at the top of the hill, and some 1000 - 35 - yds. from a series of reservoirs or spring-fed ponds the water of which is drawn up by the pumping-station and distributed, partly for drinking, to several coastal settlements and port towns. On the night previous to that during which the clams made their appearance, the purification-plant adjacent to this pumping-station had been accurately destrqyed by American planes using small bombs, the pumps themselves being undamaged. Further statements of local residents examined personally by the Commission (App DD) revealed that the weather on the night of the second raid when the clams appeared had been dark and windy. All these facts pointed unmistakably to a deliberate and carefully-planned attempt to contaminate drinking-water reservoirs, the scheme having failed in its main purpose because the weather conditions on the night of the delivery of the clams did not permit the pilot to locate the reservoirs. On the night in question they would not have presented a mirror-like surface. It might still, however, be thought bizarre, that a marine or at least estuarine variety of lamellibranch mollusc should have been thought suitable for depositing in fresh-water sources for their pollution. Evidence of much interest, however, not only reminded .the Commission that the cholera vibrio is a halophilic organism, but revealed the existence in the Japanese literature of researches which had shown the marine lamellibranch molluscs to be well suited as media for its growth (App. DD & EE) . This provided the last link in the reconstruction of the plan for this kind of bacteriological warfare. During their slow osmotic death in freshwater the molluscs would serve as natural culture-vessels for the cholera vibrios, liberating them at their death to contaminate the drinking-water for a period likely to be of the order of thirty days (App. EE) . .Thus the Commission could only conclude that American air force units, following a careful plan previously established, first destroyed the Dai-Dong purification plant without damaging the pumps, and then attempted to contaminate the drinking-water reservoirs with cholera. The young couple who died, impoverished by war devastation, had the imprudence to eat some of the clams which had been intended as the vehicles of contamination. This case should be studied in connection with evidence mentioned elsewhere (App. G) concerning flies as artificial carriers of cholera. - · 36 - Types of Containers or "'Bombs" The time has now come to devote some attention to the types of containers, or "bombs", if the term is appropriate for engines of war which may contain little or no explosive material. At various times and places, particularly at Shenyang (Mukden) and in the neighbourhood of Pyongyang, the Commission had the opportunity of examining at leisure a variety of the containers in which biological objects had been delivered from the air. Its members vvere thus able to verify a number of the statements made in the Prague documentation, and to investigate in considerable detail newer methods more refined than any which had been described therein. As will be better appreciated shortiy the task of the Commission was not rendered easier by a circumstance which soon became apparent, namely that some of these newer methods comprise "self-destroying containers", that is to say, containers which either break into pieces so small that their discoverey is unlikely, or containers which set fire to themselves and disappear after delivering their cargo. Moreover, throughout the Prague .documents, and even in subsequent depositions collected by the Commission, there runs a streak of unavoidable confusion, due to the fact that even when eye-witnesses were on the spot when a container was delivered, they did not always succeed in finding it, partly because naturaJly they did not quite know what to look for, and when they did find it their descriptions were sometimes not as detailed as they might have been. This confusion was unfortunately not cleared up by the testimonies of the captured air force officers, whose status as pilots and navigators did not seem to have entitled them to very precise and detailed information on bombs and containers. It must be remembered that in one of the lectures which the pilots attended (Quinn/ Ashfork; see below, p. 49 & App. LL) it was distinctly stated that "our bombs are still in the experimental stage, and there are various types of them". The contents of this paragraph must therefore be accepted with all due reservations. The containers present a variety of forms and systems ·probably adapted to a variety of different cases. It seems also that pathogenic agents can be spread directly, over the target area. In what follows it will be convenient to begin with this method, namely spraying, which involves no container at all, and to end with the self-destroying receptacles. - 37 - Intermediate positions will be occupied by the less specialised devices whether parachuted or not. (1) Spxaying. In NCNA/85, p. 4, (Report of the Chmese Scientific Commission in Korea) the claim was made that a Chinese voluntee1· soldier actually saw an American plane spraying insects at Chor-Won from a height of about 900 ft. on Feb. 11th. It seems unlikely that this could have been anything else than a deduction from the fact that large numbers of insects 'Nere found anomalously on the snow over an oblong area 6 x 3 miles after its passage. Nevertheless the statements of all four American pilots are quite specific and concordant that in five separate lectures they '\vere told that spraying could and would be done. One of these statements (O'Neal, ISCK/4, App. MM) includes a diagram of the equipment installed in the plane, and another (Kniss, ISCK/5, App. NN) says that its writer was informed that spraying would start in June. However, the former witness states his reasons for believing that spraying was going on from at least Feb. 18th, so the Chinese volunteer may have been right in his deduction. As to the kinds of insects which could be so distributed, it seems certain that the method would be unsuitable for delicate creatures such as mosquitoes, but other discussions (App. L) indicated that it '\vould not be unreasonable for fleas. It would of course be the way in which bacteria, viruses or toxins, would be disseminated in aerosol form. (2) Non-Exploding Objects and Paper Packets. Several of the Prague documents have descriptions of the fiP-iiing of paper packages of various colours from which insects were emerging. Again on the 11th Feb., Chinese volunteers at Chor-Won sr.w three American planes throw down such non-explosive objects, which turned out to be cylindrical yellow paper packets 8 inches high and 4 inches diameter (SIA/1, p.6; SIA/4, p.5). Elsewhere in the vicinity there were rectangular grey paper packets, 4 x 4 x 1% inches containing insects. White paper packets are spoken of as having been delivered at Pyongyang on 4th Mar. (NCNA/85, p.8) and brown ones at Chang-Do on 10th Mar. (NCNA/85, p.6). Two of the lectures attended by the captured pilots (Enoch/Wilson and Quinn/ Ashfork, see below, p. 49) described the use of paper as a packing for infected insects.. While it seems conceivable that hardy insects might be dropped from a low height simply wrapped in this way, it seems more probable that in all cases the packets originated from. the interior of metal leaflet-containers or "bombs" which had exploded and opened in mid-air. To these we now turn. - 38 - (3) Air-Bursting Variable-Time Fuse Leaflet Bomb. This type of container is the one which has figured most in all accounts hitherto published on bacteriological warfare in Korea and China, and it is certainly the commonest type in the collections which the authorities of those two countries have made. Members of the Commission saw many examples of it. This bomb is of approximately the same size and shape as the ordinary American 500 lb. HE bomb, but it weighs only about 150 lbs. and can therefore be loaded on to the planes by hand (App. 00). It consists of a conical nose-piece at the tip of which is the time-fuse. This nose-piece forms a small empty compartment, and below it the cylindl'ical body of the bomb is divided by three steel diaphragms into four separate compartments. The casing is divided longitudinally so that half of it, being mounted on hinges, can s-vving open and release its contents at any moment desired. Below the floor of the lowest compartment the casing narrows again to form a conical empty space from the sides of which spring the four tail-fins, and in the bottom of which is a hole sufficiently large to permit of the escape of a parachute if it should be desired to equip the bomb with such a device. There has been some divergence in the published measurements of the bomb (NCNA/85, SIA/13, ISCC/4, etc.) but the specimens seen by the Commission and described by the captured pilots have a total length of approximately 4 ft. and a diameter of 1 ft. 2 in. The casing is made of 1;8 in. steel, and the total capacity of the 4 compartments is of the order of 141;2 gallons. The length of the time-fuse is a little more than 3 in. Markings seen were ''Leaflet Bomb - 500 lb. M 105 Lot- U.S. Time (-fuse)-Empty." According to the· descriptions given by the captured airmen (App. KK-NN) the doors of the bomb are supposed to open a height of about 100 ft., distributing the contents over an area likely to be about 300 ft. in diameter. at The classical eye-witness .description (NCNA/85, SIA/13) is that of an army doctor who on Mar. 26th saw an American plane, circling over Yong-vVon, drop two in a po\ver dive. Both split into two on explodi;ng and gave rise to an ins·ect-congested zone some 200 yards long and 100 yards broad, with a maximum density of 100 insects per sq. yard, centering on the craters (5 in. deep) made by the bomb halves (NCNA/85, p. 5). The Commission had the opportunity of personal interrogation of eye-witnesses, mostly peasant farmers, who had found three such leafletbombs surrounded by insects after they had been dropped by planes on Mar. 27th and 31st at Ch'ang-Pai in Liaotung Province (ISCC/4; SIA/10). Again, while at Pyongyang, the Commission inspected a collection of these containers, and here reproduces a table of details concerning t}).em (c.f. App. Z). - 39 -- Seriat No. 208 209 205 210 Date 26/2 28/2 28/2 1/3 P!o.ce Province Remarks night dawn 8 p.m. morning Pyong-Won Kim-Hua Pyong-Won Shin-Chun Pyong-An-Nam Kang-Won Pyong-An-Nam Huang-He 201 207 5/3 10/3 midnight 4 a.m. Moon-Chun Sung-Chun Kang-Won Pyong-An-Nam 204 21/3 26/3 11ight 9 a.m. Moon-Chun Nyong-Won Kang-Won Pyong-An-Nam flies temp. -4• flies 300 X 300 ft. temp. '-3° flies flies in discoidal zone centering on point of impact, 2700 sq. ft. temp. -1• flies, 600 X 300 ft., lethargic flies in discoidal zone centering on point of impact, 150 ft. diam.; greatest density 20-30/ sq. yd. flies flies in discoidal zone centering on point of impact, area 100 sq. yds. 206 Time It only remains to add to the above that this type of container was described in more or less detail in every one of the nine lectures attended by the four captured airmen who gave evidence before the Commission. In all four cases, too, the airmen believed that the bacteriological bombs which had been loaded on to their planes and which they duly dropped, were of this type (App. KK-NN). As is well-known, public disputes have arisen in the international press about the use of leaflet containers, but the chief of the American Army Chemical Corps is on record for the statement that they are well suited for the delivery of biological objects (SIA/9, p.l; NCNA/85, p.5; ISCC/4). (4) Air-Bursting Propeller-Armed Leaflet Bomb. This container would appear to be a variation of that just described. The fuse in the nose would ·be armed by a small passive airscrew or propeller which would bring about detonation after a certain number of revolutions. There is hardly any mention of this type in the documentation issued before the Commission began its work, nor was any evidence found of its use. However, it was described in one of the lectures which the captured airmen had received (O'Neal/McLaughlin, see below, p. 49). (5) Leaflet Bomb with Doors opened by a Propeller. In this type, which would be similar in external appearance to both those just described, the passive propeller or airscrew in the nose would actuate a mechanism to open a series of doors along the length of the bomb after it had carried. out a predetermined· number of revolutions. The packets are then blown out by the wind. Again there is no mention of this in the Prague documentation, nor did the Commission find direct evidence of its existence or use. But nevertheless it was described in one of the lectures which ihe captured airmen had received (Quinn/ Ashfork, see below, p. 49). (6) Leaflet Bomb with Doors or Sides opening after Impact.. Here the half-side of the bomb, or a series of doors in it, would be opened by mechanism driven by electric battery activated only by the shock 40 - of impact. Breakage of a plastic partition would permit access of the acid to the plates. This was not mentioned in the Prague documents, nor was direct evidence of its existence found. But it was described in one of the lectures attended by the captured airmen (Quinn/Ashfork, see below, p. 49) who was afterwards able to make a sketch of it in his deposition (App. LL). From the descriptions it would follow that this type of bomb must be equipped with a parachute, and it is possible that this was the container referred to in their lectures as delivering infected insects by parachute (O'Neal/McLaughlin; Kniss/Holleman; Kniss/McLaughlin). One of them (App. MM) was able afterwards to make a sketch of what he conceived such parachute containers to look like. (7) Paper or Carton Cylinder with Silk Parachute. The only type of parachute container which the Commission actually saw was one 'vhich is said to be similar to those used for flares. It is a carton cylinder with walls about % inch thick, some 1 ft. 2 inches long and 5 inches diameter. The examples seen were marked "USC 5/1-1-1952- Lot 100- F_6." The silk parachute attached had a diameter of only 2ft. 31Al inches. As has been pointed out (NCNA/85, p.5), this size is only one thirtieth of the ordinary flare parachute, so that presumably it would not be likely to float for a long time in the air. It was also pointed out that there was no trace of burning on the carton, and this was certainly true of the examples which the Commission examined. It may well be significant that on one of the occasions when such a receptacle was found, it appeared to have delivered midges (Kang-Dong, 26th March, NCNA/85; SIA/13). Delicate insects such as these ( Ot·thocladius), or mosquitoes, would doubtless conveniently be delivered by such a method. (8) Paper Container with Paper Parachute (Self-Destroying). Of this interesting type no example was seen by the Commission nor had the captured airmen any information to give about it. But such a device was described in some detail in the article by Maj. R. Sakaki in Mainichi for January, 1952 (App. Q). According to this account, the container would be of strong paper and would include several compartments, it would be weighted, and it would carry a fuse so arranged as to be able to ignite both the container and the paper (or impregnated silk) parachute when the proper moment arrived. In Sakaki's description the biological objects (plague-infected rats) would be gently liberated after the container had opened on touching the ground, and then after- a sufficient latent period the ignition would occur and no trace would be left. But the machine could easily be so arranged as to deliver its load some 20 or 30ft. above the ground, after which, becoming lighter, it could drift further away before ignition and disappearance. The circumstance that Sakaki - 41 - specifically refers to the use of these containers for plague-infected rats made it tempting to suppose that a battery of them had been used in the Kan-Nan incident (p. 27 above), but for this there is no specific evidence. One corollary of paper containers for rodents would be that the animals might have to be kept in at least a semi-anaesthetised condition during the flight, to prevent them from gnawing their way out. The Commission places these points on record only for the purpose of drawing attention to possibilities. (\)) Bomb-shaped Containers of Earthenware or Porcelain. During the second world war, the Japanese bacteriological warfare organisation manufactured "porcelain" (actually earthenware) bomb-shaped containers, of at least two different sizes, in a special plant near Harbin. Specimens of these (the larger about 2 ft. 6 inches and the smaller about 1 ft. 6 inches long) were examined by the Commission at Shenyang (Mukden). Although this kind of container is still recommended in Japan, by Sakaki in the article already mentioned (App. Q), for bacterial cultures, the Commission did not find any evidence for its use in 1952 in Korea or China. Here it takes its place rather as the precursor of the most ingenious of all the types in question, namely the "egg-shell" container which breaks up on impact, but into a great number of small and thin pieces easily overlooked. (10) The Artificial Egg-Shell Container. On March 21st, more than two hundred fragments of a container made of some calcareous material, together with a cap-shaped steel plate and metal rod attached to the centre of the concave surface, were found outside the city of K'uan-Tien in Lbotung province.. Circumstances (reported in ISCC/3, App. V) showed that these things must have been the remains of a container which had fallen from an American plane on the 12th, and in which there was reason to think that anthomyiid flies, spiders, and fowl feathers, bearing anthrax bacilli, had· been delivered. The metal pieces and calcareous fragments were subjected to an exhaustive analysis by the Institutes of Modern, and of Applied Physics, of Academia Sinica (the Chinese National Academy), with a view to reconstruction of the original form of the device (App. V). ·It was thus possible to deduce that the intact container must have been cylindrical, and domed at least at one end. The total length would have been more than 1 ft. 31/2 inches, and the length of the rod 11 inches App. V). The radius of curvature of the steel cap plate is just under 5 inches, and its diameter 6%, inches·; the radius of the calcareous body of the container 5:Y2 inches. The thickness of the calcareous walls would have been just over 1/16 inch, and the whole had been painted on the outside with aluminium paint. X-ray examination demonstrated that the - 42 - material of the W·alls was chiefly calcium carbonate. \1'hile mainly calcite, the substance contained, as was shown spectroscopically, some magnesium. By some means or other, then, a fragile calcite box had been fashioned, and chemical evidence was obtained of the pre!'lence of organic matter, which had served perhaps as a cement for the calcite particles. Something is still lacking in our understanding of the facts sh1ce it is not yet clear how so fragile a container can stand the shock of departure from the plane. The. incident at K'uan-Tien (ISCC/3) had already been partially reported in SIA/3, p. 2 and SIA/8, p. 6, and the Commission was able to examine the calcareous fragments preserved fr·om it. But it did not represent the only incident of the kind 'ivhich came to the notice of the Commission. As late as June 6th, the delivery of insects to the neighbourhood of Pi-Tung (N. Korea) had been accompanied by what was described as the rather slow slanting fall of silvery globes about twice as big as footballs (App. X). There can be little doubt that this was the same device again. Moreover, one of the eye-witness accounts of the Pai-Ch'ing-Tzu cases (ISCC/5; SIA/6, p. 1) mentioned shining dropped by American planes. Here, too, masses of feathers infected with anthrax were delivered. Other descriptions (e.g. SIA/10, p. 1 and App. ·G) might refer to this type, but it is not possible to be sure. In any case, the Commission considers that there can be no doubt that such containers were used by the Americans on both sides of the YaJu River in March and in June. (11) Miscellaneous Containers. It only remai.n·s to add that evidence has been produced of the use of several other kinds of receptacles besides those already mentioned. For rodents there has been mention of cylindrical cages of wire-netting (NCNA/85, p.5) and of ,..;·ocden boxes (NCNA/85, p.6) .. If these indeed descended from the sky, .it was more probably as part of the cargo of som.: kind of parachute bo:rhb. Package3 of straw were used for the cholera clams of Dai-Dong (App. CC). ' A hand-grenade type of bomb has also been mentioned (NCNA/85, p.6; SIA/13) ; the Commission did not see. this. Members did however have the opportunity of examining near Pyongyang fragments of a green translucent insect container which, it was stated, had been fired as a shell (NCNA/85, p.5, 6; £IA/13). Artillery participation in bacteriological warfare was referred to in at least two "of the lectures attended by captured American airmen (Enoch/Wilson and O'Neal/Williams, see below, p. 49); but the Commission found no evidence of the practical use of the method of warfare described by Sakaki, namely of covering pieces of shrapnel with jelly containing B. welchii (gas gangrene) or tetanus (App. Q). Cotton filling for padded winter clothing, however, which - 43 - appeared at one time conveniently near the Chinese trenches, was found to be contaminated with paratyphoid B (comm. from DGMS, CPVF). (12) Ground Distributions of Biological Objects Delivered. ·Those who read the appendice-s to this Report as well as the earlier documents issued from Prague will :find eye-witnesses constantly speaking of discoidal insect-congested zones, centered on the remains, generally quite uncrumpled, of the leaflet-container "bomb". This presumably means that there was a fairly regular concentric distribution around the spot immediately beneath which the opening of the container had taken place. Apart from these cases, the Commission noted two interesting examples of ground distribution of delivered objects. In one case (ISCC/5) {App. AA & BB) feathers were found being blown away slowly by the wind from their point of arrival, so as to form a triangular area 1J2 mile long and rather less than 14 mile broad at the base. This was gradually lengthening and broadening. Though no container or its fragments were found, the bomb in this case was probably of the egg-shell type. In another instance, that of the great numbers of human :fleas found on a bare hillside (ISCK/3; App. T & U), it was seen that the insects covered an ellipsoidal area about 30 yds. x 10 yds. with a zone of maximum density «t approximately one of the centres or foci of the ellipse. This would presumably suggest that the fleas were delivered by some object, perhaps a parachute container, which travelled along the long axis of the ellipse. - 44 -- Testimonies of Captured Intelligence Agents The Korean authorities informed the Commission that since the beginning of the war agents had been sent into North Korea with the precise objective of obtaining and sending back epidemiological information related to bacterial warfare. Many of these agents bad been. captured, and their admissions had . thrown considerable light on the organisation ·of the American intelligence service and the work which had been entrusted to them. Already in SIA/7 detailed information had been published concerning some ·of the agents, for example one Chinese. and one Korean. Members of the . Commission had ·the opportunity a.t Pyongyang of ·interviewing at length one of these agents, (App. JJ). The young whose schooling had been cut short, belonged in 1945. to the "Youth Organisation" of the South Korean. Government, and when the American troops finally retreated he had gone with them. Minor personal interest,. rather than political conviction, had. apparently been the dominant motive in his antagonism to the North. Unable to make a living, the witness joined the American auxiliary intelligence forces. He described the political, military, and hygienic training which he had recerved in an organisation entitle4 "K.L.O." at Seoul between December, 1951 and March, 1952, (App. JJ) Here he was taught the techniques for obtaining the information desired. It was during this period that the bacterial warfare developed. Numerous. inoculations were given to him about the beginning of February, though he was not informed 'of their nature. Until the eve of his departure h&. had no contact with foreign military officers, but his final instructiona were then delivered to him by an American major through an interpreter.· These comprised a specific area for his operations, and gave exact details of the diseases about which the Americans wanted to know (typhoid, plague; cholera, encephalitis, dysentery, and smallpox). The witness was informed as to the systems on which North Korean statistical information was drawn up, and his instructions were to obtain it if possible by means of contacts in the health and other governmental services, or if need be, to steal it. He was also told to be extremely careful of what he ate, not to pass the night in places infected with insects, and not to drink unboiled water. North Korea was full of illness, it was said, but his inoculations.. would give him great protection. 45 - The witness accordingly passed into North Korea on the 29th March. and worked there with an accompanying radio-telegraphist until he was .arrested on the 20th May. In replying to questions, he was rather reticent, perhaps to shield collaborators. He. said that he had very little success in contacting North Korean health pe:rnonnel, and had been able to transmit little or no information to American headquarters. The witness made it clear that before his illicit entry into North Korea, he had been given no indication that bacterial warfare was being there were numerous epidemics in carried on. He had only heard the North, and that the armies of ·the South "were employing the most modern scientific weapons with good results." He learnt of bacterial warfare only from reading public notices. The Commission was unanimously of the opinion that the bearing of this witness and his evidence about his mission and instructions bore the stamp of truth, and that any pressure, physical or mental, could be excluded. For the rest, he seemed to be a rather mercenary personality. The Commission found no improbability in the sending of epidemiological intelligence agents across the lines. It was satisfied that the task of the agent had to provide.information about the effectiveness of bacteriological warfare; a conclusion which could only add to the· cumulative mass of evidential material inculpating the American armed forces. 46. - Testimonies of Captured Airmen On Jan. 13th, 1952, a B-26 bomber of the American Air Force was shot down over in Korea. By May 5th statements of considerable length admitting their participation in bacteriological warfare had been made by the navigator Lt. K. L. Enoch, and by the pilot, Lt. John Quinn, and issued to the world through Peking. As has already been stated, these documents will be found in SIA/14 and 15 respectively, and together with lithograph reproductions of the original manuscripts, in the printed brochure issued from Prague. The relevant parts are here reproduced in App. KK. and LL. Documents SIA/17 and 18 should also be consulted, though the later interviews recounted in them did not add much to the technical and scientific evidence. What were the essential points in the principal declarations. of these. airmen? First of all", both officers had had to attend, in Japan and in Korea, secret lectures on the methods of bacteriological warfare. These expositions, which it was impressed on them contained highly confidential information, described the use of bacteria· directly as cultures deposited or sprayed, of insects transmitting diseases biologically or mechanically, of rodents in parachute-containers, of poisoned foods, and of bacteriacontaining artillery shells. Various kinds of containers or "bombs" were described and sketched. Correct altitudes and air-speeds for delivery were given. Particularly significant statements made in the lecture attended by Lt. Quinn were (a) that "almost any insect could be used for spreading diseases", (b) that "rats could be dropped, though this might not be necessary", and (c) that there was an intention to use encephalitis, "for which no positive cure is known." · Secondly, both officers had received orders to carry out bacteriological warfare missions, and had duly flown them, though with the greatest inner reluctance. There were various peculiarities about the special bombs used, and in some cases these were under special guard so that the pilots could not examine them too closely. In one of the reports information was given as to the various types of planes most suitable for delivering various kinds of containers. From the personal knowledge of the ·two airmen many of their fellow service-men had also engaged in such missions, and later conversations brought out well the large number of Air Foree personnel who · had · been instructed on ·bacteriological warfare; • - 47 - (SIA/17). Lt. Enoch was briefed "germ bombs" while Lt. Quinn was briefed "duds", but both were told that in debriefing (i.e. reporting the results of the flight) "duds" was to be tne term used. There can be no doubt that these admissions had considerable influence on the western world. But those who did not wish to be convinced tended to brush them aside as confessions obtained under physical or mental duress, saying that after all, only two young men had come forward, and suggesting indeed they did not really exist at all, and that the whole declarations were forged. Attempts, however, to demonstrate inconsistencies in Lt. Quinn's story, failed (SIA/16). In these circumstances it was of great importance that the Commission was able to meet, at a rendezvous in Korea, not only the two officers so far mentioned, but two more, Lt. F. B. O'Neal and Lt. Paul Kniss, whose accounts are even more lengthy and detailed (App. MM & NN). With these four American airmen, the Commission found itself in presence of a good cross-section of American life---a cool-headed electrical ,engineer; a middleclass business man; a young research chemist, and a solid steel-mill worker of agricultural origins. The Commission had the opportunity of extended conversations with these four men under conditions of free discourse. Its members unanimously formed the opinion that no pressure, physical or mental, had been brought to bear upon these prisoners of war in order to induce them to make the declarations which they made. These declarations were made of their own free will, after long experience of the friendliness and kindness of their Chinese and Korean captors had brought to them the realisation that their duty to all races and peoples. must outweigh their natural scruples at revealing what might be considered the military secrets of their own government. The greater part of the conversations consisted in question and answer among the airmen and the members of the Commission, but each airman prefaced his interview with a statement along the lines of his written document, and concluded it with a solemn of the convictions to which his conscience had brought him. Since the statements of the witnesses (ISCK/4 & 5), and the com.. mentaries containing the substance of the interviews, are reproduced below as App. M:M;, NN and 00, there is no necessity to elaborate them further here. But from the written statements and answers to questions it seems already possible to reconstruct what was going on in the American air force during the last months. of 1951 and the early mont.hs of 1952. This may be appreciated by means of the following table: - 48 - 1951 June -Kniss attends lecture by Laurie in U.S. Imol'J:!).ation given because the enemy might use bacteriological warfare. · · Aug. 25th-Enoch attends lecture by Wilson in Japan. The U.S. has no plans for bacteriological warfare, but the enemy might use it. Oct. -Enoch attends lecture by Browning in Korea. Same statement. Dec. 1st -O'Neal attends lecture by Williams in U.S. Non-committal attitude on intention to use bacteriological warfare. Dec. -Enoch attends another lecture by Browning in Korea. Same statement · as ·in Oct. Dec. 18th-Quinn attends lecture by Ashfork in Korea. Necessity of preparing for bacteriological warfare which the enemy might use. 1952 Jan. 3rd -Quinn's first mission with bacteriological bombs. Briefed and debriefed as "duds", but from other circumstances he knew what they were. Jan. 6th -Enoch's first mission with bacteriological bombs. bombs", to be debriefed as "duds". Jan. 22nd-O'Neal attends lecture by McLaughlin in Korea, warfare stated definitely to be in use. Feb. 15th-O'Neal's first mission with bacteriological bombs. bombs", to be debriefed as "air-burst VT". Briefed as "germ Bacteriological Briefed as "germ Feb. 18th-O'Neal sees evidence of the use of spraying technique, :from specially adapted planes. Feb. 22nd-Kniss attends lecture by Holleman in U.S. Use of bacteriological warfare definitely denied, but possession of weapons by the U.S. admitted. Mar. 21st-Kniss attends lecture by McLaughlin in Korea. Bacteriological warfare stated definitely to have been in operation since 1st Jan. Clear statement that the U.S. Government would continue to deny it as lopg as possible. Briefed as "flakMar. 27th-Kniss' first mission with bacteriological bombs. suppressor,'' to be debriefed as "results of mission unobserved." From the above facts the conclusion can hardly be avoided that the order to begin bacteriological warfare upon the people of North Korea and China must have been given late in 1951, air personnel having previously been prepared for the work by cautious informatory lectures, and not apprised of what they were expected to do, even after Jan. 1952, until their actual arrival in Korea. At American and Japanese bases, bacterial warfare was said to be a theoretical and purely defensive matter; but at Korean br 3es pilots were surprised to find that it had already been started weeks or months before their arrival. The fact that the general order must have been given during the period of· the Kaesong peace talks was not overlooked by the pilots. For the rest, the independently heard testimonies of the airmen tained several points of interest. It was noteworthy that they did not - 49 - remember ever having received any instruction on -the recognised customs and usages of war, such as the prohibition of the shooting of prisoners, nor of having seen any regulations relating thereto in American manuals of procedure; still less had they heard of the outlawing of certain forms -of war, at least by certain nations. Then the testimony of the witnesses was unanimous as to the disastrous effects on the morale of their fellow service-men of the orders to carry out bacteriological bombing. It was the last straw for many of them already disgusted by the ferocity with which they were being hounded on to slaughter the civilian population of North Korea (App. 00). The revulsion of feeling which the witnesses then underwent, when after their capture they were treated in such a friendly way by the Koreans and Chinese, who evidently no longer regarded as enemies those who had laid down their arms, can well be imagined. The officers interviewed did not seem very well-informed on the variety of types of containers being used, but this was doubtless because as pilots and navigators they were not supplied with the information which armament officers would have had. They were also able only to speculate as to the place· of origin of the biological material used, but significantly some of them thought that it might be in Japan. In· sum, the Commission, as the result of exhaustive conversations and direct personal contact, saw every reason to accept the veracity and to uphold the integrity of the officers who gave evidence before it. They appeared fully normal and in perfect health, they spoke in a natural way and seemed fully at their ease. The Commission once more affirms its belief that the airmen were not subjected to any physical or mental pressure, and that their treatment was worthy of the best traditions of Chinese humanism. The Commission therefore accepted as true and faithful the evidence of the airmen, which complemented indeed in many ways the strictly scientific ·and observational evidence already accumulated from the field. - 50 - Hygiene in New China The Commission was deeply impressed by the present hygienic conditions of the Chinese people and by the measures which are being taken t<> raise the hygienic standard and to combat the spread of epidemic diseases. These measures are effective and thorough. The idea that the Chinese people live in a very unsatisfactory hygienic situation is widespread in the West, but even a superficial first-hand acquaintance with the conditions now prevailing, and with the enthusiasm shown by the Chinese population in carrying out the health directives of the government, is sufficient to dispel it (App. PP). A ;few figures may be given to indicate the extraordinary progress which has been brought about in a few years. In Northeast China 35 million rats were killed in 1951, and 10 million in the spring of 1952-a war against rodents unparalleled in any other part of the world. The fight against flies and other insects capable of acting as vectors of disease has assumed a universal character, and Peking has become a city almost devoid of flies and mosquitoes. Before the liberation, vaccination against smallpox was sparse and inefficient, the largest number of persons vaccinated in one year (1946) being no more than 7.3 million. But in three · years since the liberation .307 million people have been vaccinated, and the disease has been almost entirely eliminated. Re-education of midwives has lowered the infant mortality rate from Tetanus neonatorum,. by one third between 1949 and 1951. Infantile mortality as a. whole, and maternal mortality, were reduced by one half in the same period. The · numerous practitioners who follow the system of traditional Chinese medicine have been mobilised as auxiliaries in the great campaign for health, and have proved both able and willing to receive such instruction in modern medicine as equips them to play a useful part. In Peking and other great cities there has been a complete elimination of stray dogs, which were suspected of being reservoirs of encephalitis virus and vectors of many infections. Besides all this, there has been great progress in the organisation and productive capacity of the laboratories producing vaccines and sera. The Commission visited the relevant Institute in Peking, and was impressed by its efficiency, high production, and excellent scientific research quality. The health movement is not confined only to Peking or a few other "model" cities. Reliable informants asserted that it reaches far- into the - 51 - remotest corners of the sub-continent. The Commission as a body had the opportunity of seeing this for themselves during their travels in the Northeast, which included a visit to remote places in the north of Heilungchiang province, on the borders of Inner Mongolia. The members were · much impressed by· the cleanliness of the villages. Since the liberation, indeed, there has been a health education campaign in China of a breadth and· scope probably hitherto unattained elsewhere. The whole-hearted cooperation of every member of the population, man, woman and child, has been necessary for the results which have been achieved. The clearing away of accumulated rubbish, the scrupulous cleaning of court-yards and waste-land, the screening of windows, the fight against all kinds of noxious insects, the production and use of insecticides and vaccines-every possible aspect of a constantly and rapidly rising general level of public health has been thought of and' executed with verve and thoroughness. The fundamental education has been carried out by every available means of instruction, by large meetings, by posters, picture-books and wall-newspapers, by the pres&, from the stage; and on the screen. When confronted with bacteriological warfare, or even the suspicion of it, the peasant masses of China knew exactly what to do, and did it without the least confusion or panic. The Commission was able to visualise, through personal contact with a large number of 'vitnesses from many parts of the Chinese countryside, the disciplined action of hundreds, indeed thousands, of ordinary folk, guided by instructions from the central and re!P.onal Ministries of Health, combing their fields and streets to collect and destroy· eve.;rything which issued from containers arriving from the air. The hygienic progress in China today constitutes the active execution of:measures more or less vainly urged by successive international health organisations. The achievement of so much progress in so short a time would not have been possible if the Chinese government had not been able to count upon the. unconditional support of all classes of the population. Peasants and factory workers, scholars and religious groups, have approved its aims and done their· best to achieve them. General Considerations It will now be useful to assemble certain facts in tabular form, not only those which were summarily set forth in the Prague documents, but also those which were brought before the Commission during June, July and August for examination. A certain number of the clearer incidents will be found in the folding table (App. G) . For each case there is recorded the reference number, date, place and circumstances, whether the passage of a plane was noted, and \vhether any object was seen to fall. whether a container was found, and what areas unusually congested with insects or other biological objects were observed, together with notefl on the density of the animals, where possible. There follows the ent<)mological or zoological identification, the results of bacteriological tests, and any epidemiological remarks. It must be understood that only a small number of the known incidents is included in the Table. It will be clear from this summary tabulation that the appearance of biological material found to be infected with pathogenic micro-organisms was not always followed by human cases of disease. This must be in great part attributed to the speed with which the country and townspeople throughout the districts affected have searched for and destroyed any unusual animals and objects which there was reason to think might have been disseminated from the air. So effective have these operations been that in many cases no samples were saved for bacteriological analysis, as the Table shows. In other cases, bacteriological analysis gave negative results for those types of pathogenic organisms for which tests were made. Here it is worth noting that the incursions of planes over Northeast China have 'been numerous during the year, and that for the most part they have not been accompanied by bombardment with explosives. Between the 29th Feb. and the 21st. Mar., American planes made 955 sorties in 175 groups over NE China (Manchuria), covering 70 hsien districts in the provinces of Liaotung, Liaohsi, Chilin, Sungchiang and Heilungchiang (SIA/3). Other similar figures also been given (NCNA/85; SIA/13), and the air intrusions over China have recently intensified rather than decreased. In the eight days ending 7th Aug., for instance, American planes made 398 sorties in 79 groups over Chinese territory. The geographical of the incidents in NE China is also interesting (see Map, App. G). Down to the end of April, taking wellanalysed incidents only, the greatest number (18) had occurred in Liao- 53 - tung province, which borders most of the Korean frontier. Here the fact was striking that almost always the incidents were reported from the immediate neighbourhood of railways and main roads. The same peculiarity was noteworthy in the 8 incidents which occurred in the remotest province, Heilungchiang. Here one of the railway lines north of Chichihar and Harbin describes a vast S-shaped bend, with sides of a hundred miles or more-all along this line the incidents were dotted. Documents previously published gave on the one hand some of the bacteriological and epidemiologic&.! details relating the infected insects with cases of human disease; and on the other hand evidence relating the insects to the passage of planes. Sometimes the data furnished in those documents were incomplete. This was one of the l'easons for the exhaustive enquiries which the Commission made, in collaboration with ·the Chinese and Korean scientists, with regard to the incidents at Hoi-Yang, Kan-Nan, K'uan-Tien, Liaotung and Liaohsi, Dai-Dong, etc., recounted in the preceding paragraphs. From all these investigations it will be seen that the connection between the planes, the vectors, and the cases of human disease, can no longer· be contested. At an earlier point, the method of incident analysis was explained. The moment has now come to assemble the data from the most fully From this analysed cases in the form of a synoptic Table p. 55. confrontation of patterns, an organic plan ·clearly emerges. Planes were always seen or heard, and their course often plotted; and the statements of captured pilots later added supplementary detail. There follow in the Table the necessary data on the fall of containers, the vectors employed and their anomalies, the bacteriological tests, and the clinical cases following. In connection with all these facts, the Commission heard and interrogated a large number of ordinary Chinese country-folk. Its members were convinced of the integrity and stolid honesty of these witnesses, whose depositions were marked by plainness and clarity. Turning to specific questions, the Commission considered the sibility that the plague in Korea might have been transported by incoming traffic from those areas in Northeast China (Manchuria) where it still remains endemic. There are several reasons why this possibility must be ruled out. First, no case of plague has at anytime been reported from the regions which separate the new Korean foci from the above-mentioned endemic areas. Secondly, there were very serious seasonal anomalies in the occurrence of the plague (see App. G, R & S). Third, in the Korean foci the characteristic appearance of dead rodents, denoting an epizootic, before the human epidemic begins, was entirely absent. Fourthly, the clinical effects were Often demonstrably connected with the previous pas- 54 - C¥:1 ...... .......... 41 ;:I rn bO <11 ..... u u rn ..... OJ A OJ ::s lxf 13. '01' ..... ..... til ...... ..... 14 1.:1 u. u rn ..... rn H 41 41 ;:I C¥:1 - - Cll p, A < u u as .Q A til .... Cll 0 G Cll s:l g bO § bO 0 ....llt <11 rn u < + + +' ? 1.:1 .!!! o-:1 ,.....,._.. + +++ + +++ + +++ + .... <: .......... + + + + + + + +· rnO H . ""'z &Z E:i + + + + + + + + 10 10 sage of planes and the dissemination of suitable vectors. Finally, tJ1e most stringent sanitary precautions are, and were from the beginning, taken both by the Chinese and the Koreans at the frontier between the two countries. · Several of the diseases used are connected with domestic animals as well as man, for example anthrax (NCNA/85; App. AA). When the discovery of PasteureUa multocida (septica) on certain disseminated vectors (App. G) was confirmed, it seemed at first to have little importance since it is so common an infection of laboratory animals. There are reasons, however, for supposing that it might be used as a weapon against domestic stock (App. QQ). As. for the Vib-r:io cholerae, though in the detailed case studied above (Dai-Dong) it appeared in contaminated molluscs, there have also been not a few cases G) in which it has been found on insects, especially flies. The same has also been true for Salmonella typhosa and paratyphosa, and for Shigella dysenteriae. These pathogens have been found on populations of flies appearing in areas where no cases of these diseases had been known.· This raises the question of the possibie existence of pathogenic micro-organisms in or upon normal flies collected at random. The Chinese medical literature contains studies (App. D), published many years before the present hostilities, in which exactly these controls were made. They showed that in non-epidemic periods, normal flies did not carry the bacteria of typhoid or paratyphoid fever, or the cholera vibrio. The relevant appendix adds a further note on certain similar studies made this year in Shenyang (Mukden) .. A question related to this is the use of quantitative methods of investigation in the study of the carriage of bacteria by insects; it is treated of in a special (app. C). A few words should be added concerning the part played by insect vectors, to complete what has already been said in the Prague documentation and elsewhere. One Appendix (H) is devoted to the zoological identification of the insects disseminated; another (B) will help the reader in the general study of problems of medical entomology relating to bacteriological·wartare. In the earlier reports there were a certain number of questions, especially as regards events in Korea, which still remained open. During its stay in Pyongyang, therefore, the Commission submitted to· the Minister of Health, Dr. Ri, a series of questions, to which answers were in due course ·received (App. I). It thus appeared that some translations had been faulty. The word "tick" used in the first Korean report (SIA/1) had in fact been a reference to the red mite, Trombicula · - 56 - akamuski. . As for the nycte1·ibiid flies, parasitic on bats, also mentioned in the. same document, the Commission was informed by the competent Korean authorities that it could not now be considered demonstrable that these insects had been connected with the bacteriological warfare. Confirmation, however, was obtained for the statement that dead fishes contaminated with Salmonella and Shigella had on more than one occasion been found lying on hillsides. It was emphasised that these phenomena had always occurred in the neighbourhood of drinking-water sources. This recalls the Dal-Dong incident investigated in detail by the Commission (p. 35 and App. DD) where the purpose of spreading cholera clearly appeared. A question which had particularly aroused the curiosity of western scientists, and about which the Commission was seriously concerned, was that of the "lyophilised proteinaceous material" discovered after the passage of planes (NCNA/85). Th1s sUbstance, found in separate masses, and hygroscopic, absorbing water as it lay on the surface of was the snow. Chemical analysis showed that it was composed of protein breakdown products; proteoses, peptones and polypeptides. The bacteriologists were able to isolate from it mannitol-fermenting dysentery bacilli. No incident of this kind took place during the period of the Commission's work in Korea, and it had therefore to rely upon the reports of the Korean services, but it found entirely probable the hypothesis accepted by the Minister himself, namely that the material represented the delivery of freeze-dried bacterial cultures as such. As for the question of the dissemination of insects under conditions of ·very low environmental temperatures, the Commission points out (though not itself prepared to subscribe necessarily to such affirmations) that in their evidence the captured airmen alluded to methods directed tc the production of insect populations specially endowed with cold;. resistance (:App. MM). In a preceding paragraph (p. 14), eighteen species of and arachnids disseminated from airplanes were described. Of these, nine have been definitely incriminated by bacteriological tests as infected with pathogenic n;ticro-organisl!lS. What .is to be said of the others? . The Commission could not conclude that·they were perfectly clear from infection. It is a difficult matter to isolate pathogenic micro-organisms from such material when no one knows exactly what should be looked for, all the more so when artificially selected bacteria and viruses are in question. The possibilities are far from having been exhausted. In the American literature on bacteriological warfare there are some contradictions with what baa been seen in Korea, Certain judgments I - 57 - . expressed in works.not yet superseded are ha:r:dly in accordance with the observations of the Commission. It seems likely that in some important cases technical advances have rendered these opinions obsolete. The case of plague is typical. Ten years ago Rosebury cautiously expressed the view that it might be possible to spread this effectively for warlike purposes, but only in areas remote from the front lines owing to the- great. danger of the infection of friendly territory. In Korea the Commission's. work has revealed repeated attempts to diffuse plague at places not far removed from the front lines, contrary. to the opinion of so experienced a bacteriologist as the former Director of Camp Detrick. But the contradiction is only apparent. The last ten years have seen enormous progress in techniques of disinfestation; on the one hand new and ever more potent insecticides, combined in various mixtures, and on the other hand machines of high efficiency for the dissemination of clouds of these substances irt large amounts and minimum time, sufficiently simple to be operated by any ordinary person. 61 These machines derive from smokescreen apparatus developed during the second world war. Practical experience has shown that such methods can be used for the eradication of diseases caused by insect vectors from whole territories. Recent published. information shows that the American forces in Korea are in possession of such machines, and emphasises .their significance since "in any future hostilities ordinary measures and normal methods may well prove insufficient to cope with the situation." These data are sufficient to clear up the apparent contradiction between the literature and the facts found in the field. They apply, at any rate partly, to all other insect-c.arried diseases, and help to explain the general tendency seen in Korea towards the use of insect vectors. The example taken is typical; we cannot limit the possibilities of bacteriological warfare to what has classically been observed in natural conditions; technical and scientific advances extend the range of what may be done, and throw light, as here, on apparent contradictions. An almost perfect control of insect vectors on the American side in Korea would invalidate the reservations found in the literature. For the. same reasons the Commission cannot share the opinion of those who would assume that' the diffusion of bacteria, viruses and toxins, in aerosols is the only effective method of bacteriological warfare. Thus Japanese experience (cf. p. 11 above) can now be utilised on a new level. However., one of the cases examined by the Commission, that of. the epidemic of encephalitis (SIA/3 ;8 ;00010) oqcurring in the cities of . Shenyang (Mukden) and Anshan in Liaotung province, Northeast China (Manchuria), raised the possibility that a virus had been disseminated directly. by the aerosol method. The Commission was unable to reach a - 58.- firm conclusion on the matter, since it could not establish a definite relationship between the disease and the air incursions. Nevertheless the evidence "is indeed disturbing, and full documentation concerning it is therefore placed among the Appendices (FF, GG, HH & II). The Commission is not in a position to give to the world concrete figures concerning the total number of Korean and Chinese civilians killed, nor the total morbidity, nor the fatality rate. It is not desirable that this should be done, since it would provide the last essential data for those upon whom the responsibility hes. The information is not necessary for the proof of the case upon which the Commission was invited to express an expert opinion. All that is necessary is to know what the Commission confirmed, namely that many human fatalities have occurred in isolated foci and in epidemics, under highly abnormal circumstances in. which the trail always leads back to American air activity. It is essential that the world should take warning from what has happened and is still happening. All people should be aware of the potentialities of this kind of warfare, with its incalculable dangers. - 59 - r.rEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMISSION FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FACTS CONCERNING BACTERIAL WARFARE IN KOREA AND CHINA: ANDREEN, And1·ea: M.D. Medicine) [Sweden] Ph.D. (Clinical and Laboratory (Signed) MALTERRE, Jean: [France] Ing. Agri. (Animal Physiology and Biology) (Signed) NEEDHAM, Joseph: Sc.D. F.R.S. (Biochemistry, Embryology, Chinese Language and Literature) [U.K.] (Signed) OLIVO, Oliviero: M.D. (Medicine, Biology and Anatomy) [Italy] (Signed) PESSOA, Samuel B.: M.D. (Parasitology and Medical Entomology) [Brazil] (Signed) ZHUKOV-VEREZHNIKOV, Nicolai Nicolaievitch: M.D. Member of Academy of Medicine (Bacteriology and Epidemiology) [U.S.S.R.] (Signed) Peking, .31st August, 1952. - 61 - CONCLUSION Since the beginning .of 1952, phenomena of a very unusual character occurring in Korea and China, led to allegations by the peoples and governments of those countries that U.S.A. forces were waging bacteriological warfare. The International Scientific Commission which was formed to investigate the relevant facts has now brought its work to a conclusion after more than two months in the :field. It found itself in the presence of a mass of facts, some of which formed coherent patterns which turned out to be highly demonstrative. It therefore concentrated its efforts especially upon these. The Commission has come to the following conclusions. The peoples of Korea and China have indeed been the objective of bacteriological weapons. These have been employed by units of the U.S.A. armed forces, using a great variety of different methods for the some of which seem to be developments of those applied by the Japanese army during the second world war. The Commission reached these conclusions, passing from one logical step to another. It did so reluctantly because its members had not been disposed to believe that such an inhuman technique could have been put into execution in the face of its universal condemnation by the peoples of the nations. It is now for all peoples to redouble their efforts to preserve the world from war and prevent the discoveries of science being used for the destruction of humanity. - sn - APPENDICES TABLE OF CONTENTS APPENDIX A APPENDIX B Chronological Summary of the Meetings of the Commission 63 General Survey of the Principles of Transmission of Diseases by Insect Vectors and Related Subjects 69 APPENDIX C Memorandum on the Quantitative Investigation of Bacteria Carried by Insects 109 APPENDIX D Memorandum on the Mechanical Transmission of Bacteria by Normal Flies in China; Analysis of Studies on Random Samples 111 APPENDIX E An Investigation to Determine Whether the Flies Naturally Occurring in the City of Shenyang (Mukden) Carry Intestinal Pathogenic Bacteria and Bacillus anthracis (ISCC/8) . 115 APPENDIX F An Investigation to Determine Whether Local Specimens of Chicken Feathers Collected from the City·of Shenyang and the Town of K'uan-Tien Carry Bacillus anthracis (ISCC/9) 121 APPENDIX Ga General Table of Incidents in Korea and NE China 123 APPENDIX Gb Entomological Data on the Insects Disseminated by U.S. Military Planes (ISCC/10) . 125 APPENDIX H Summary Tabulation of Species of Insects and Spiders Identified; Graphs Showing Anamolies in the Appearances of Unusual Insect Populations and of Winter Temperatures of Shenyang and Harbin, 1951-1952 in Comparison with Figures for 1950-1951 165 APPENDIX I Questions Addressed to the Korean Minister of Health and Replies Received . 173 APPENDIX Ja Report on Fungus-LadeDt Plant Materials Dispersed by U.S. 1\tilitary Planes in Northeast China and in the Northern Part of Korea (ISCC/7a) 181 i APPENDIX Jb Report on Two Kinds of Leaves of South Korean Plants Disseminated by U.S. Military Planes in the Northern Part of Korea and Northeast China (ISCC/7b) . 191 APPENDIX K "Report on Plague in Changteh, Hunan" (Dec. 12th 1941) (ISCC/1) . . 195 APPENDIX L Memorandum on Certain Aspects of Japanese Bac. 213 terial Warfare (ISCK/6) APPENDIX M Report on Voles Infected with Pasteurella pestis Dropped by a U.S. Military Plane at Kan-Nan Hsien, Heilungchiang Province (ISCC/2) . 217 Document M-1 Orders and Reports from Various Ranks • 228 of Governmental Offices . Document M-2 A Report on the Investigation of the Discovery of Voles in the Tenth District of Kan-Nan Hsien, Heilungchiang Province . 236 Document M-3 Report on Zoological Identification • 242 Document M-4 Report on the Comparison Between the Voles Collected at Kan-Nan and Microtus . 243 gregalis (Pallas) Document M-5 Report on Bacteriological Examinations . 244 Document M-6 Protocols of Bacteriological Examination of the Voles Collected from Kan-Nan Hsien 247 Document M-7 Statistics of Cases of Plague Occurring in Different Months in Endemic Area of Northeast China, 1947-1951 . • 253 Document M-8. Sketch Showing the Route Along Which the American Plane Dropped Voles in Kan-Nan Hsien . 257 APPENDIX N Hearings on the Kan-Nan Incident: Depositions of Eye-Witnesses and Others; Observations of the Commission Made on the Spot; Assembly of Data 259 APPENDIX 0 Report on theComparison Between the Voles Collected at Microtus gregalis (Pallas) (ISCC/2a) . · 271 ii • 277 APPENPIX P Commentary on the Identification of Voles APPENDIX Q Article "Bacteriological Warfare" by Sakaki Ryohei, Formerly Major, Epidemic Prevention Service, Japanese Kwantung Army (Abridged Translation) . 281 .APPENDIX R Report on a Case of Plague in Kang-Sou Goon, Pyong-An-Nam Do Caused by Contact with Fleas Infected with Plague and Dropped by a U.S. Military Plane on March 25, 1952 (ISCK/2) . 287 APPENDIX S Hearings on the Kang-Sou Incident (Plague); Replies of Eye-Witnesses and Statements by · Scientific Experts 303 APPENDIX T Report on the Spreading of Human Fleas Infected with Plague Bacilli by the U.S. Military Planes (ISCK/3) . • 307 Document T-1 Report of Local Epidemic Prevention Committee (No. BC-11) . 308 Document T-2 Reports of Eye-Witnesses . 309 Document T-3 Report on Entomological Identification . 311 Document T-4 Report on Bacteriological Examination . 312 Document T-5 Report of Field Investigation on the Discovery of Fleas at Song-Dong, Hoi-Yang 314 Goon APPENDIX U Hearings on the Hoi-Yang Incident (Plague): Statements of Eye-Witnesses and Scientific Experts 317 APPENDIX V Report on the Calcareous Bacteriogical Bomb. Dropped by U.S. Military Plane at K'uan-Tien 319 Hsien, Liaotung Province (ISCC/3) . Document V-la Study on the External Shape of the Cal328 careous Bacterial Bomb Document V-lb Report on X-Ray Analysis 330 Document V -lc Report on Spectrographic Analysis . 332 Document V:-2 Report on Chemical Analysis 334 Document V-3 Report on Entomological Identification 335 (Anthomyiid F.lies) iii Document V-4 Report on Entomological Identification (Wolf Spiders) . 336 Document V-5 Report on Bacteriological Examination .. 337 (Anthomyiid Flies) Document V-6 Report on Bacteriological · Examination 341 (Spiders) Document V-7 Report on Bacteriological Examination 345 (Feathers) Document V-8 Dr. Ma Shih-Chun's Statement . . 347 APPENDIX W Commentary on the Case of the "Eggshell" Con349 tainer Found at K'uan-Tien APPENDIX X Note on the Incident of June 6th . APPENDIX Y Report on Four-Compartment Bombs Dropped by a U.S. Military Plane at Ch'ang-Pai Hsien, Liaotung Province (ISCC/ 4) 355 APPENDIX Z Notes on Exhibits at Pyongyang of Containers Used by U.S. Armed Forces for Bacterial Warfare (ISCK/7) 357 APPENDIX AA Report on the Occurrence of Respiratory Anthrax and Haemorrhagic Anthrax Meningitis following the Intrusion of U.S. Military Planes over North361 east China (ISCC/5) Document AA-1 Document AA-2 353 Report on Bacteriological Examination of Feathers 381 Report on Entomological Identification of 384 Houseflies . Document AA-3 Report on Bacteriological Examination of 385 Houseflies Document AA-4 Report on Entomological Ide:htifi.cation of 388 Ptinus fur - Document AA-5 Report on Bacteriological Examination of 389 Ptinus fur Docu:ment AA-6 Report on Bacteriological Examination of Autopsy Material from Tien Cheng-Ho . 392 . iv· Document AA-7 Report on Bacteriological Exainin.ation of 396 Autopsy Material from Chii Chan-Yiin Document AA-8 Report on Bacteriological Examination of Autopsy Material from Wei Liu-Shih 399 Document AA-9 Report on Bacteriological Examination of 402 Autopsy ¥aterial from Wang Tze-Pin . . Document AA-10 Autopsy Reports on Five Fatal Cases of Anthrax Infection . 405 . Document AA-11 Epidemiological Investigation of Five Fatal Cases of Anthrax Infection 416 APPENDIX BB Hearings on the Incidents in Liaotung and Liaohsi Provinces Connected with the Dissemination of Anthrax Bacilli and Fatalities Arising Therefrom 417 APPENDIX CC Report on Two Cases of Cholera in Dai-Dong Goon Caused by Eating Raw Clams Contaminated with V. cholerae and Dropped by a U.S. Military Plane during the Night of May 16, 1952 (ISCK/1) 429 DD Hearings on the Dai-Dong Incident (Cholera): Statements of Scientific Experts and Depositions of Eye-Witnesses . -. 441 APPENDIX EE Memorandum on the Mollusc, Meretrix meretrix as an Agent for Carrying V. cholerae (ISCC/11) 447 APPENDIX' FF Memorandum on Acute Encephalitis-A New Disease in Shenyang (Mukden) and its Neighbourhood, Produced by the Intrusions of Bacteria Disseminating U.S. Military Planes (ISCC/6) . 449 · Document FF-1 Abstract of Clinical Report 457 Document FF-2 Autopsy Reports . 460 APPENDIX GG Hearings on the Cases of a New Form of Encephalitis Occurring at Shenyang (Mukden) after American Air Intrusions . 471 HH Information on Arthropod-Borne Diseases of the Encephalitis Type in Man . 473 v APPENDIX II APPENDIX JJ Commentary on the Incidents (Mukden) (Encephalitis) at Shenyang 479 Notes on the Case of the South Korean Agent Sent to the Northern ,Part of Korea to Collect and ' APPENDIX KK Transmit to Am&rican Headquarters Epidemiolo485 gical Intelligence Testimony of Lt. K. L. Enoch Concerning His Participation in Bacterial Warfare Waged by the American Forces in Korea (SIA/14) . 491 APPENDIX LL Testimony of Lt. J. Quinn Concerning His Participation in Bacterial Warfare Waged by the American Forces in Korea (SIA/15) . . 501 · APPENDIX MM Testimony of Lt. F. B. O'Neal Concerning His Participation in Bacterial Warfare Waged by the American Forces in Korea (ISCK/4) . . 541 APPENDIX NN Testimony of Lt. P. R. Kniss Concerning His Participation in Bacterial Warfare Waged by the American Forces in Korea (ISCK/5) • 575 APPENDIX 00 Notes on Interviews with Four Captured Ameri. 593 can Airmen APPENDIX PP Memoradum on the Public Health and Hygiene APPENDIX QQ . 609 Movement in New Chfua . Report on the Occurrence of Epizootics of Septiaemia among Fowls Following the Dissemination by U.S. Military Planes of Spiders Carrying Pasteurella multocida (ISCC/12) 617 Document QQ-1 Report on Entomological Identification 622 (Wolf Spiders from Penhsi) Document QQ-2 Report on Bacteriological Examination 623 (Spiders from Penhsi) Document QQ-3 Report on Entomological Identification (Wolf Spiders from Antung) 625. Document QQ!4 Report on Bacteriological Examination 626 (Spiders from Antung) vi Document QQ-5 Report on Bacteriological Examination (Ducks from Antung) . 627 Document QQ-6 Report on Bacteriological • 628 Document QQ-7 Report on Bacteriological Examination 629 (Duck from Chinchow) APPENDIX RR Declaration by Dr. Franco Graziosi . 631 APPENDIX SS Excerpt from Medical Literature Presented as a Reference Concerning the Use of Exploding Projectiles for the Dissemination of Pathogenic Organisms 633 APPENDIX TT Biographical Register of Chinese. and Korean Scientists and Medical Men 635 NOTE: The following conventions have been adopted for the titles of the documents here assembled. Statements of cases prepared by groups of Chinese and Korean scientists for the. consideration of the Commission are termed Reports. These are sometimes followed by Commentaries on the case, prepared by the Commission. Records of the depositions and interrogations of witnesses, both lay and scientific, are termed Notes or Hearings. Written depositions of some length are listed as Testimonies. Material on various relevant scientific questions is assembled in Memoranda. All Reports presented to the Commission by the Korean and Chinese specialists bear the index numbers ISCK/ and ISCC/ rsspectively; for convenience of reference, according to the country in which they were submitted. In the notes of the HearingS, the questions asked by the members of the Commission are not given because they are implicit in the answers recorded. The questions are denoted by initial letters as follows:(A) Andreen, (P) Pessoa, (M) Malterre, (N) Needham, (Z) Zhukov, (T) Tsien. vii (0) Olivo, APPENDIX A Chronological of the Meetings of the Commission Meeting 1. Peking, June 23, 1952. -Formation of Preparatory Commission. -Organisation of working schedule. -Presentation of 5 memoranda (containing background information and comments prepared by European scientists). Meeting 2. Peking, June 25, 1952. -Election of temporary Scientific Secretary of the Commission. -Report on Khabarovsk Trial. Meeting 3. Peking, June 27, 1952. -Presentation of a Chinese Report on biological warfare waged by Japanese in 1941-1943. -Discussion on insects mentioned in Prague documents. -Communication on biological containers reported by Mr. Burchett. Meeting 4. Peking, June 28, 1952. -Discussion on scope of, work of the Commission. -Discussion on last date of arrival for other specialist.. Meeting 5. Peking; July 1, 1952. -Meeting with Chinese bacteriologists, general discussion on encephalitis, anthrax, plague, diphtheria, and typhoid. Meeting 6. Peking, July 1, 1952. -Inauguration of Full Commission and of Permanent Scientific · Secretary. -Report on work of the Preparatory Commission. -Comments on the laboratory findings of Chinese experts. Meeting. 7. Peking, July 3; 1952. -Presentation of scheme for incidents analysis. -Discussion on entomological abnormalities. - 63 - Heeting 8. Peking, July 5, 1952. -Presentation of the subject of insects as carriers of diseases. -Discussion. Meeting 9. Peking, July 7, 1952. -Discussion continued. Meeting 10. Peking, July 9, 1952. -Meeting with Chinese experts, general discussion· on encephalitides. -Report on discussions with Chinese phytopathologists. -Discussion on identification of arthropods mentioned in Prague documents. -Communication of studies on flies as germ carriers. Meeting 11. Shenyang, July 12, 1952. -Presentation by Dr. Wang Pin, Minister of Health, People's Government of Northeast China, of cases to be studied by the Commission. Meeting 12. Shenyang, July 12, 1952. -Report on Kan-Nan incident by Dr. Pai Hsi-Ch'ing, Vice-Minister of Health, People's Government of Northeast China. -Fixing date for work in the bacteriological laboratory of the National Medical College, Shenyang. Meeting 13. Shenyang, July 13, 1952. -Hearings of 10 witnesses from Kan-Nan region. Meeting 14. Shenyang, July 14, .1952. -Reports by Chinese experts on Kan-N an case. -Discussion. on trip to Kan-Nan. Meeting 15. Shenyang, July 14, 1952. -Further discussion on above. July 15, 1952. Department for Kan-Nan July 17, 1952. Back to Shenyang Meeting 16. Shenyang, July 17, 1952. -Resume of data on Kan-Nan. Meeting 17. Shenyang, July 18, 1952. :_Further discussion on Kan-Nan incident and on the re-examination of laboratory findings carried out at National Medical College, Shenyang. - · 64 - Mceti11g 18. Shenyang, July 19, 1952. -Discussion· continued on Kan-Nan incident. -Dic;cussion on trip to Korea. Meeting 19. Shenyang, July 19, 1952. -Report by Dr. Pai Hsi-Ch'ing on K'uan-Tien incident. -Presentation and discussion on the various types of containers the dissemination of vectors. -Discussion on relation between vectors and diseases. -Hearings of witnesses. for Meeting 20. Shenyang, July 21, 1952. Presentation of commentary on Kan-Nan incident and on K'uan-Tien. container or bomb. Meeting 21. Shenyang, July 22, 1952. -Presentation of Liaotung and Liaohsi incidents. -Report by Dr. Pai Hsi-Ch'ing on cases of respiratory anthrax and hemorrhagic anthrax meningitis and reports by Chinese experts. Meeting 22. Shenyang, July 22, 1952. ....:..Discussion continued on anthrax cases. -Hearings of 7 witnesses. -Reports by bacteriologists. Meeting 23. Shenyang, July 23, 1952. -Hearings of 10 witnesses on Liaotung and Liaohsi incidents. Meeting 24. Shenyang, July 23, 1952. -Hearings of 6 witnesses on Liaotung and Liaohsi incidents. Shenyang, July 24, 1952. -Visits to the Departments of Bacteriology and Pathology of National Medical College. -Examination of materials of anthrax cases. Meeting 25. Shenyang, July 24, 1952. -Presentation of the general subject of encephalitides. Meeting 26. Shenyang, July 25, 1952. -,-Report of Dr. Pai Hsi-Ch'ing on encephalitis cases. -Report of Chinese specialists on the clinical, epidemiological and etiological aspects of the cases of encephalitis. Meeting 27. Shenyang, July 25, 1952. -Discussion and drafting of interim declaration before departure Korea. - 65 - July 26, 1952. Departure for Korea. · July ·28, 1952. Arrival in Korea, near Pyot;1gyang. Meeting 28. near Pyongyang, July 28, 1952. -Discussion with Dr. Ri Ping-Nam, Minister of Health, Meetmg 29. Pyongyang, July 29, 1952. -Report on epidemiology of cholera in Korea in the past. -Presentation of Dai-Dong incident (cholera). Meeting 30. Pyongyang, July 29, 1952. -Reports of Korean bacteriologists and pathologists on the Dai-Dong ·· cases (cholera) . -Hearing of 3 witnesses on Dai-Dong incident. Meeting 31. Pyongyang, July 30, 1952. -Presentation of Kang-Sou incident (plague). :......,Hearing of 4 witnesses on Kang-Sou incident. Meeting 32. Pyongyang, July 30, 1952. -Report on Hoi.,Yang incident (plague). -Hearing of 2 witnesses on Hoi-Yang incident. -Hearing of· captured spy. July 31, 1952-Visit to Laboratories in Pyongyang area. Meeting 33. War Prisoners' Camp, August 3, 1952. -Hearing of Lt. J. Quinn. Meeting 34. War Prisoners' Camp, August -Hearing of Lt. F. B. O'Neal.. · ' 19S2. Meeting 35. War Prisoners' Camp, August 4, 1952. of Lt. Paul Kniss. Meeting 36. War Prisoners' Camp, August 4, 1952. -Hearing of Lt. K. Enoch; Aug. 5, 1952. Leave Korea, Aug. 6, 1952. Arrival in Shenyang. August 7, to Exhibition on Bacteriological War Crimes· Committed by the U.S. Armed Forces. August 9, 1952-Commission back to Peking. Peking, August 9, 1952. Meeting · -Discussion on editing of Report. - 66 Meetinii!' 38. . Peking, August 10, 1952. -Discussion continued on editing of Report. Meeting 39. Peking, August 11, 1952. -Discussion on Prague documentation. Meeting 40. Peking, August 12, 1952. -Discussion continued on Prague documentation. Peking, From August 13, 1952 to August 30, 1952. -Drafting the Report and assembling Appendices. Peking, August 31, 1952. -Signing of the Report by all members of the Commission. -Press Conference. Statistics of Witnesses Interrogated before the full Commission Laymen Appendices H. J. N. s. u. v.,w. X. Y. BB. FF., GG. DD. JJ. oo.· Phytopathology Entomology K.an-Nan K.angsou Hoiyang K'uan-tien Incident of June 6 Changp'ai Liaotung & Liaohsi Encephalitis Dai-Dong Agent Airmen Scientists 1 5 3 6 4 3 3 0 12 0 24 0 3 1 4 5 6 5 10 3 2 2 Total 5 3 16 7 5 5 1 12 29 6 8 0 1 0 4 Apart from the witnesses mentioned above, members of the Commission had the opportunity of talking either individually or in small groups to a large number of other witnesses. - 67 - APPENDIX B General Survey on the Principles of Transmission of Diseases by Insect Vectors and Related Subjects I. DISCUSSION ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS* 1-Lucilia sericata (Meigen), Fam. Calliphoridae. There are 39 specimens of this species which is easy to identify. The identification of the genu(:! is based on the work of Senior White, Aubertin and Smart: "Fauna of British India, Diptera." P. 27 Vol. VI, 1940. We know already that this genus is characterized by having three pairs of post-sutural dorsacentral bristles on the mesonotum and a smooth parafaciallia. The species in question is no doubt the sericata. Professor Ch'en has specimens in his collection which help comparative studies. One of the assistants of Professor ·ch'en has ready for print an article on the classification of the Chinese species of Lucilia. We are in agreement with the identification. 2-Muscina stabulans (Fallen). Specimens collected from many localities have been examined. Large numbers of specimens have been received. The identification of this species is very easy because it is very characteristic. It is not necessary to spend more time on the details of the tax<;momy of this species because this fly is mentioned in all parasitology textbooks. We are in agreement with the identification. 3-Musca vicina Macquart. This species is closely related to Musca domestica. Only recently it was still considered as a variety of Musca. domestica. The great difficulty in the differentiation between these two species (M. domestica and M. vicina) has been solved by Professor Feng in his article, "Morphological Studies of the Common House Fly, Musca vicinia in China." Peking Natural History Bulletin, Vol. 19, pt. 2-3, 1951, 278-284. We are in agreement with the identification. • The verification of the various species of insects was carried out at the Parasitology Laboratory of the China Union Medical College through the help of Professors Ch'en and Feng. The Commission wishes to thank these professors for their friendly and helpful cooperation in this work. - 69 ·- 4-Tabanidae. Professor Ch'en stated that the Medical College has not received specimen of tabanids. 5-T·ipulidae. Trichocera sp. probably maculipennis. The identification was carried out according to the paper of Masaki and Tokunaga: "New or Little Known Trichoceridae from' Japan (Diptera) ". Tenthredo -Acta Entomolgica Vol. 2, 1938, page 39. The Chinese experts were right in identifying it as Trichocera sp., because there were a few characteristics slightly different from T. maculipennis. Professor Ch'en stated that he is not a specialist on this group but he has collections of tipulids for comparison. We are in agreement with the identification. 6-Nycteribiidae: this group of insects. The Parasitology Laboratory has no specimen of 7-Plecoptera-N emoura sp. This specimen has been identified by the famous Chinese expert Wu Chen-fu who is a great authority on zoology. He was Professor of Zoology of the Yenching University, Honorary Professor of The Fan Memorial Institute of Biology and Visiting Professor of Entomology in Cornell University. He has published important works on zoology, among which there is the "Catalogus Insectorum Sinensium" in six volumes. This Chinese expert has written a monograph on the Chinese Plecoptera. The Commission agrees with the identification of this specimen because nowwhere else can we find an expert as qualified as Professor Wu 00 specimens of these parasites." Breeding of Ticks Because of the necessity for a massive production of vaccine against the Rocky Mountain spotted fever and against exanthematic fever of Sao Paulo (Brazil), both of which are Rickettsial diseases and are transmitted by ticks, one can accomplish today with great ease the cultivation of ticks on a large scale. In the United States, the .Rocky Mountain Laboratory carried out cultivation of great numbers of Dermacentor andersoni and in Sao Paulo, the Institute of Butantan, also carried out large scale cultivation of Amblyomma cayennense. We shall not go into details about the methods of artificial cultivation of these arthropodes, which are well known and are published in books specialized on the subject in question. It is necessary, however, to call attention to the fact that 'ticks so cultivated can be kept in stock for one year or more in glass tubes. During this period, they are conserved at a temperature of 6"C and a relative humidity of 80%. Breeding of Spiders Baerg (1937) described the method of cultivation of tarentule spiders of the species Eurypelma californica. The young spiders are nourished on small insects. Termites are suitable insects for the nourishment of the young spiders until the latter reach 3 years old. The adult spiders are nourished on locusts, cockroaches, crickets and various caterpillers, etc. The spiders of the species Eurypelma californica 'feed once a week, and those of the genus Dugesiella (Dugesiella crl.nita) feed more frequently and take more food. The adult spiders can live entirely without food for more than two years. But they are less resistant to the shortage of water. It is therefore necessary to have always water in the incubator, because without water, they will die within two months. The female lays a large number of eggs which in normal conditions give birth .to 600-1200 young tarentules. - 89 - Breeding of Collembola Macnamara and Spencer (1924) have described the procedure for the cultivation of Collembola. They are animals very sensitive to the lack of water. In captivity, they ne.ed always sufficient humidity. They can be bred in a container with pieces of moist paper. It is necessary also to carry out the cultivation with the container always closed because the young ones are sensitive to the air currJent. The females lay a large number of eggs. The alimentation of the Collembola varies according to the species. Isotoma palustris feeds on algae, while other species such as A-nurida maritima is carnivorous and feeds on mollusca. The colonies are · maintained for many years, when the food and humidity are suitable. Breeding of Plecoptera In the book published in North America "Culture Methods for Invertebrate Animals." (1937) are quoted the work of the Chinese scientist Wu Chen-fu on this question. This :scientist is the person who identified the genus Nemoura sp. (Plecoptera) among arthropods dropped by American planes in Korea. According to Wu Chen-fu, the Nemoura are herbivorous and can survive without food for several days. The cultivation of Plecoptera is carried out by very simple processes. The nymphs are conserved in vases containing moist .leaves until they hatch into adults. After one week, mating takes place and several days later, the females begin to lay their eggs. Breeding of Coleoptera The artificial cultivation of Coleoptera, has been described in the "Culture Methods for Invertebrate Animals.". We give in the following a list of the principal families in which various species have been cultivated : Carabidae, Haliplidae, Gyrinidae, Hydrophilidae, Silphidae, Staphyliniflae, Pselaphidae, Elateridae,· Relodidae, Dermestidae, Erotylidae, Coccinellidae, Tenebrionidae, · Cisidae, Scarabaeidae, Passalidae, Cerambycidae, Chrysomelidae, Mylab,.idae, Curc'ltlionidae, Scolytidae. - 90 - V. GENERAL ENTOMOLOGICAL CONSIDERA T!ONS 1. Mosquitoes and Flies General considerations, The report of the Chinese scientists refers to mosquitoes and fties. Mosquitoes and flies are very different in their morphology, ecology, biology and in their capacity of transmitting diseases. Mosquitoes are inferior Diptera, while flies are superior Diptera. The larvae of mosquitoes, which almost entirely live in water, have visible heads (cephalic larvae). The larvae of flies, generally found in decomposed substances, are acephalic. The adults, which originate from cephalic larvae, come out through a T-shaped slit on the cephalic end of the pupal skin of the nymphs, a'nd they have no frontal ampule (ptilinum) at the moment of emergence; they are Dipterae Orthorhapha (Tabanidae, Culicidae, etc.). Theadults, which originate from acephalic larvae, come out through a circular orifice of barrel-shaped puparium. The circular ori:fiee is produced by the pressure of the frontal ampule on the two valves of dehiscence at the anterior end of the puparium. They are Dipterae Cyclorrhapha (Muscidae, Oestridae, etc.) ' Flies are characterized by short, three-segmented antennae, stocky bodies and broad wings (Brachycera). Mosquitoes have slender bodyand filiform antennae of several segments {Nematocera). A. Mosquitoes Mosquitoes of the family Culicidae -possess considerable imparlance from the medical point of view. They are the vectors transmitting to man malaria, :filariasis, yellow fever, dengue fever, encephalitis, etc. They also play a very important role in the mechanical or biological transmission of other diseases. For the moment we shall not approach the questions of malaria and filariasis because they are generally chronic diseases with low mortality rates. We shall proceed to discuss a question that is more important for us. It deals with the transmission of encephalitis by mosquitoes. The arthropod-borne encephalitis comprises a group of diseases caused by closely related viruses. Birds are possibly the natural hosts of most of these types of viruses, but many other animals in nature ma.:y- be - 91 infected. The usual vectors are mosquitoes and ticks. We must not confuse the encephalitis transmitted by arthropods with encephalitis of type A (Economo type) which only afflicts man and is not transmitted by arthropods. The group of encephalitis transmitted by arthropods comprises the following types, but there are other less well known types and probably many others not yet identified: Encephalitis, St. Louis type. Encephalomyelitis,· Western equine. Eastern equine. Encephalomyelitis, Venezuela equine. Encephalitis, Japanese type B. Encephalitis, Russian spring-summer. Louping ill. All the above mentioned types of virus encephalitis transmitted by arthropods produce in man diseases of similar clinical symptomatology, differing only in their severity and mortality rate. The onset is sudden with fever, chills, headache, nausea, pain in the neck and the whole body. The patient becomes somnolent, and in certain cases may enter into coma. The mortality rate may reach 75% in eastern equine. type of encephalomyelitis, or 60% in the Japanese type B. Venezuelan encephalomyelitis and louping ill are more benign, since they do not cause death. The western equine encephalomyelitis tends to afflict adults; in the United States and Canada alone there were 3,000 cases in 1951. The virus of the eastern equine encephalomyeliti.s almost always afflicts children with a high mortality rate; and a part of 'the.· children who survive, manifest sequelae such as paralysis and mental· disturbances. • The viruses of encephalitis are in general very similar but immunologically different. Nerve tissue containing the virus preserved in 50% glycerine remains infectious for one year in the deep freezer; while it keeps still longer in the lyophilized state. A great number of mosquitoes are involved in the transmission of the virus of encephalitis; ticks, triatomids and mites are also important vectors . .A table of Hull (1947) showing the various species transmitting encephalitis is given herewith. · · 92 - Arthropod Vectors of Encephalitides Virus d ell d d.> o::s ...;:;: tf.l Mosquitoes Aedes aegypti Aedes albopictus Aedes cantator Aedes atropalpus Aedes dorsalis Aedes japonicus Aedes lateralis Aedes nigromaculis Aedes taeniorhynchus Aedes vexans Aedes solicitans Aedes togoi Aedes triseriatus Anopheles maculipennis freeborni Anopholes neomaculipalpus Culex pipiens Culex pipiens var. pall ens Culex stigmatosoma Culex tarsalis Culex tritaeniorhynchus Culiseta incidens Culiseta in ornata Mansonia tittilans Ticks:i . Dermacentor andersoni · Dermacentor silvarium Dermacentor variabilis Haemaphysalis concinna Ixodes persulcatus Ixodes ricinus Assassin bug: .Triatoma sanguisuga Mite: Dermanyssus gallinae + + + + + + + + + + + + -t- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ad> ·s::: =§fl! .!!l 5 1'1.1+' --- --+* +* +* +* bO la tf.ll-< ..... d :;:1.-! o.-< ..... &lr.%s .. +* +* + + + + + + + + ::s -t- + +* + +* C!)nts Chao Kwang-Hsin Lu Chung-Ch'eng App. QQ I.A.D.L.*/00006 + age ntH by Identification 1. Nonlivin f!; Identified See11 by + Mur. 4 Spiders, F lies, etc, + Mar. Springtails Mar. Villagp. 2 + Mar. Vi!lug·e Lao-Kwan Village, FE'b. 29 Ta-Yu District. DisE'ase ---------.··--- ,-------------- -- - ·----------- --- --- ·- · ------.. Seasonal Anomalies 1---Number of c1ays Anomalies in the by which the Places where t h e Insects, etc. we1·e 1 1em: disC'overc>d cerned an tedates their normal appearance -9.9"C ahout 50 r- -·- -- -- . .. Bacteriological Ex1 Mnximum den sity Ol' quantity (approx imate) About 1 sq. Km. On surface of s now and icc, . ,--- ··· · ····- .... .. Areas covered by ngent8 (Investigation done mostly .:l-2 days after discovery) Condition of Jdc)ltified by Zoolog-ica l OJ' Botanical Jrlcntific ntin-Fa 11. 12. I App. Gb . Jo'u-Shtm City + Y n Chi-Yuan, 10. 2 Mar. 2 Chung Ku o-Yu App, Gb. Ta-ICou Yillag·(l, . Li-J en Village and Chu Yen-Chang Chin Yu-Fang Li Jun-Chih Liu Po-Ching Ta-Pie n :Kou Villoge, 7th District, Hsin-pin Hsien Mnr. 3 + + Tai-ping l{ou VilJngP., 2 nd District, Chi-an Hsi en Mar. 3 + + }Jun g-sh ih -In-tze V illage, Gth Dishict K unn-tie n TJgien Mar. 4 + Ynng-m u-li n Viilng e District, ChiAn H s ien Mar: + + Village, Ai-ho, 7th D istt·ict An-tung City Mar. 4 Plng-chung Street, Long-tou Districl, 11 + Flies, F l eas , Mosqu itoes, Springt a ils -6.2"0 about 10 On surface of ,,... X % kilometers + 1\:Iar. Spiders --7.0"C i abo ut 50 On sul'face of s now Springtails + Mar. + 3 Flies , mosquitoes, Fleas, spiders Mar. Field-crickets tl + Mar. 4 + Mar. 4 Dlll'ing r.n nil' raid a white obje ct like u water-melon see n dl'Ol'll· ing from the air, w hich burst when It was about liO m. above tho g1•ound . Mar. 4 Mnr. 4 --7,2"C abouL SO F lies, Mosquitoen, -7.2•c - Yueh Yang Chlng-Pr) Fan-chill-tun, lith District, Chinehow + Mar. 4 Spiders, black beetles + Mar. F leas Mosquitoes, -7.2"C 2000 m. On surface o:f s now 250 X 10 m. In the field and road along 4 z Mar. G + l _\, \ _!\!_....- 1 ab6ut 50 about 40 ;:.:,_..;=-';;=. - ..o;; F lies Mosquitoe s , -3"C 1..-::· not 10- 20/ sq. m. ! Cou!d move Grylhts testacetts .. Chu H. F. In bout, sc>emed to be pnrulyzed by " 1) 100/sq. m. About 80,000 1-: .. , .•__ ,; •.-o ·- 6-7{ sq. m. . .-: About 600 sq. m. . On surface of snow n -. lr. _ Mttsciln.astabulans Helom.yza mod.estlt Pule:n imtans " L C Chao C S HelomyzaTMildesta '·'- _, ' :·:t.:.' l .IC7 Chen S. !H. Lu P. L. Lin c. L. Orthocladius sp. _·_:.;.;. . . _:-;. "I; about 40 . . . · > O:hen 8. J:T, Lu P . L. - "" ,., 1 -:-;; . • if.( s " ' 1 '" + Sbe.nya:ng and .. ILA.n.l. ' :1\fn S.C. 'l Fl i P.s, .- 7.2•c IP. m-ultoG!dlil '\o-.;' ntlg F. C'. Lu P. L. ':;;_ 1 Ma r . 4 Rickettsia onee found · )100/sq. m. sq. m. ' J.A.D.L./00008 SlA/8 (8) • s. c. I On surfaco of snow by rivet• side Jn maize field Tare1zl11lct sp. lsotoma argishina - Flies, Spiders, Mosguitoes , . Ext ormination of & disinfection I Several hundreds per sq. m . X 10 m. ·tion H aien 18, About !1\. Isotoma negishina. ... _ s. H. Lu P . L L. C. Chao C. S. 20/sq. m. On :mr.f:.\ce of snow An-tung Outs ide of Houth rate ancl nren be- 5000 G0- 70/ sq . m. 250 X 200 m. 4 J.'JI!e;r in·itans , 3 Springtails + 6 m. high 12m. high On Rladium, On roof top 4- Old-station Ol d-station District, S he n-yang City App. Gb. 'i. I to Mm·. 2 Liu Kuang-Yi, etc. Tan g Yu-Ying 6. Race course, Fu-shun City " ;-'=j_ J S. paNitvphosa C and S. tflphosa ..,)._' -'?"... ,:::;;- ...... i:lJ-'>.fv unu o l OJ - Ll Shlh -Yung 16. Se11-tao Kou Ylllaj;te, Dlatrlct of Lin- Mar. 5 Mar. + (J F lies Mo squitoes -u.s•c F)eas, Mos quitoes, Spiders -2 ·c On surface of snow Abou-t 60,000 sq. rn. -· Jhien 16. 17. App. Ob. I.A,D,L./00008 SIA/8( 4) and 11 18. Shan Wen-Junrr Tu T'aao Hunr·l'IUlg, · e.tc. Wu Ching-Jl'u, etc. 19. z .... I.A.D.L./00()05 Ohiang We.ni'ISCC/5, AJlll . .AA, Ch'ang,. e tc. SlA/8(6), S.I.A./6 5th Dlatrlot, City' 6 +, + ..l Wu-11-tan Bridge, Kou•c:bill-tte, statio-n , Shenyang Mar. 7 Lung'-wang Mlao 7th Dlatrlet, Ma r. 10 6th Mar. 11 air like s now f lakes wera found to be insect!! when they renehed the ground . + 21. (SJA/8) LA.•D,L./OOOOl Chung-Yllll., etc. K110 Ran Yung-Pjn A-pp Y, LJ Sau-Oh:io.n 8(2), 12 - u z . .App, J'a Outalde of e11st gate Kuan-tlen About 110,000 Flies, + + :· _, A greyish white object WIIB dropp'e d by alrplane flying over the Th-e object to illre ·sontheast of :.. the v1Uage it exploded ai\.d disappeared shorlly before re.aching - + _ ·· 1.1 ·c .::.• about 60 Along raihvay; on anci under . .. • •c.o-.·,.. Mosquitoes 13 + + at first but rapidly ._._- . -::;--:;- + . "' ;}h - 11 ,_,., rater ... Calcal'eous fragments steel cap-sbaped pl at:e (lnd iron axis. Chao, 0. Y., Ho, 'r.n., Chang, Y. C. !;...' ·_h_!ly_s!_a_cks _ Mar. 18-22 Flie s Spiders _f'l L_u a n-s4i h Hill, s·outh enst o£ the v illage · :_, - .: .. .• .. 1 i -=....; about 60 Feathers about 40 _ -- " Snow ground ncar ·point of impact -:; Liu !;;;:z. c. Ir. - About 1!600 s q. m. (}hen ) , - 100 s q. m. - _ .iti c:::f="!-:-'f::c-:;_l l l.lg;-:-Tl.< "'!" • " clean } \· . - _ = II " i"'" ·' .,.-_- ·'' • .. Q· • G'olleoted a nd bul'n'ed _ - .., s. H. .F.u P. Lt. _: _ ,_ ;. White and downy \: · cl Chen S. H. Lu P. T,. sp. White in color l ilte duc.k feathers it :-=-_;;-;.,.. I'.'; - ' Flying __ - - - " ln . --· '- : I· -::· ..... ,...- sp. at the "'"" !g- <'-J hut Intel' on some it could rrawl • -, . . ·· ::·. _, Mar. .• : 20-80 """'. Feathers - . Mostly non-mobile per sq. m. sq. m' . Mar. 7 :'.. 12 ahout 60 • ..._.:;:...--: Mar. 12 ].far. 13. + An-tung Tien-yi Viii ago., 5th Dis-trict, Chuang· llo Rs!en . . ' j;'.I:UUIJJlCnred on s ub-e u1 turing fo u nd 1'1ll'l' Ill Hllr S )l . P. muliocidct \'.'a11g F. l'. Lu T' . L . lsotmua HI'!Jisllil!a S un, C . C. Du cks Hsi ng- lun g s heet Antung city l\Iarch 8 + Fowl Septicemiu Sun C. c. P . nwltocida I Ch a o C. r 1 C' hu (':. M Coll ec ti on and extermination of spiders Ducks were l ooking for food at the place where s piders found !\fa S. C. --..-···-··---·-·--:----··- t - - --t---r---r--T-- -t--t--H-+-+--t-- - t - - -+---+---+------+----1----tr•slat't'lll> Chu II. 1<'. An.tun!r temperature II ' futtht a 1tabrclnns t1 lom.vzn Pul :r iTrflan• Hel.mnuZJJ mod(Wa Ortltocla.di!LI sp. + [ --- ..... - ... -·- _, ___ .. - .. --- Chen Lu P. L. r'lensc r•. c·. C'hnu C, S. --· - - -..--------l--------+--------1--------+----· temperature ..... l'hc n S. IL Ln !'.I.. Liu l'. L. I S. paratypilosa C and S. typhosa ----- Chi ng K .H. M. ' Chu c. I - ---+--M•rch + + rolleeted nne! bul' ned Chen S. H. Lu P. L. " Llu • L. Chen S. 1:{, t.u P. I,. Extermination C"olleeted ai:ld burned Li P.L. WuT. T. H sin , & Cheng K. East Shuang-sban village is 1% kilometer away from Pei-clling villaee and the 1a.nd of the dead man ia about 1 Km. from Pei-chlng v:illa&'e Collected and extermin11tod Cb n S. H.Lu P.r... WangF•• Collected artd externt· tnnted Colleeted and burned Colleeted an d burn&d Chin Y. T. Feng L. P. Fllea were also diecovered no.rth to Man-chlng station at the same time Collected and b1l.r'ned Ertumtnatfon hy burning Diainfeetfon . tVPh034 ·lO"C in the night when hleee.ta were> diseonl'ed .... ··' 0 _. -· 'l'le.-JiVU Iilla. ·' +. Ch:UIUlJ» Collecte.d and exilerminateil . t 'Ito ll.tell -z - H. u + 8lll· ya K.ou. K._ A:lltUlur .a. l..A.I>-l.../00004, .App. Wa.o« Yu-T 1, •te. AA. Sl'AI:a 1-- - + - -IUl :.::;,;;.. d ..;ll.;..;(jl:..:)_ +_ - + S..U·lao VIIi_,., :u-jllllc Oit,v ---+----- u. SUll.:.ellsa-pao-ba. Wll-•lUI&' .P•I, A.pp. J'a f,;, ·- l Wanll' Yo-Pint:, ft. : I + )l(a:r. 17 + I 2ft. I' l B ala·Lan, Q . .rar. .Fir.t DU!trkt, lsi..-. + 11) + t.A..D.wooooa Wu Feq·Chlb ___ t 30. : St. Jotn Wan-1\a, --\I'll · A.\. I l lo trout ol Tl.eltVUiq;e, r.tu-erb-pLt ate. ' 1 .. - -· .... - No_rt _ h_Jl - is_t_l'i_c_t_,___ :Mar. l!7 o:f abollt aooo m. Mar. :20 smell . Mar. Mar. Mar. l!O to Snutll reddhLh insecta ·f e lr. ! . t'tC'. I Ar· 1 Dis trict, K11n-Nnn li•Ien ('hl"n Wan-Fu, I quitoes, flies. ll!ar. Flie s, Mo squitolls, small Mar. F'li cs, + + - . ! Penll'llll (P)•Ont· kangJ, Kanvon ! 1 ---- I IKnnKWO n Do ) _ ,!;!:\ · 1 " 3. CrickclR :; , Nnm ' Jlo t Dedon, ( DRidong) ·! _!. ...., , -- ·I Knndon, 1'1A 11 j 18 + Feb. ) •:. Sl.-\ ,' 1 A 1 •. SIA/1 An-!'.;am Do ··- ·-·- n.ii r -'-1'1'· X LA .D.L . =: j + Mnr. : 2fi + I Ju n. a ,.._ ' ,, .. '!:'_1 ' .- j; . Total area A/ides koreicus Cbln Y. T. Cbnng ']]. P. Collected nnd &xt e'Mn il)ate.d f' finttB fUT. Mu C.L. Lll P.L. Co llected nn.d but·ned /B. antnTacls ; li dowt\ Floating from upp er Nu-erh t'h'er Zia ena1 I• ttoru w,.tor l I; J : J On lee 1 l___ --- ___ i I 1 , i 1· 'Jbout no ! ·- · I On s urfac e o! .. snow nenr t ho containers Coll,e cted and burned ..... _____......... - ·.. - -- +-- - - -- + - - - - - ---+- - - - - + - - .. -- ... + -- ·- .. ...... Ortho cladius sp. Gryl!us testaceus 1 ' Liu C. L. Cbn H. F . 1 H s in ponds, in veg¥table cell nrs, et c. moved with difficu lty w. r . Chi S. L. !liite s i Flio • with diseased Lin y tmd ;mot" P. pestis Teui t ion of houses by f lamin g; Jd'l lin g of fleas, rats, cat s nnd dogs; Chi I L-----r-----.,-i I Kttwatsulcui e\ K 'anl!' Y. J. V. cho!erae i Hylcmu ia sp. Pulex irritcms Trombicu la akam1tSILi ! Hy!emyia sp. Pu lex irritans P . pestis P1.1.t ex in·itans P. pestis Hylemyiasp . V . cholerae -- - - -+------ - j' 1 - j j I, I __. __ ...... - ·4 ---l--+1---·- .. + j Ill j ----+--+--+-------· t + + International Associ!!tion of D emocrati<' Lawyers c!our-:zero &etiesl. , .. _ -- I 1 + i 1' I Fl ens i " , _____ I' I . 1 ! .. . ... ... .. ... .. ....---- ---- i \ ( --- Kim ]' l i ., " I Ptll ex irritans [ 1:1J1Jhosa and s · . dysentenae P. pestis " ... ..... .. --- ... .... ----------+-----1 I I ! I I ! F lens \ 1 1 On Pulex i1Titcms of . ------+------_-_--r-. __-_-_I+-r_c_l_a_m_•____ I I P. pestis kue _-__-_-__-__ __ ----Yalu Rivi:-:r Spiders and -----+I- : I --+--1----<11------· --+-!,-+-11---+- - -- - - -__·-.-..-...-.-.. _-_-.. -- .. Flies Fl ens Flie s Mar. : Kang- sou, l';oong- 11. - + , 27 .\i;r·_j Pl'O"g-yangCity ama11 holes 3 EfJ. m. I I ----.. ----·--- --·-- nwK -'2 AI' I'· R ,i. . i. 1 ----1 Jfl. PyongPo \t •. improving sanitntion. II I -, With black.i sh low spots and . 1 !1 Feb. j + 1 i ;t : ..!.. "': I ! _ ;. ·- - - --- - - - ··- - - - - - - - - - - - lf-----\--...,.. 1- - -- _____ I : l li})l -:.___----1f---...-:-'----:---J.-:. .·:T.:.2... . .!..= . _;_+"__:,':-1 : r- .+ -\-'o-lc-.-._____._!-- 1 1 I _-· ---- "i . -- -- --' ,:;.::::_::: : 1- ' . __ _ _ ('hulwon, , • :- : ,. 1 I - 3-4/sq . m. 10 I + Jnn. 2S ·_;•. ;;.. Mosquitoes I· Apt·. to , Sprin tails, ' Sp iders, t h rough the ai t·. 10 j. ,. '"' Ta } 30 X_20 km. I F ou r-com pa rtm ant bomb. I black ins ect s 31 -1--+-+-+--i---------------r-T---r- ----- - -- -- - t -!! FI:.•!!ie:,:.n:....,._ _ _ _ About 2,0000 aq. m. Outaide of house11 and in the f ield I 1---l--4-- -- - -......- Roo:f tops and court yard of a store, and its vicinity Some living and s ome dead l7 • . ! \ :t7. - . ! Spiders, Mol!- 26 + + + • '- 71heeap/1;ora sp. an d _ j --------r--..·---- -·- 1--t---+---- - t - ---+------+-- - - - - - r - - - - - t - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - - - --+------:--· ---+---------;---.,.----+--- · - ·-1- --- - - -- - - ... + ft 0ol1e.oted and burJred ,. + Msr. l 26 1000X80 m. about 60 - ·-- -·-t-- 1 - - - i -- i! Cbla·t...l-ahul Vl1141ll, Ch'anll' Qn sud'ace of 1 2'1 1.1 - 28 - - - - - - - -- f-- Minr·ehu Ro11d, , Mar. ' Sban-fu Road and 1 26 1 J.ao-tunll' LAke, C'h Clt1 - Mo squitoe s Mar. etc. Some frozen t o "death -- - -- - - - t - - - --t-·- l--19:.........+---- - - - l - - - - - - f - App. QQ. H u Shu-FanJI', 10 + per sq. m. About 900 sg. m. snow Leaves Feather• Ma:r. l- 1 -11.2"C Flies, Spiders 110 -·- •-, ·- .;." A :red object sh:nu.iating a th ermo& f luk Will sean to drop throu gh the air. Bttrst when ab out 8-t rn. above the roo! of th.e housee, with an nplo! lve puff nnd a dla agreoablc + I On s urface of s:n.ow and ice in n r!V·er ap:readlll.l!' of leavea, feathet'a, etc. I I : • 'I' ben tb.fy 'Wtre 11bout 100 m. above gt"ound t.bey auddenly b11ut with I + -t Mv. Flles, Mosqlii20 , toelS, Spiders . ,_T_1_+-- -I....---------------t--- C':;oi:.·,_·- r '- ....... ! I grai'D.s I H'· :: .- S.l>Ota· on I' . grains I1- Corn ...,._ Th.fffl w'hlto objacta nan. dl:oppi11g down r:rom a :1: ' . o. "'· :"-, + l!O I -; I Mar. Dlatrlet.. Llno-ya.ne. Llu-vrh•pu Town, Llao-yllnJ'. An·aha.n City. I ,......,.. Mar. · -/'.! .r • ! .. r:..:. ':.:i "'?' -• " • I . + + 20 lty 0!.' · (' Rll.llwq Sta.tion Xe-1lum lhleo All-tUll.l: ' ....$' f 19 1 • .. ! if ' Mar. 18 :-ii · """) ! j llla1:. Laha Tow.n, Na-ho Haieu . :::'- -f I Two kind s of in sec t s , 1______ __ ____ ( ..') w.rentula Collected - Must;cr. vicina Chin Y. T. Feng P. 17 burned • Co lected and btLrned .. -- •· l " ; 'I *- ,.'"F- I':" -· .-- Aedes koreicus Chin Y. T. Chang T . P. Collected and e xtermi nated Pti ntts fur. I,iu C. L. Lu P. L. Collected and bul'ned IB- anthracis Zia S. W. Chang N.C. Human Liu-e:rh-pu Town Llnoyang Anshan ci'tiy April 6 April •, Human Collected from water Ducks - --------------------t------------------r-a_n_d__ - + ci'ty .. .. Animal Breeding + + l Respiratory anthrax Janthrax l Li P.L. r )'I I Wu T. T. Liu S.M. anthracis , ______ -. + + ,. ., ' March ., of Marc intruded _ nT + Fowl Septicemia P. ytu.!tocida Ch-a o v.u, Serum Treatment Air alarm in the upp·er valley -i__ot__ __ __ . Col!j!cted a nd burned Liu C. L. Chu H. F. Microtus sp, ChiS . L. Burnin g & burying of vole s ; inoculation o.f P. pestis inhabitants, disinfection of hous.es by f lami ng; ld'lling of fleas, 1·ats, cats and dogs; improving sanitation . Liu Co ll ected and burned H sia W. I' . ormms p er sica S, K.. Lin Y and Y. J. fiylemyia s p. Pulex irritans Trombicula akamushi Flyl em yi a sp . Pulex irritans i rritan s Macrophoma K 1twatsu lcai fiylemyia sp . Tsui C. S. ChiS. L . r-: Shen C. Y. etc V. cholerae P . pestis _______j________________ P. Kim Oun En pestis .. ... 1___ 25 Q.. __ __ ,_ V. cho l erae uu':..!... __ S. ty11hosa and S. pamtyphosa - - ----- Pulex irri tan s S. dysenteriae P. pestis 1- Hyl emyia s p. V. cholerae Pulex iTrita 11 s !\II e1·etr ·l x mer etrix .;-. .. .. .. Orthocladius sp . GryUu s t estaceus .. 6;;r Rlu•nva11g . if' ______ Chingchow t ., I P. pestis Ri Chen Wen kuei P. pestis Chen Wen Kuei V. cholerae Kin lk-ze Wei Hsi Human Kang-Sou goon Dai-Dong 1 denth + + + + 2 deaths + .. TRAINING Case No. Name of War Prisoner CONTE N TS 2 Lt. J. Quinn OF REGARDING BAC TE.RIOLOGlC A L Place L iving Agent s Aug. 25, 1951 Iwakuni, Japan Mr. Wils on Oct. & Dec. 1951 Kunsan, Korea Major Brownin g Jan. 13, 1952 Jan. 13, 1952 18, 1951 June 1951 Feb. 22, 1952 Disease T1·ansmitting Agents Bacteria-Containers and Me thods of D issemination Lecturer .. Mr. Ashfork Craig Air Force Base, U.S.A. Capt. Laurie Camp Stonem;m, U.S.A. Capt. Holleman WA RF A R E LAC T U RE S Date of Capture Time Lt. K . L. Enoch RECEIVED (1) By drop ping a bomb f ull of dust and b acteria mixed together , which will ·op en in the a ir so that the w ind will spread the germ-laden dust; (2) by dropping dust dir ectly f r om the a irplane itself, by m eans of a spra ying d evice, so that ther e will b e germs in the air wherever the dust is spra yed; (3 ) by dropping a p aper or cardbo ard box full of germ d ust into w ater, which will open up aft er b eing thor oughly w etted; (4) by dropping a ger m b om b wh ich looks just like an ordinary bomb, but is filled with germ-laden insects, and which will op<:n on contact with the ground t o r elease them; (5) by d ropping insects in pap er or car dboard contamers which w ill break open on cont act w ith the gr oun d, releasing the in sects with th e ir germs; (6 ) by droppin g parachute containers which will release small animals inside upon contact w ith groun d, or by r elea sing such animals from a boat behind the enemy sh ore line; (7) by ar tiller y shells. In order to avoid h arm to the in sects, the bombs should be dropped from as low an al titude and a t as low a n airspeed as possible. If p arach u te- typ e weapons are used any altitude will suffice, but it should be suffi ciently low for example 1000 feet. Lice, fleas, flies, mosquitoes, rodents, r abbits and oth er small animals. Non -living Agents L eaflets, toilet paper, envelopes a nd o ther paper materials which h ave b ee n covered w ilh germs; ger m -filled soaps or clothing; fountain-pens filled with g er m -laden ink and food contamin ated w ith bacteria. T yphus, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, smallpox , malaria, yell ow fever and plague. Pilots and other 1 receiv e protective inc (1) The ger ms could be spread by dust, j ust as a smoke sc reen is laid down or spread by ships moving in close to shore when the wind is blowing on to the shor e or by low-flying jet aircraft; (2) by dropping boxes that will become very fragile in th e sun, allow ing germ-laden insects to crawl o ut; (3) by dropping bombs w hich look very much like regular 500 pounders will split into t wo hal ves on touching the · ground to r el ease insects; ( 4 ) by dropping bombs wh1ch will op en small doors in the air, thus letting the w ind blow out the insect-carrying b oxes inside; (5) by d rop ping insect-carrying clothes. Lt. P. R. Kniss Mar. 31, 1952 Mar. 21, 1952 iDee. 1, 1952 Lt. F. B. O'Neal \ Expected to see ! nel a ttending special b eing provided with s pecial inocul ations (1 ) Direct spraying f r om airplanes. (2) G erm bombs with var iable time -fuses (V. T. bomb). Containel·s a ttached to parachutes (carry ing animal or insect vectors) . (4 ) Direct con tamination of water-supply in the rear of enemy territory by intelligence agents. (3) Direct spraying from airplanes. (2) Y.T. germ bombs. (3). Animal pa rachute bombs. The V. T . germ bomb will b e dropped during a dive from 10,000 f eet t o 6,000 fe et. The bomb will explode about 100 feet above the ground and. spread the germs for around 100 y ds.· This bomb will be dropped close to a city but not in it, b ecause th e North Korean people have used disinfectants w idely in their cities and t hese would kill the germs. The animal parachute type will be dropped dur ing a dive from 10,000 f eet to 1,000 feet. The parachute will lower the bomb gently t o earth. When th e bomb strikes the ground, it w ill br e ak into two parts to let the animals and insects escape. This als o w ill be dr opped n ear a large city, but not in it, w here the people could kill the animals or insects as th ey escape. . . Wi th both types of bombs, the flight must not be o,·er 12,000 feet or else th e ammals, msects or germs will be killed due to lack of oxygen and the extreme cold. Lice, fleas, rodents. Baoteriologioal warfar e could be waged in twa ways: (1) by the ground forces using JJact eriological ar tillery shells and (2) "bY 1lhe Air :Blorces dropping germ bombs which contain either bacteria or bacteria int ecl:ed insects. Artillery shells carry less bacteria and their range of dispersion is Utnited to the front lines or relatively close to them. Bombs carry more bacteria and can be dropped far behind the front lines and deep into enemy territory. Rodents and other an imals, mosquitoes, fli es, lice, fl eas, bed-bu gs, spider s, etc. In V. T . bomb s, three types of diseases w ill be disseminat ed; n amely typhoid fe ver, mal aria, an d bubonic plague. The eighteenth ] been waging genn ws Aircraft will be s ent 1 germ spraying. The used in K orea and germ bomb will be t ake- off by special c1 s terilized after· return p ilot will take a she briefing and the tollo' a blood test to see material in the lec1 secret." U .S. govern germ warfare as lot K-46 Korea Luke Base Phoenix, Ariz. U.S.A. I Special cold-w i had been d evelope! l j Mar... 1952 .Tan. 22, 1952 Inoculations shoul germ -laden in sects an br ed f or many genera ditions and are able t ' time, e ven in th e r They can withstand f or a very long tim( Typhus, typhoid, plague, yellow fever, cholera, malaria and encephalitis. Lice, fleas, flies, m osquitoes, rodents. ( 1) 3 Misce Bacteria a nd other Pathogens Advanced Base in Korea (1) Air-burst V. T. ge.rm bombs. The bombs have to be d.topped fr om at least 5,000 feet and they will explode about 50-100 feet above the gr ound. They have the same external appearance as regular 500 lbs. bombs. (2) Parachute insect-oombs. The bombs will split into two halves or "the small doors on the bomb will open to release insects on touching ground. · (3) Direct spraying. Bacterial suspensions or bacteria-infected insects are sprayed from the rear end of the aircraft. ' Bacteria Fllies, Bacteria papers. Amer ica has VI There are fou are provided with event of engine tr get, if they are s frien dly territory, unarmed in an J record the exact the bomb line, . t ·armed and the lo case of spraying trouble, the pilot "'! ly airfield or to b aj and burn. l I ' RAINING CONTENTS md Methods RECEIV ED OF REGARDING BACTERIOLOGICAL WARFARE BACTERIAL BOMBS DROPPED LACTURES Disease Tr:m smHtlng Agents ot Dissemination Miscellaneous Time Pla ce No. o:t Bombs External Appearance of Bomb J'an. 7, 1952 Hwangju, Korea 2 Looks exactly like a regular 500 lbs. bomb except no time fuse. Jan. 11, Ul52 Chunghwa, Korea Non-living Agents Living Agents and bacteria mixed together, which will · open in the .aden dust; (2) by dropping dust directly from the rice, so that tl1ere will be germs in the air wherever >r cardboard box iull ol germ dust into water, which (4) by dropping a germ bomb which looks just like .aden insects, and which will open on contact with the :ects in puper or cardboard containers which will break 1e insects with their germs; (6> by dropping parachute inside upon contact with ground, or by 1·eleasing such line; (7) by artillery shells. the bombs should be dropped irom as low an altitude :achute-type weapons are used any altitude will suffice, 1000 !ect. Bacteria and other Pathogens Lice, fieas, flies, mosquitoes, rodents, l'abbits and other small animals. Leaflets, toilet paper, envelopes and other paper materials which have been covered with g01·ms; germ-filled soaps or clothing; fountain-pens filled with germ-laden ink and food contaminated with bacteria. Typhus, typhoid, chol era, dysentery, smallpox, malar ia, yellow fever and plague. Pilots and other personnel should ·constantly r eceive protective inoculations. st, just as a smoke screen is laid down or spread by .1d is blowing on to the shore or by low-flying jet air•me very fragile in the sun, allowing germ-laden inwhich look very much lllte regular 500 pounders which ·ground to release insects; (4) by dropping bombs which .etting the wind blow out the insect-ca rrying boxes ;hes. Typhus, typhoid, plague, yellow fever, cholera, malaria and encephalitis. Lice, fleas, flies, mosquitoes, rodents. Inoculations should be kept up to date. The germ-laden insects an:i small animals have been bred f or many generations under laboratory conditions and are able to survive anywhere at anytinle, even in the most adverse environment. They can withstand cold weather and can live for a very long time without food. Expected to see in 1952 all military personnel attending special courses in germ warfare, being provided with protective masks and given special inoculations against germs. • J an. 4, 1952 South o:l Pyongyang, Korea 4 Jan. 11, 1952 3 miles north o:t Kunuri, 2 South of Soriwon, Korea 8 Korea March 27, 1952 (2) Germ bombs with variable time-fuses (V. T. bomb) . ying animal or insect vectors). (4) Direct contaminaterritory by intelligence agents_ (2) Y.T. germ bombs. (3) . Animal parachute bombs. ed during a dive from 10,000 feet to 6,000 feet. The bomb nd and . spread the germs for around 100 yds. This bomb it, because the North Korean people have used disinfec.d klli the germs. lropped during a dive from 10,000 feet to 1,000 feet. The earth. When the bomb strikes the ground, it will break 1ects escape. Thls also will be dropped near a large city, the animals or insects as they escape. t must not be o'·er 12,000 feet or else tbe animals insects cen and the extreme cold. ' Lice, fleas, rodents. In V . T. bombs, three types ot diseases will be disseminated; namely typhoid fever, malaria, and· bubonic plague. .. .. .. .. April 15, 1952 • 'l'lle bombs have to be dropped from at least 5,000 feet and ve the ground. They have the same external appearance Bacteria bombs will sput into two halves or the small doors on the Jching grouzid. .spensions :or bacteria-infected insects are sprayed from the Flies, mosquitoes, spiders, etc. I May 5, 1952 5 miles south of Siranju, Korea 5 miles east of Sanr.hon, Korea Near Pyongyang, Korea May 21, 1952 5 m iles .e ast of Kunari, Korea Feb. 15, i952 West of Sibyon-ni, Korea Special cold-withstanding bacteria and insects had peen developed in laboratories. Bacteria carrying l eaflets and papers . Typllus, typhoid, cholera, dysentery and bubonic plague. Two exploded "on the ground and gave rise to a grey cloud of smo}<:e rising to a height of 100 :feet. Six exploded in the air and formed a grey cloud about 100 feet in diameter which disappeared in about 45 seconds. The germ bomb missions he ;knew about are as . fol''W Rodents and other animals, mosquitoes, flies, lice, fleas, beo-bugs, spiders, etc. " The eighteenth Fighter Bomber Group has been waging germ warfare since Januar;y 1, 1952Aircraft will be sent to J apan to be equtpped for germ spraying. The spraying method has been used in Korea and has been successful. The germ bomb will be loaded 15 J!linutes tak e-off by special crews. The aucraft w1ll be sterilized after r eturning from the mission. The pilot will take a shower immediatelr after. debriefing and the following day they be g1ven a blood t est to see if they are all r1ght. The material in the lecture is considered as "top secret." U.S. government will deny the facts of germ warfare as long as possible. April 5, lfl52 :d ln two ways-: (1) by the ground f orces usin.g bacterioloorces droppJng germ bombs which contain eithel' bactel'ia tells carry less bacteria and their range of dispersion is •se to them . Bombs cal'ry more bacteria and can be dropinto enemy .territory. · , " Amel'ica has waged bacteriological warfare. There are four planes in his group, which are provided with spraying apparatus. rn the event o'f engine trouble on the way to the target, if they are south of the bomb line or in friendly territory, the bombs should be dropped unarmed in an uninhabited area but should record the exact location. If they are north o:t the bomb line, the bombs should be dropped armed and the location should be reported. In case o:r spraying aircraft, in the ev ent o:t engine trouble, the pilot was to land at the closest :friendly airfield or to bail out and let the crash and burn. 8 V. T. germ bombs 2 Parachute bombs APPENDIX Gb Entomological Data on the Insects Disseminated by' U.S. 1\filitary Planes (ISCC/10) The present paper deals with the data on insects disseminated by American planes in Northeast China and Tsingtao. It consists of two parts: (1) general considerations and (2) considerations by species. The specimens of insects and spiders mentioned in the present paper are kept either in Peking or Shenyang. CONTENTS I. General Considerations. A. Evidence showing the dissemination of insects by American airplanes. B. II. Extent of dissemination and species of insects disseminated. Considerations by Species. ( 1 ) Housefly (Musca vicina Macquart) (?) stable fly (Mu.scina stabulans Fallen) ( 3 ) Anthomyiid fly (Hylemyia sp.) ( 4 ) "Blue-bottle" fly (Lucilia sericata Meigen) ( 5 ) Sun fly (H elomyza modesta Meigen) ( 6 ) Midge ( Orthocladius sp.) ( 7 ) Culicine mosquito (Culex pipiens var. pallens Coquillett) ( 8 ) Aedes mosquito (Aedes koreicus Edwards) ( 9) Human flea (Pulex irritans Linn.) (10) Ptinid beetle (Ptinus fur Linn.) (11) Grouse locust (Ac1·ydium sp.) (12) Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria Linn.) testaceus Walker) (13) Field cricket (14) Springtail (lsotoma negishina Borner) (15) Wolf spider (Tarentula sp.) GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Evid?nce showing the dissemination of insects by American airplanes. I. A. - 125 - ·Since February 29th, 1952, these planes have continually disseminat. ed various species of insects in widespread areas of Northeast China, and since March 6th, they have extended their to areas such as Tsingtao, Shantung Province. Judging from the circumstances in which insects were found, from their connection with the planes, and from various entomological anomalies, it can be ascertained that such insects were definitely not naturally occurring in those localities, but were undoubtedly disseminated by American planes. The following are the main reasons for this conclusion. (1) Connection with air raids. These insects were all in places after American planes had intruded into the areas. For instance, in the morning of March 4th, three planes raided Hung-Shih-La-Tze village, K'uan-Tien hsien. In the same afternoon, large quantities of :fieldcrickets were discovered by the inhabitants on the snow-covered ground outside the village. Another instance was the intrusion by one plane early on March 7th along the line between Fu-Shun and Shenyang. Around 10:30 a.m. in the same m<;>rning, numerous anthomyiid flies were found at Wu-Li-T'ai Bridge, Ku-Chia-Tze, Shenyang. In another case, one plane intruded into Ch'ang-Pai area after 8 :00 p.m. on March 26th, and from the next morning the inhabitants of Chia-Tsai-Shui village of that district discovered successively outside the village three fourcompartment bombs. In the neighborhood of these four-compartment bombs there were flies, midges, fleas, :field-crickets, springtails and spiders. At 9:00p.m. on March 6th, an airplane intruded oyer Tsingtao City and then numerous anthomyiid flies and wolf-spiders were found on the ne:x;t day along the part of the coast near Shan-Tung-Tou. (2) Eye-witnesses. Not only was the discovery of the insects closely related chronologically to the activities of American planes, but at some places there were also persons· who witnessed objects being dropped in areas where insects were found shortly ·afterwards. For exs.mple, on the afternoon of March 6, 1952, Shan Wen-Jung and Tu Kung-Chou, inhabitants: of Tung-K'an-Tze, Antung, witnessed four American planes passing over, and about ten minutes later discovered objects dropping down like snow-flakes which after reaching the ground were found to be anthomyiid flies, midges and spiders. On March 12, Han· Yung-Pin, a salesman at K'uan-Tien, witnessed the dropping of a b::!.cterial bomb by an American plane. On the ne;Kt day, numerous anth9myiid flies and wolf spiders were discovered near by the place which was later found to have been the point ... Of impact of" the bacterial bomb outside the ·east gate of that toWn. - 126 - (3) Anomalies in locality of discovery. Many of the insects \Vere discovered at those places where they generally should not be found. For instance, springtails should be living in damp places, b.ut on March 4. they were discovered in large numbers on the cement 6 m. high in a race course at Fu-Shun and on the top of a cement silo about 12 m. above the ground. Fleas should be hvmg on hosts, or near the places where the hosts live. However, at Fu-shun and K'uanTien, fleas were discovered on the surface of the sno\v after intrusions by American planes. (4) Seasonal anomalies of appearance. Most of the insects appeared at the wrong season. For instance, the migratory locust passes winter in the egg stage and the adult dies after laying eggs in the autumn. The eggs hatch out in April and May of the next year. Hov.;ever, at midnight on March 15 following the intrusion by Amedcan planes, a large number of locusts were discovered on cement ground still covered with snow inside the city of Shenyang. In Northeast China housef1ies usually begin to make their appearance outdoors in May. Yet on March 17, numerous such insects were discovered outside San-Ho village of Ssu-Ping city. (5) Anomaly of numbers of individuals. Besides the anomalies in season and location, the number of insects discovered also shows important abnormalities. Although it is known that some insects may metamorphose earlier than they should, the number can not be too many. For example, flies which pass the winter as pupae may occasionally metamorphose earlier, but they should certainly not appear in great numbers in one locality especially when it is not their usual breeding place. For example, the anthomyiid flies discovered at Ku-Chia-Tze, Shenyang, were in tens of thousands, and in Ssu-Ping as many as 6000-7000 house flies were found in a single group. Even more outstanding was the discovery of tens of thousands of field-crickets at K'uan-Tien on the surface of the snow. As we know fro mthe habit of field-crickets, it is not only impossible to appear in swarms. Moreover, these insects having the habit of hiding would not expose themselves on the surface of the snow. Therefore one can understand that the appearance of these insects in large populations at the wrong season and at unusual places is very peculiar. Anomaly of associaHon. Insects with similar behaviour habits can, under natural circumstances, be found in the same place at om• time. Anything else is highly improbable. In the districts of Northeast China flown over by American planes, the masses discovered consisted usually of insects with quite different habits. For example, springtails, together with fleas, were found in K'uan-tien. In the vicinity of the four(6) - 127 - compartment bombs discovered near Ch'ang-Pai, midges ( Orthocladius sp.) were found with field-crickets ( Gryllus testaceus Walker) . "Blue. bottles" (Lucilia sericata Meigen) and locusts (Locusta migratoria Linn.) were found together in the district of Ma-Lu-Wan, Shenyang. (7) Anomaly of geographical distribution. The places where the insects were discovered are mainly points along lines of communication and all had been flown over by American planes; Nothing like this oc.. curred in other places of the same latitude and the same geographical conditions. It should be emphasized that the area and frequency of the appearance of unusual insect populations were in accordance with the area and frequency of invasion by American planes. As we know, Liao. tung province, north of the Ya-lu River was intruded over with the highest frequency and greatest extent; the middle part of Heilungchiang province came next, while the appearance of unusual insect populations was shown to 'be exactly in the same order. As to the region in between the two districts mentioned above (about north latitude 44.-47"), except Harbin, no such insect population has been observed. This is contradictory to the natural distribution of insects. From all the above facts, there can be only one explanation, that is, these insects were dropped by American planes. In Europe, however, two argumentshave been brought out, especially in regard to the seasonal anomaly of the appearance of insects. First, it has been argued that the continued napalm bombing might result in a local heating of the earth, which would disturb the normal life-cycles of various insects, and cause their earlier appearance. Secondly, the abnormal appearance of the insects might not be due to meteorological changes, but to some other natural factors in action which caused their earlier appearance. These arguments, however, do not meet the case. First, no napalm bombing has taken place in Northeast China. Secondly, in addition. to seasonal anomaly, in many instances, the appearance of insects was abnormal with respect to quantity and location. Thirdly, it is difficult to see why only comparatively few out of the numerous kinds of insects in Northeast China have been affected. One can understand that the response of insects to a certain factor might be different for different species or even for different individuals, but, in a large territory such as Northeast China, the effect could not be limited only to a few species, if general factors such as those upon which the above arguments are based were acting. Let us take anthomyiid fly (Hylemyia) as an example. Under this genus, the following species are common in Northeast China: H. platura Meigen, H. antiqua Meigen and H. pilipyga Villeneuve; all these usually appear between April and May. Why did they not also come out earlier under the supposed natural factors? The - 128 - same thing holds true. for other common species of flies such as the lesser housefly (Fannia spp.), which usually appears in April, the ophyra fly (Opkyra spp.) and the flesh-fly (Sarcophaga, spp.), both of which usually appear in May; though under the some condition, they also are uneffected. B. Extent of dissemination and species of insects disseminated. · American planes have disseminated· over widespread areas in China. In Northeast China, insects were discovered after the invasion by American planes in an area bordered by Na-Ho and Ke-Shan to the North, Chuang-Ho and Fu-Hsien to the South, Ch'ang-Pai and An-Tung to the East, and Fu-Hsin and Chin-Chou to the West. Moreover, insects were also disseminated by American planes in Tsingtao, Shantung province. The insects disseminated consist of a large number of species with different characteristics, and the following species are to be considered in this report. ( 1 >. Housefly (Musca vicina Macquart) ( 2 ) Non-biting stable fly (Muscina stabulans Fallen) ( 3 ) Anthomyiid fly (Hylemyia sp.) ( 4 ) "Blue-bottle" fly (Lucilia sericata Meigen) ( 5) Sun fly (Helomyza modesta Meigen) ( 6) Midge (Orthocladifus sp.) ( 7) Culicine mosquito (Culex pipiens var. pallens Coquillett) ( 8) Aedes mosquito (Aedes koreicus Edwards) ( 9) Human flea (Pulex irritans Linn.) (10) Ptinid beetle (Ptinus fur Linn.) (11) Grouse locust (Acrydium sp.) (12) Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria Linn.) (13) Field cricket (Gryllus testaceus Walker) (14) Springtail (Isotoma negishina Borner) (15) Wolf spider (Tarentula sp.) From the general point of view, these insects form a highly heterogeneous group. Among them, there are insects which are well-known in medical entomology, such as houseflies and "blue-bottle" flies, and insects which are important pests in agriculture, such as locusts and field-crickets. In addition, there are insects which are previously considered as of little ecomonic importance, such as sunflies and springtails. II. CONSIDERATIONS . BY SPECIES (1) House fly (Musca vicina Macquart) ' A. Discovery: On March 14th, 1952 at 10 p.m. American planes intruded into Ssuping area. In the afternoon of March 17th, Wang Yu-Tsai, an inhabitant 129 - of San-Ho village, First District, Ssu-ping city, discovered a large number of house-flies on the sandy ground at San-Tao-Lin-Tse outside the village. On the next day, the district government mobilized the village inhabitants and wiped out 6000-7000 flies. B. Identification. Scientific name:. Musca vicina Macquart. Order Diptera, Family Muscidae. Identified by: Chin Yao-ting, Professor, National Medical College. Feng Lan-pin, Lecturer, National Medical College. Very similar to' M. domestica in appearance. Mesonotum with four well defined dark stripes. Male, width of front about one fourth to one third of that the eye ; abdominal terga orange, with a broad median black stripe. Female, width of front slightly narrower than that of the eye; abdomen resembling the male except the first, second and third terga which are dark orange and with greyish yellow tomentum. This species differs from M. domestica only in the width of the front and the shape of the genitalia. Bionomics. It is widely distributed in China, Korea; Japan, Iran, India, Mediteranean region, Egypt, Australia, and America. It is the commonest species in Hawaii (Essig, 1942). C. Its biology is very similar to that of M. domestica. They breed in excrements, garbage manure, and decaying organic matters. In Tsinan, Shantung, they were observed to breed in the period from June to October (Meng and Winfield, 1943a). There are many generations a year depending upon local climatic conditions. In July and August, it needs about 10 days to complete the life cycle of one generation (Meng and Winfield, 1943c) . In North China, this species passes the winter in pupal stage (Feng, 1951). The adults frequent houses. DiBCU$Sion. In North China, the adult usually appears in May. According to Meng and Winfield (1941b), in Tsinan, Shantung, this fly begins to appear in May. At the same place they have all the flies invading a single house throughout one year. On analysis of a total of 1831 flies collected., the housefly was found to be 91.77%, yet not a·single specimen appeated .in the period from January to April. In Peking, Feng (1951) has obtained the same results. He found that the :fly passes winter as pupa and the adult dies. in the winter if house is not artificially heated. The overwintered pupa begins to emerge in the beginning of May. D. 130 The adults of M. domestica according to the records in foreign ountries, also begin to appear in late spring. For instance, at the adults appear in the mi?dle of May. (Hori and 1950). Observations made by Graham-Smith (1916) m Cambridge, England .have shown similar results. Northeast ·China is much colder than Tsinan. At Ssu-Ping, the average temperature in March, 1952 was 1.4°C below zero. Based on the above-mentioned observations, the earliest appearance of this fly should be in May. However, on March 17, 1952, large numbers of these flies were discovered in the open field at Ssu-Ping. This is evidentiy anomalous, and closely connected to the activities of the American planes. Bacteriological examination of the houseflies dropped by American planes showed that they carried anthrax bacilli. Reference w f;t,j<.$,F1Jl 1943 1- !f :t.tJ.." ' "f)£.. , .ki9.i. ' 854- 1410 0 Essig, E. 0. 1942 College Entomology. New York: MacMillan Co., vii + 900 pp., 308 figs. Feng, L. C. 1951 The hibernation of house frequenting flies in Peking. (unpublished). Graham-Smith, G. S. 1916 Observations on the habits and parasites of common flies. Parasit., 8 :440-544, 8 pls., 17 figs., 5 tabs., 17 charts. Hafez, M. 1941 A study of the biology of the Egyptian common housefly, Musca vicina Macq. Bull. Soc. R. ent., Egypte, 25:163-189. Herms, W. B. 1950 Medical Entomology. New York: MacMillan Co., 4th ed, xvi 643 .pp., 191 figs. Hori, K. 1949 Ecological investigation concerning on the fly fauna. I. Fauna in the rural districts. Misc. Res. Inst. Nat. Resources, 14:5-19, 12 tabs. (in Japanese with Engiish summary). -1950 Ecological investigation concerning on the fly fauna. II. Fauna in the urban center. ibid., 15:17-27, 10 tabs. (in Japanese with English summary). Kobayashi, H. 1918 House frequenting flies and their seasonal prevalence in Japan and Korea. Mitteil. Med. Akad. Keijo, 2:76-94. On the habits of house-frequenting flies in Korea. ibid., 7:11-19. -1929. General survey on the seasonal prevalence of the housefly in Chosen. 1st Rept.: researches during 1928. Acta Med. Keijo, 12 (2) : 59-65. ' + -:--1934 General survey on the seasonal prevalence of the housefly in Chosen. 2nd Rept.: research during 1929. ibid., 5 (2) lSl - Li, H. H. and Feng, L. C. 1951 Morphological studies of the common housefly Musca vicina, in China. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 19 :278-284, 1 pl., 1 tab. · Meng, C. H. and Winfield, G. F. 1938 Studies on the control of fecal-borne diseases in North China. V. A preliminary study of the density, species make up, and breeding habits of the house frequenting fly population of Tsinan. Chinese Med. J., Suppl. 2:483-486. --1941a Studies on the control of fecal-borne disease in North China. ·XIII. An approach to the quantitative study of the house frequenting fly population. A. The estimation of trapping rates. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 15:317-331. --1941b Studies on the control of fecal-borne diseases in North China. XIV. An approach to the quantitative study of the house frequenting fly population. B. The characteristics of an urban fly population. ibid., 15 :333-351. --1942 Studies on the control of fecal-borne diseases in North China. XV. An approach to the quantitative study of the house frequenting ·fly population. C. The characteristics of a rural fly population. Chinese Med. J., 61A :18-19. --1943a Studies on the control of fecal-borne diseases in North China. XVI. An approach to the quantitative study of the house frequenting fly population. D. The breeding habits of the common North China flies. ibid., 61A: 54-55. --1943b Studies on the control of fecal-borne diseases in North China. XVII. An approach to the quantitative study of the house frequenting fly population. E. The food preferences of common North China flies. ibid., 61A :104. --1943c Studies on the control of fecal-borne diseases in North China. XVIII. An approach to the quantitative study of the house frequenting fly population. F. A preliminary study of the life history of Musca vicina Macquart and Chrysomyia megacephala Fab. ibid., 61A :161· 165. Ouchi, Y. 1938 On some muscid flies from Eastern China. J. Shanghai Inst., sect. III, 4:1-14, 1 pl., 1 fig. Patton, W. S. 1931 Insects, ticks, mites, and venomous animals of medical and veterinary importance. Part 2. Public health. Croydon: H. R. Grubb, Ltd., viii+ 740 pp., 57 pls., 388 figs. Roy, N. D. 1946 Entomology (medical and veterinary). Calcutta: Saraswaty Library, 358 pp., 162 figs. '3eguy, E. 1937 Muscidae, Genera Insectorum, fasc, 205, Bruxelles, 604 pp., 9 pls .. - 13f'- Wu, c. F. 1940 Catalogus Insectorum Sinensium. Vol. V. Diptera and Siphonaptera. Peking: Fan Mem. Inst. Bioi., 524 pp. (2) Non-biting stable fly (Muscina stabulans Fallen) A. Discovery : Non-biting stable flies were discovered following the intrusion of American planes in the areas of An-tung, K'uan-Tien, and Shenyang. For instance, on March 4, 1952 six American planes invaded K'uan-Tien after which non-biting stable flies, fleas and springtails were discovered on the snow out side the south gate by Li J un-chih, an inhabitant of the third Lii of that county, on his way to the south gate. B. Identification: Scientific name: Muscina stabulans Fallen. Order Diptera, Family Muscidae. Ch'en, Sicien H. Director, Laboratory of Ento.Identified by: mology, Academia Sinica. Lu Pao-lin Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, Peking College of Agriculture. Resembling the common house fly in general appearance, but larger and more robust, about 7-9.5 mm. in length. Arista plumose, bearing hairs on both the upper and lower sides. Thorax grey, with four longitudinal black stripes on the mesonotum; scutellum tipped with orange tint. Fourth longitudinal vein not elbowed, converging but slightly towards the third. Legs slender, reddish or yellowish brown in color. Abdomen almost black in color, covered with grey in places, giving it a patched appearance. C. Bionomics: The non-biting stable fly is a widespread almost cosmopolitan species and is also recorded in China (Ouchi 1938, Wu 1940). · The eggs are laid upon decaying orangic matter and excrement, including human and rotting cow dung, in which the larvae develop. The adults enter houses as well as stables and other farm out-buildings. In North China, it hibernates mainly in pupal stage and the ad.ults hatch from the over wintering pupae in about the middle of April (Feng, 1951). Observations were also made in Peking and its vicinity, it was found that the fly was still in the pupal stage in the middle of April. In Sendai, Japan, this fly begins to appear at about the end of April (Ho:ri, 1949) while in Kyoto of the same country, observed in the years of 1933 to 1935 to appear even later, they in May (Ando, 1936). D. Discussion: Judging from the time of appearance of the non...biting stable fly under natural conditions, we can see that in Northeast China the earliest -- 133 - time for the adults of this fly to appear should be the end of April. How. ever in Shenyang, Antung and K'uantien they were discovered early in March in abundance outdoors and on snow fields following the intrusion of American planes. Obviously this is abnormal. Bacteriological examinations showed that typhoid bacilli were isolated from the non-biting stable flies dropped by American planes. Reference *tl y 1936 =- j} Jnv:lne of these uncommon or common species hitherto recorded. · No previous suggestions of possible occurrences as swarms on snow. Meteorologically winter was normal in NE China. Identified by Ch'en Shih-Hsiang & Lu Pao-Lin. DIPTERA, Calliphoridae, carrion-fly Lucilia sericata . Gen. descr.: "blue-bottles", body of metallic colour variable from blue ·to green. Habits: larvae feed on decaying animal matter. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: normally appears in May, found in abundance March. Incl NE China (no napalm). Anomaly: 8 weeks. Swarm density: no data. Bact. findings: no data. Remarks: has appeared mostly in association with masses of Muscina, always the adults. Identified by Feng Lan-Chou & Chao Chen-Sheng. DIPTERA, ·l!elomyzidae, sun-fly H elomyza modesta, · Gen. descr. : like H ylemyia · but smaller. Habits: similar to Hylemyia. No detailed work to have been done on this insect or its ecology. Seasenal abnormality of appearance: normally appears end of April, found in abundance mid-March. Incl NE China (no napalm) . Anomaly, 6 weeks. Swarm density: no data. Bact. findings: paratyphoid. Remarks: Only one species previously from China, namely, H. engeli. Identified by· Ch'en Shih-Hsiang and Lu Pao-Lin. DIPTERA, Chironomidae, midge Orthocladius sp. Gen. descr.: small mosquito-like insects. Habits: larvae generally aquatic; details unknown for this species. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: none, can appear in March. Swarm density: 100/sq.m.; it has been seen "falling down in black masses". Bact. findings: typhoid. Remarks: has usually appeared in association with Hylemyia and other flies. The genus is a large one, but the species here identified is not one which had hitherto been recorded from China. Identified by Liu Ch'ung-Lo. The original identification Chironomus was wrong. DIPTERA, Culicidae, mosquito Aedes koreicus Gen. descr.: medium size. Habits: not definitely proved that it transmits acute encephalitis; the suspicion is stronger for Aedes chemulpoensis. Seasonal abnormality ·of appearance: normally appears end of May, found middle March: Incl. NE China (no napalm). Anomaly 10 weeks. Swarm density: up to 70/sq.m. Bact. findings : none. Remarks: none. Identified by Ch'in Yao-T'ing & Chang Tsung-Pao. Culex pipiens var. pall ens Seasonal abnormality: same as for Aedes, anomaly of some 10 weeks. Bact. findings: none. Identified by Ch'in Yao-Ting. - 167 SIPHONAPTERA. Pulicidae, flea Pulex irritans Gen. descr.: usual form and habit. Seasonal abnormality: none. Swarm density: as many as 7000/sq.m. Bact. findings: plague (in Korea). Identified by Feng Lan-Chou & Chao Chen-Sheng. · ORTHOPTERA, Locustidae, locust Loeusta migratoria Gen. descr.: common locust. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: normally May and June, found in abundance March. Anomaly about 8 weeks. Swarm density: .no data. Bact. findings : none. Remarks: associated with Lucilia and Muscina. Identified by Ch'en Shih-Hsiang and Lu Pao-Lin. ORTHOPTERA, Tettigidae, grasshopper Acrydium sp. Gen. descr.: sometimes called grouse locust. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: Normally appears in April. Anomaly about 4 weeks. Swarm density: no data. Bact. findings : none. Identified by Ch'in Yao-Ting. ORTHOPTERA, Gryllidae, field-cricket Gryllus testaceus Gen. descr.: the largest of the :Insects involved, about an inch long. Habits: omnivorous, polyphagous. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: very marked indeed, normal appearance of adults end of May, found in abundance midMarch, when usually there is no stage present other than that of the eggs. Incl. NE China (no napalm). Anomaly 10-14 weeks, allowing for Manchurian climate. Swarm density: 10-20/sq.m. Bact. findings: none. Identified 'by Chu Hting-Fu. COLLEl\ffiOLA, Isotomidae, spring-tail, snow-flea · Isotoma negishina Gen. descr.: primitive wingless insects frequenting damp places, water, snow (very resistant to cold); only 2 mm. long. - 168 - Habits: do not usually come in contact with man. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: none, .but ·the places iu which they appeared, house verandahs, seats of a high stadium, ·hats and clothes of volunteers, very peculiar. Swarm density: no figures, but it should be noted that it must have been very considerable, since such minute insects would have had to have been present in very great numbers to have attracted any attention at all. Bact. findings : Rickettsia not further identified, dysentery (Korea). Remarks: Collembola are eaten by ducks. Could there have been some thought of infecting man with some pathogen by this indirect route? It is to be noted that several times specimen tubes of Collembola came in which contained many fleas (Pulex irritans) mixed among them. This was an extraordinary association, and not realised by the people who sent them in. T'ang Fei-Fen, however, was not able to find P. 1Jestis in these fleas. Identified by Ma Shih-·Chiin. ARACHNIDA, Lycosidae, spiders Tarentula sp. Lycosa sp. Gen. descr.: both species brown, total size when appendages contracted, the size of a large :pea. Habits: predaceous. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: normally found end of April, found in abundance (it should be emphasised that the numbers were greater than any other form except the anthomyiid flies) beginning of March or earlier. Anomaly some 6 weeks at least. Swarm density: 20/sq.m. Bact. findings : Pasteurella multocida and anthrax. Identified by Wang Feng-Chen ADDENDA DIPTERA, Trichoceridae, crane-fly Trichocera maculipennis Gen. descr.: large mosquito-like insects. Seasonal abnormality of appearance: none, can appear in April (Karandikar, 1931). · 169 -- Swarm density: no data. Bact. findings: neurotropic virus. Remarks: this species was inculpated in the encephalitis case (App. FF, GG) but is not now thought to have been concerned. Identified by Ch'en Shih-Hsiang & Lu Pao-Lin. PLECOPTERA, Nemouridae, stone-fly Nemoura sp. Gen. descr.: primitive winged insects with. flat transparent wings about twice as long as their bodies. Habits: frequent water and stones on water edge; prefer to run rather than fly, and fly very slowly•. Easily confused with "flying ants", by which name the peasants call them. Seasonal abnormality: no data. Swarm density: up to 100/sq.m. Bact. findings: Identified by Hu Ching-Fu (Chengfu F. Wu) ...,.. :170 - JAN fEB APR MAR J'UN K me-ans insects appearing in Korea C means insects appearing in China Text Fig. 1. Graph showing the anomalies in the appearances of the unusual insect populations. - .171 - - - - - - - Shenyang +7 .... ""\., +6 +5 I ll ca t-1 Cl d Ill rn (!) (!) Eat < !:i1 / / ' '' +3 +2 .........bJl"" +I C) ;::J ; / +4 u z / ------- Harbin N r,.... 0 -I "" -2 NOV. DEC. JAN. MAR. Oil (!) "tS -.5 -3 -4 Note 1. Abscissa represents monthly temperature aYerages for Nov. 195o-April 1951 of both cities. Note 2. The monthly mean temperatures were all below zero during the period from Nov. to March. Note 3. The lowest mean temperature was -20.7°C Text Fig. 2. Graph comparing the winter temperature of Shenyang and Harbin, 19511952 with figures for 1950-1951. APR. APPENDIX I Questions Addressed to the Korean Minister of Health and Replies Received A.. QUESTIONS 1 ADDRESSED . TO THE KOREAN MINISTER OF HEALTH Pyongyang, 30th July, 1952 It will easily be understood that th€ International Commission must,. so far as possible, familiarise itself with the scientific data which were· the basis for documents previously disseminated to the world (e.g. First Korean Report, SIA/1; Report of the Democratic Lawyers, SIA/4; Report of the Chinese Scientific Commission, NCNA/85; SIA/13, etc.). The Commission will naturally have to clarify in its report some of the most important phenomena described in these documents, and could: not confine its work only to those .cases which the Korean and Chinese colleagues have subjected to intensive study. The Commission therefore addresses the following questions to the Minister, with the hope that it may be possible to obtain the answers to them before its departure from Pyongyang. It does this with much hesitation, being unwilling to aad to the heaVY burden which the Minister already has upon his shoulders,. but it must of necessity seek to validate· and to explain or modify the· statements contained in previous accounts circulating in the occidental world.. 1) In the :first and third reports above mentioned it was said that in 1952 ticks had been disseminated. by planes, and ·that these ticks were of a species never previously reported from Korea. What was the zoological identification of these ticks? Latin name? Is it . confirmed that the species had never previously been reported from Korea? Was it carrying encephalitis .virus? Did it belong to a species known to do so? If not, what pathogenic organisms was it carrying? In what number.s were found 1 2) In. the first report it was said that bat. parasites, such that dissemination from planes was suspected. Has this been confirmed? If so, what was the species? Latin Name? Has it been suggested that theSe insects. flies-; had been found in - t13' - could carry any organism pathogenic to man, and if so, what? In what numbers and circumstances were these animals found? B) In the reports there have been frequent mentions of flies infected with cholera and with. typhoid (S. typhosa) ; were these always the anthomyiid flies of· the genus Hylemyia? 4) . The report also speaks of tests showing that o.n one sample of flies, 2 out of 30 proved positive for cholera. In. later investigations, were the percentages higher.? 5) The :first report spoke of ants. Is. it still believed that they were disseminated by planes? What was their zoological identification (Latin name)? What disease organisms could they have been carrying? . In what numbers were they found? 6} · The :first report spoke also . of mosquitoes. Is it still believed that they were disseminated by planes? What was their zoological identification (Latin name)? In· another report (SIA/2) they were identified as Aed.es is that confirmed? What pathogenic organisms would they be carrying? In what numbers were they found? -'7) In the second report there is mention of beetles of the ·g.enus Tenebrio. Is it still believed that they were disseminated by planes? What was their zoological identification (Latin name) ? What pathogenic .organisms could they have carried? In wliat .numbers were they :found? 8) Is it now possible to say definitely, fqr these or for any other cases, that there is strong reason for thinking that insects have been disseminated by ai:r'·activity which belongeg to genera. o1· ·species hither· · to unrecorded from Korea? ... .9) The second report gave details of an outbreak of plague in the village of Bal-Nam.,Ri where out of a population of 600, there 53 cases with 36 deaths. Could the Commission have further details on this incident? · It is said in the third report that. Collembola were thrown. down together with, or in the tnidst. of, "white viscous masses"; What was the nature of this sticky material?. What further information is about it?, 10) ll) It is also said in· the ·third report that quantities of ('lyophilised ;were "found. What has: been done to deter" · proteinaceous mine the :nature of -this substance, artd what results were reached? Did it contain Jiving bacteria? If what? . - - 12) It is further said in the third report that insects were often sprayed directly from planes. Are any further evidences available for this? How was it supposed to occur? 18) What types · of containers have been found dropped from planes? The Commission would like to have the opportunity of careful examination of as many as possible before leaving Korea. 14) The third report speaks of 804 incidents which took place between 28th January and 31st March. Between the 31st March and the middle of July there must doubtless have been many more. Could the .Commission have. more details on all these incidents, especially a summary breakdown by provinces, and especially by types of insects or other vectors employed, and pathogenic organisms thus carded or delivered direct? 15) Is it possible to confirm what was said in the third report on the appearance of cases of anthrax of domestic animals? To what extent was this disease of animals known or endemic in Korea previously? Is it still believed that vectors or mechanical carrierf! of anthrax bacilli have been disseminated by planes? If so, what were the carriers employed? Rave there been any human cases? 16) In the third report there is mention of fish found on hill-sides and . proved to be infected with dysentery (S. dysenteriae). Have these statements been confirmed! Were the fishes found in the neighbourhood of reservoirs, giving the impression that the aim of the planes was to contaminate the drinking-water supplies? 17) The third report also contains a description of shells fired in the neighbourhood of the front line by artillery, and containing insects. This description has been found more or less incredible in western countries. Perhaps by some mistake it had been intended to say shells containing bacteria, which would be much more possible. The Japanese proposed (and perhaps used) long ago shrapnel in which the metal fragments inside had been contaminated with a gelatinous covering containing B. welchii (gas gangrene bacillus). The Commission begs. the Minister to elucidate these points. B. .REPLIES RECEIVED TO THE ABOVE QUESTIONS · The Commission, in acknowledging wit:h thanks the following replies of Korea, records its undercommunicated from the Minister of standing of the difficulties which prevented the answers being more ,elaborate in character, though by no means detracting from their interest. Comments added are enclosed in square brackets. Peking, August, 1952 175 1) Ticks The word "tick" was a mistranslation. The animals in question should have been termed red mites. They were identified as Trombicula· akamushi, a mite belonging to the family Trombidiidae. [This is the well-known mite which in Japan and Chil1a carries the pathogenic agent of tsutsugamushi fever, Rickettsia orientalie. This mite is related to the common Microtrombidium aoutra of Europe]. ' . This mite was previously known in Korea. That the specimens found were carrying any pathogenic agent was not determined. Nevertheless, it was still considered that the specimens had been disseminated by American planes. They had occurred in company with many other arthropods, among which :flies and fleas were the most numerous. The incident of 28th January, when they were found, was one in which the density of the arthropods on the snow amounted to about 10/sq. yard. 2) Bat Parasites It was to be considered confirmed that nycteribiid flies, parasites of bats, had been found in circumstances pointing to th"eir dissemination by American planes. They were found among other insects on the snow in a miscellaneous delivery. Owing to war-time difficulties it had not so far been possible to make .an exact zoological identification. Whether this species had previously been reported from Korea or not, could not be decided from the literature at present at the disposal of Korean entomologists. It was still uncertain whether these nycteribiid flies had been carrying any pathogenic agent harmful to man or animals. 3) · Flies · It was confirmed that certain batches of anthomyiid flies disseminated by American planes had been infected with cholera. Whether these had always been Hylemyia, spp., could .not be definitely .stated. 4) · Flies, Percentage InfectedIn general the percentage was not uniform. The figure of 2 positive out of 30 had only heen one of the cases. · Later batches· showed higher percentages. Often, however, only qualitative tests on massed specimens of the insects, had been done. 5) Ants It was to be considered confirmed that these had been disseminated by American planes. Zoological identification had not been made. No pathogenic agents had been found in or on the ants. 6) Mosquitoes It was to be considered confirmed that these had been disseminated by American planes. The mosquitoes disseminated were Anopheles sp.; no pathogenic organisms have been found on or in their bodies; no report has been issued concerning Aedes koreicus. 7) Beetles The report of the Koreans themselves (SIA/1) had made no mention pf these, but nevertheless the information contained in SIA/4 was substantially correct. Beetles related to the mealworm (Tenebrionidae), had appeared, in circumstances which pointed to their dissemination by American planes. No pathogenic bacteria were found in or on these insects. Precise entomological identification was not done. 8) Unrecorded species No :reply received. 9) Plague The only further information relevant was that the cases began thr·ee days after the discovery of the fleas. It was to be noted that the :first cases were bubonic in character, while later on pneumonic cases began to appear. The epidemic spread with great rapidity. 10) and 11) Sticky masses of Proteinaceous Material, and Collembola. The protein material found was sticky and hygroscopic; according to some eye-witnesses, lumps o:f it looked like the half of a boiled egg .without the yolk. It was hygroscopic and absorbed water on the surface of the snow. It contained mannitol.:.fermenting dysentery bacteria. [These could be one or more of several kinds of Shigella, e.g. flexneri or alkalescens.] - 177 - The ·chemical composition ·of the masses· showed them to be composed of proteoses, peptones and polypeptides: There could thus be little doubt that the material was a freeze-dried culture of bacteda in. some medium such as bouillon, casein digest or the like. The relation with the Collembola, lsotoma negishina, founq with this material, remained unclear. 12) Spraying of Insects Dir.ect from Planes .. This had been deduced from many examples of large numbers of ·insects on the snow, after the passage·· of American planes, unaccompanied by any containers. Frequently the insects were found just at dawn on the snow,· after the previous passage of a plane before it was light. Many eye-witnesses had actually seen insects falling from the air, and some of them actually fell upon their clothes and caps. Frequently also American planes were seen to leave behind what looked like black round masses or to emit a black smoke from the tail. These diffused as ·they fell, and immediately afterwards large numbers of insects were found on the snow. 13) Containers The Commission will [and did] see at Pyongyang examples of (a) the four-compartment bacterical bomb, ·(b) the card ·board cylinder equipped with parachute, and (c) fragments of green plastic artillery shells. 14) Number of incidents The. :figure of 804 was a preliminary one. Since the time at ·. which it was published, the number has risen very greatly. 15) Anthrax · ·It was to be· considered confirmed 'that cases of·animal anthrax had been observed and verified in the northern part of Korea. Human cases had not been reported yet. 16) Fisk Bacteria of the Salmonella group had indeed been found on fishes lying on the mountain-sides as also others of the Shigella group. They were discovered near drinking-water sources, and it was' indeed probable that they had been intended for the contamination of the latter. · · - 178 - 17) A rtille1·y Shells No reply, except that the Commission had been shown the fragments of the green plastic shell. Shrapnel contaminated with gas-gangrene had not been encountered. - 179 - APPENDIX Ja Report on Fungus-La.den Plant Materials Dispersed by U.S. Military Planes in Northeast .. China and in the Northern Part of Korea (ISCC/7a} I. SOYBEAN STALKS AND PODS HARBOURING A PURPLE SPOT FUNGUS DISSEMINATED BY U.S. MILITARY PLANES IN THE NORTHERN PART OF KOREA At 1 p.m. on March 20, 1952, in Yeunpoong Li, Koan Myon, Chongju Goon, Pyongan Bukdo, Korea, Sun Chih-Chien, Deputy Political Instructor of a certain detachment of the Chinese People's Volunteer Forces in Korea; saw four American "Sabre" jet planes and a dark mass dropping. The mass broke up at the height of about 300 meters. Then soybean stalks and pods and some sort of tree leaves began to fall down. These scattered over an area about 200 meters in width and 500 meters in length, there being on the average 2 to 3 soybean stalks and pods, and 15 to 16 leaves per square meter. A of soybean stalks and pods was sent to this laboratory (Peking Colleg.e of Agriculture) for examination on AprillO, 1952. · Maeroscopic examination: There are black spots on the soybean ·pods. These spots are rather irregular, measuring 0.3-1 mm. in diameter. Microscopic examination: A small piece of the spotted soybean pod was boiled in water for 1 minute. The tissue of the pod was so softened that the epidermal layer was easily peeled off. The epidermal layer from the spotted portion was fixed in !acto-phenol and observed under the microscope. Tufts of eonidiophores were observed, but a few conidia were (Fig. 1). : The conidiophores are grouped in tufts on a stroma. Stromata are plackish brown;· 50-60 jJ. in diameter; co:i:tidiophores are olivaceous brown, toward the apex, erect,- non-branched, 2-4 septate, slightly tapering upward, witl!. prominent spore sears at the apex, 70-140 x 4.5-5.5 ·;.t ; coniare hyaline, acicular to cylindrical, septate, 72-180 x 3-4.5 p.; mycelium olive to olivaceous brown, paler towar(j the hypha! tip, septate, irregular, permeating throughout the epidermal cells even into cells..... of trichomes ... -•. . ". ' 181 Isolations of the Fungus: On April24, 1952, isolations were made by transferring some of the fungus material on potato dextrose agar medium. From these fungus materials colonies were produced which were whitish at first and olivaceous to dark brown with age. Typical conidia were not produced in culture. On potato dextrose agar medium with 10% peptone, the mycelium remained whitish despite aging. Pathogenicity 1) Inoculation of germinating soybean ·seeds: On May 12, 1952, wen grown plate cultures of 'the isolate· were prepared. Ori each plate, 4 disinfected soybean seeds were sown. Five days later, small dark spots appeared on the seed coat at the points where the seeds were in contact with the culture. Since the soybean seeds were germinating, the newly produced radicles were also badly attacked when they were in contact .which were not in contact w:ith the with the culture. Those .culture, however, remained healthy. Observations were made again on May 19, 1952. The seed coat turned dark brown while the produced dark lesions. Repetitions of the experiments yielded the same results. Re-isolations recovered the same pathogen.. 2) Inoculation of soybean seedlings with infested. soil: On May 26, 1952, 4 flasks of pure culture of .lO.days old were ground and mixed with 400 grams of sterilized sand. This served as inoculum and was divided into four.equal parts. Each part was used to inoculate one pot of sterilized soil.. Four pots of sterilized soil were thus infested while other two pots of sterilized soil were used as check. Soybean seeds free from a:hy spots were disinfected with 1:1000 HgCI. solution for one minute and in sterile water four times. Four seeds were sown in each of the six prepared pots of soil. Records were taken on June 12, 1952. The results are shown in the following table: . Infection Rate of Soybean Seedling Grown in Soil Infested with. Cercospora sojina Hara Soil infested . with the fungus Pot No. Sterilized soil without artificial infestation 1 2 3 4 5 6 . No .. of..seeds sown No .. of seeds ger! :..minated · (seedlings)· 4 4 4 4 4 .4 2' 3 3 3 2 4 No.. ·of · seedlings infected 2 3 3 3 0. - 182 - ·.• 0 The resultS revealed that all of the seedlings in the infested soil duced brown lesions at the base of hypocotyls, on the roots and on the cotyledons (Fig. 2). No such lesions were found on the seedlings in the control pots. Identification of the p·athogen: According to the morphological anc,i pathological studies, this fungus is identified as Cercospora soiinCL Hara. Thisis a detrimental.pathogen to soybean crop. The fungus overwinters on diseased soybean stems, pods and seeds, by means of which the fungus is distributed. II. TREE LEAVES HARBOURING ANTHRACNOSE FUNGUS SCATTERED BY U.S. MILITARY PLANES IN NORTHERN PART OF KOREA At 11 a.m. on February 28, 1952, a Chinese People's Volunteer, Wu Yao-chuen at Dai-Tek San, east of Kaesong, Korea, witnessed two. U.S. planes dropping five big roundish objects from which large quantitief; of tree leaves were dispersed over an area of about one square kilometer altogether with an average about 1 to 3 leaves per square meter. Macroscopic examination: The specimen was sent to this laboratory on April 10, 1952. The of the tree leaf could not be determined on account of its fragmentary condition. Nevertheless, it was cer':' tain that it wa:s not cotton, apple or pear leaf. The color of the specimen was yellowish brown. The lower surface of the leaf was covered with black dots (Fig. 3). A specimen of another kind of tree leaf collected from the same place has been identified as .Quercus aliena BL var. rubripes Nakai (App. Jb). Isolation and culture of the plant pathogen: Small pieces of the specimen were cut and sterilized in HgCh (1 :1000 solution) for 3 minutes. After being rinsed in sterile water for three times, they were cultured on potato dextrose agar plates. Five days later, the fungus mycelium grew .well from each piece of the leaf tissue. Acervuli appeared in some of the colonies and were found to produce conidia. Morphologically this fungus is typical of anthracnose fungi. Pathogenicity ·tests: 1) Inoculation of cotton seedlings: On April 26, 1952, disinfected cotton seeds were germinated aseptically. The healthy young seedlings were put either on plates or in test tubes of potato agar medium on which the fungus was grown. Four days later, the hypocotyls as well as the roots of the cotton seedlings were badly attacked and produced reddish brown lesions. The cotyledons were also attacked, producing dark browli spots. The symptoms are close to those caused by the cotton anthracnose fuhgtis. Re-isolatibns recovered the same organism. · · · - 183 - On April 20, 1952, .six pots of sterilized .soil were used for the e:x. periment. Four of them were inoculated with the fungal culture; the other two pots served as control. Three healthy cotton seedlings were planted in each of the six pots. Four days after planting, 9 plants out of 12 were badly diseased (Fig. 4, 5). Two more plants became diseased two weeks later. The plants in the two control pots remained healthy, ·Be-isolations recovered the same fungus. 2) Inoculation of cotton bolls: On July 18, 1952, five young bolls of cotton were inoculated with the fungus, .while two other bolls of the same variety were used as controls. Before inoculation, the bolls were surface-disinfected with alcohol. Small quantities of spore suspension, about 0.1 cc. each, were injected into the bolls at several points. For the controls, only sterile water was injected. The inoculated bolls as well as the controls were maintained with a high humidity for three days. On July 22, four days after inoculatiQn, dark brown spots were found at points of injection, whereas no such spots were formed in the case of the contr.ols. On August 9, the spots extended to 2 mm. in diameter and had pinkish sunken centers and purplish brown margins. 3) Inoculation of apples and pears: On April 26, 1952, apples and pears were disinfected with alcohol and then inoculated with the fungUs culture in two ways: one by puncture and the other by surface contact. Three days after inoculation, brownish water-soaked spots were prouuced in the case of wound inoculation (Fig. 6). Since May 3, 1952, 'eight days after tp.e inoculation, acervuli and perithecia of the fungus were successively produced. Re-isolations recovered the same fungus. The infected apples and pears produced symptoms very close to those ·caused by anthracnose (bitter rot) of apple, namely brownish watersoaked spots with concentric zones. The acervuli with flesh-colored gelatinous mass of spores are characteristic of the anthracnose of cotton ·and the anthracnose of apple. Inoculations made by contact of the apples and pears with the fungus mycelium were also successful, but the incubation period was longer (about two weeks).· 4) Inoculation of apple and pear shoots: · On July 18, 1952, inoof the fungus culture were made on the shoots of apple and ;pear plants. Three young shoots of apple and six young shoots of pear including three Oriental and three European varieties were inocul2.tetl with 0.1 cc. of spore .suspension into the bark, and a young shoot of each was injected with sterile water as control. The inoculated shoots as well the controls were maintained with a high humitlity for 3 days. Twenty after inoculation, cankers ranging fl'Oll'l. Q.4•0.8 em. in diameter with lengthwise cracking were seen in all inocqlated .eases (Fig. 7) ,. while the --- t84 - controls remained normal, except for minute calluses caused by the needle wound. Morphology of the fungus: Conidia were produced in dark-colored; setosed acervuli; setae are straight, single, brown to olive brown, septate, 45-60 x 3-4 micra; masses of conidia are pinkish in color and gelatinous in appearance. Conidia are oblong, slightly curved, hyaline, with o.ne to two oil globules, 12-17.5 x 3.5-6.3 micra (Fig. 8, 9). Conidia germinated readily in water drops. One or more septa were formed in each of the conidia during germination and from each cell protruded a germ tube, at the tip of which a dark brown appressorium was formed (Fig. 10). Perithecia were produced in abundance, dark brown in color, subspherical, more or less grouped and measured 80-250 micra in diameter. Asci are subclavate, hyaline, containing 8 spores usually in two series, 44-72 •x 8-12 micra. Ascospores are hyaline, slightly allantoid, unicellular, with a single oil globule, 12-22 x 4-6 micra (Fig. 11). Identification of the pathogenic fungus: According to morphological and pathological studies, this fungus is definitely a species of Glomerella sp. with its imperfect stage Colletotrichum. Its host range is remarkably wide, attacking pear, apple and cotton plants. This fungus differs from the anthracnose fungus of apple ( Glomerella c'ingulata (Stoneman) S. &. S.) and the .anthracnose fungus of cotton ( Glomerella gossypii (South.) Edg.) both in morphology and in host range. III. PEACH LEAVES HARBOURING PEAR AND APPLE RING SPOT FUNGUS DISSEMINATED BY A U.S. MILITARY PLANE IN NORTHEAST CHINA At 11 a.m., July 10, 1952, in Chuan-Yen-Kou, Sheng-Ch'an Village,: Hsiu-Yen Hsien, Ma Hsiu-Lin, a farmer, witnessed an American plane fly-; ing in a northeastern direction. Thereafter, he found large quantities of. leaves dispersed from the air into a field covering an area of about 10,000 square meters with an average of one leaf per three square meters. A sample was collected and sent to this laboratory for examination on July 26, 1952. Identification of the host plant: On examination of the leaves disseminated by the U.S. plane, the plant of the leaves is identified as Prunus perSica Sieb. et.Zuec. (Fig. 12) by Prof. Liou Tchen-Ngo. (Liu Chen-0), Dr. Ling Yong and Mr. Kuang Ko-Zen. Macroscopic examination: The leaves are dark brown in color with · a few discolored spots. When they were placed in a moist chamber, black dots developed in abundance after six days. These are fruiting bodies of a kind· of fungi. Isolation of the· plant pathogen: were made by tissue cultures on August 1, 1952. Uniform fungal colonies were produced from each piece of the plant tissue 48 hrs. after planting on potatq dextrose plates. Mycelium of the organism was whitish at first becoming grayish with a blue tint later (Fig.. 13). Pycnidia were produced in abundanc;e in this. medium eight days after planting. Pathogenicity tests: 1) Inoculation of apples and pears: On August 4, 1952; apples and pears were surface-disinfected with alcohol and then inoculated with fungal culture in the following ways: Method 1. Shallow cuts about 3 mm. in diam. were made on the skin of the fruit and into each cut a bit of fungal culture was inoculated. Method 2. Minute punctures were made on the fruits and discs of agar bearing the fungal cuiture were applied to the wounds. Method 3. The same as method 2, but no puncture was made. In the case of pear, only methods 2 and 3 were employed. The size of the lesions produced 48 hrs. after inoculation were recorded and the results are shown in the following table: Size of lesions 48 hrs. after inoculation (average of 6 replications> Method of inoculation 1 Apple Pear 2 3 Inoculated - 3 Control 25 mm. 29 mm. 5 mm. 0 67 X 67 mm. 45 X 50 mm. 0 0 23 28 7 . 2 I X X X 0 0 I As the organism is highly infectious, all the methods of inoculation were found successful. Brownish circular spots were produced at first and increased in size rapidly (Fig. 14) . Distinct zonations were obin some of the lesions (Fig. 15). The infection extended into the interior of the fruits causing soft rot of the tissue. Four days after inothe pears collapsed completely (Fig. 16). In the case of apples eight days were required to attain the same condition. Re-isolations recovered the same organism in all.dases. · ' . . . 2) Inoculation of the apple twigs. On August 4, 1952, four one year old apple plants were used for the inoculation test. Two of the plants were kept as controls, and the other two were inoculated as follows: the - 186 - twigs were first disinfected with alcohol, minute punctures were then made on the tender parts of twigs and petioles. Agar discs bearing the fungal culture were applied to the wounds as inocula. After inoculation the young twigs were wrapped round with, cellophane paper. From time to time sterile water was injected into the cellophane chamber in order to maintain the humid condition. The control plants were kept in the same manner as the above except no fungal culture was applied to the wound. Two inoculated plants produced cankers and die back 48 hrs. and 96 hrs. after inocu}ation respectively (Fig. 17), while the controls remained healthy throughout. The above inoculation tests demonstrated that: (1) the organism is highly infectious to both apples and pears, as lesions and rots very rapidly on the fruits; (2) infection on the fruits can also take place through the intact skin; (3) cankers and die back symptoms are produced inoculations are made on the young twigs of the apple plants. Morphology of the fungus: Pycnidia were produced in abundance, at the central portion of the lesions of the apple six days after inoculation. They are scattered, erumpent, ostiolate, ovoid to broadly elliptic, dark brown in color, measuring 260-420 x 200-260 micra. Pycnidospores are hyaline, non-septate, cylindrical to fusoid, 20-25 x 4.0-6.5 micra (Fig. 18). Mycelium is whitish at first, becoming greyish with a blue tint. Pycnidia also were produced in abundance in potato dextrose agar medium. Based on morphological and pathological studies, this fungus is identified as Macrophoma kuwatsukai Hara. This organism is highly infectious causing severe rots (ring spot) on both apples and pears. It. also causes canker and twig blight on apple tree.. Obviously this is a dangerous parasite for the orchards. Identification of the pathogenic fungus: Since an American plane disseminated large quantities of peach leaves harbouring this dangerous parasite, it is evident that the U.S. government intended to use .this organism to cause damage to the crops of Northeast China. IV. FUNGUS-LADEN CORN (MAIZE) KERNELS FOUND IN A LOCALITY OF NORTHEAST CHINA WHERE INSECTS AND . OTHER OBJECTS WERE DISPERSED BY U.S. MILITARY PLANES . . On March 19, 1952, Mr. Fu Min. (age 37) a farmer of Sunchiapaotze, Wulungpei, Antung district, discovered a .certain quantity of corn kernels be>\!ide a river.. maj 9r part of the dropped corn kernels - 187 - had been burnt by the peasants immediately after their discovery, only a small sample was sent to this laboratory for examination. Macroscopical examination of the corn kernels: There are black pustules on the top of some of the corn kernels (Fig. 19). A dark powdery substance was found in such pustules. Microscopical examination ofthe fungus: It is found that the black pustules are sori of a certain kind of smut. Sori are dark brown; spore balls subglobose, rather permanently united, 14-30 y. in diameter, each composed of 3 to 20 spores; spores are dark brown, usually hemispherical, sometimes more or less irregular, 8-14 J.l in diameter; contiguous surfaces of the spore are fiat and smooth; free surfaces of the spore are round and coarsely verrucose. · Germination test: The spores retain a high capacity of germination. They are readily germinated after 24 hours incubation at room ture in drops of tap water (Fig. 20). During the germination, each chlamydospore of the spore ball produces a promycelium, from the tip of which a sporidium buds out. Identification of the fungus: According to morphological studies, this fungus is identified as Thecaphora sp., a smut. Thecaphora sp. on corn kernels is hitherto -unknown in China. A species of the genus, Thecaphora deformans Tul. is known to be detrimental to legumes in America and Europe. Report by: Tai Fang-Ian, B.S. Director, Institute of Plant Pathology Peking College of Agriculture. Shen Chi-I, Ph. D. Prof., Dept. of Plant Pathology Dean, Peking College of Agriculture. Chiu Wei-fan, Ph. D. ·Assistant Prof., Dept. of Plant Pathology Peking College of Agriculture. Teng Shu-chuen, M.S. Prof., · Dept of Plant Pathology Vice President, Shenyang College of Agriculture. .;._ 188 - Cheo Chia-chih, B.S. Prof., Dept. of Plant Pathology Peking College of Agriculture. Hwang Ho, B.S. Research Assistant, Academia Sinica. Lee Chih-luen, B.S. Assistant, Dept. of Plant Pathology Peking College of Agriculture. Date of Report: Aug. 20, 1952 189 - I. Purple spot of soybean-C:e1·cospom sojina Hara Figs. 1 to 2. 0 • 7( ("' ·. ·; .• . .• 'i .r1, · .... '... - . ··-·Fig. 1. Epidermal layer of soybean pod showing two tufts of conidiophores of Cercospora sojina Hara (210X). Fig. 2. A soybean seedling grown in soil inoculated with the pure culture of Cercospora sojina, isolated from the soybean pod dropped by American planes in the northern part of Korea, showing dark lesions at the base of the hypocotyl and on the root and cotyledons. 11. Anthracnose of apple, pear and cotton-Glomerella sp. Figs. 3 to 11. Fig. 3. A sample of the leaves harbouring anthracnose fungus dispersed by American planes in the Northern part of Korea. Fig. 4. Cotton seedlings after inoculation with the culture of Glomerella sp., showing lesions on the hypocotyls, roots and cotyledons. Left: soil inoculation. Right: plate inoculation. Fig. 5. Cotton seedlings grown in soil inoculated with cultures of Glomerella sp., showing the lesions on the stems and roots. Fig. 6. Apple and pear, 5 days after inoculation with the culture of Glomerella sp., showing circular brown spots with concentric acervuli at centers. Left: apple. Right: pear. Fig. 7. Apple shoots, 28 days after injection of spore suspension of Glome1·eLla sp., showing the cankers. Fig. 8. Side view of an acervulus of Glomerella sp. produced in culture isolated from the leaf dropped by U.S. planes in the northern part of Korea, showing short conidiophores and single-celled conidia (x 640). Fig. 9. Top view of ocervuli of G1omerella sp. grown in culture showing the prominent setae (x 220). ,. I Fig. 10. Germination of the conidia of GLomerella sp. in tap water at room temperature, showing the formation of septa and appressorium (x 640). Fig. 11. Two asci of GLomerella sp. each containing 8 singlecelled biseriate ascospores (x 640) . III. Ring spot of apple and Hllra Figs. 12 to 18. lcuwatsulcai F'ig. 12. A sample of the peach leaves harbouring a ring spot fungus disseminated by American planes in Hsiu-Yen Hsien, Northeast China. Fig. 13. From the disseminated leaves, a ring spot fungus, identified as Macrophoma kuwatsu.kai Hara, has been isolated. This shows a colony of the fungus growing on potato dextrose agar medium in a petri-dish. l<'ig. 14. An apple 48 hours after inoculation with Macrophoma Jcuwntsukai Hara (by puncture) showing circular brown lesion. Left: control. Right: inoculated. Fig. 15. Two apples five days after inoculation with the fungus culture into a small cut showing the ring spots. Fig. 16. Large lesions are produced on pears 48 hours after inoculation with the same fungus (by surface contact). Left: two fruits inoculated. Right: control. Fig. 17. One apple shoot (marked by a cross) 48 hours after inoculation wit h the same fungus showing the die - back. The control shoots remained healthy. Fig. 18. Pycnidia of the ring spot fungus, Macroplwma kuwatsukai Hara, are produced in abundance at the center of the lesion on an apple 6 days after inoculation by inserting the fungus into a cut. This shows a cross section o.r a pycnidium in the host tissue (x 150). IV. Fig. 19. Smut of corn kernels (Th ecaphom sp.) Figs. 19 to 20. Two corn k ernels bearing sori of th e smut, Th ecaphora sp. . , ;t . ... Fig. 20. Spore balls of Thecaphom sp. in germination showing septate promycelium being produced from each chlamydospore (x 250). APPENDIX Jb Report on Two Kinds of Leaves of South Korean Plants Disseminated by U.S. Military Planes in the Northern Part of Korea and Northeast China (ISCC/7b) Among the plant materials disseminated by the American planes in North Korea and Northeast China, we have found the leaves of a local form of Lindera glauca Bl. and leaves of Quercus aliena Bl. var. 'rubripes Nakai; these two plants are distributed in South Korea. I. Lindera glauca Bl. of leaves as witnessed.-On May 3, 1952, at Lien Shan Village, sixth District of Hai-loon hsien, Liao-tung Province, Northeast China, an inhabitant, Li Chun-Kwei, saw four American planes flying from north to south, dropping large quantities of leaves. Identification of the disseminated leaves.-These leaves are mainly those of common oaks (Quercus dentata Thunb., Q. Tnongolica Fisch. et var.). But among them we found one leaf of Linde1·a glauca Bl. The leaf of this lauraceous plant is characterized by elliptic-oblong blade with entire margins, slightly curved at the tip, with slightly lustrous upper surface, by the short petiole, by fineljr reticulate veinlets and by the lateral veins not reaching the margin. The lower surface of this. leaf is rarely hairy or almost glabrous. By the last mentioned character this leaf is definitely identified as that of the local form of Lindera glauca BI. of South Korea (Fig. 1). Distribution of Lindera glauca Bl.-This Korean form of lauraceous plant is distributed south of 38 parallel of latitude. At 38 parallel of latitude this plant is restricted only at several places along the western coast. It has never occurred at any place in Northeast China. Outside of Korea this species also occurs in Japan and South China. This form is, however, confined to South Korea. II. Quercus aliena Bl. var. ritbripes Nakai Dissemination of the leaves.-At 11 a.m. on Feb. 28, 1952, at Dai-Tek San, Korea, a Chinese People's Volunteer, Wu Yao-chuen witnessed - 191 - two American planes scattered large quantities of leaves. They covered an area of about one square kilometer. We received a fragment of leaf from Professor Chang Ching-Yueh of Peking University, who personally brought it back from North Korea. Identification of the disseminated leaf.--After careful examination of the leaf-fragment, it is identified as Quercus aliena Bl. var. rubripe8 Nakai, a deciduous oak (Fig". 2). This variety is characterized by: · (1) Leaf-stalk 1-2 em. long, flattened above, slightly channelled near the base, reddish in color, distinguishable even when dry. (2) Leaf-base entire, both sides usually slightly unequal, leaf slight1y lustrous on its upper surface, with greyish-white matted woolly hairs covering its lower surface. ( 3) The central primary vein prominent on both surfaces of the leaf. By the matted woolly hairs covering the ,lower surface of the leaf, by tl::e central primary vein prominent on both surfaces and by the color of the leaf-stalk, central primary vein and "lateral veins this variety differs markedly from all other varieties and forms of Que1·cus aliena Bl. . A complete specimen of this variety sent by exchange from the herbarium of the Imperial University of Tokyo, collected on August 30, 1900, at Inchon of Korea by Uchiyama is preserved in the. herbarium of Academia Sinica. lAfter comparing this fragment in question with this specimen, it is certain that our identification is correct (Fig. 3). Distribution of Quercus aliena Bl. var. rubripes Nakai. In Korea, this plant is strictly confined to the South of 38 parallel of latitude (Cholla Buk Do, Choong-Ching Nam Do, Kyong-Ki Do), and not found north of it. By the above-mentioned facts it is certain that the plant materials were American planes. Reported by : Chien Sung-shu Director, Institute of Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica. iiu Hsen-hsu Research Bember, Institute of Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica, Lin Yang · Research Member, Institute of Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica. Yu Te-tsuli Research Member, Institute of Systematic Botany, Academic Sinica. --' 192 - Wu Cheng-yih Vice-Diredor of the Institute of Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica. Wang Fa-tsan Research ,i\l.emher, Institute oi Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica. Tang Tsin Research Member, Institute of Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica. Kuang Ko-zen Research Associate, Institute of Systematic Botany, Academia Sinica. Liu Tchen-ngo Director of the Botanical Institute, Northeast College of Agriculture. Date of Report: Aug. 15, 1952. - 193 - Fig. 1. Leaves of Lindera gLauca Bl. disseminated by American planes at Hai-Loon Hsien, Liao-Tung Province. This form of lauraceous plant is only distributed south of 38 parallel o£ latitude; it is never known at any place in Northeast China. ·. ' .: ' ... ·: . ' .· .. . ' Fig. 2. The leaf fragment of Quercus aliena Bl. var. rubripes Nakai disseminated by American planes at Dai-Tek San, northern part of Korea. This plant is strictly confined to the south of 38 parallel of latitude in Korea. ,, • • Fig. (X) var. and U!CI 3. Comparison between the disseminated leaf fragment and the complete herbarium specimen of Q. aliena Bl. rubripes Nakai presented by Tokyo Imperial University preserved by Academia Sinica (Collected from Inchon Korea by T. Uchiyama, 30 Aug. 1900). APPENDIX K "Report on Plague in Changteh, Hunan" (Dec. 12th 1941) (ISCC/1) by Dr. Chen Wen Kwei Emergency Medical Service Training School, Head, Dept. of Laboratory Medicine, Kweiyang, Kweichow. PREAMBLE-CIRCUMSTANCES LEADING TO THE SUSPICION OF PLAGUE: On November 4th, 1941, at about 5 a.m. a single enemy plane appeared over Changteh, flying very low, the morning being rather misty. Instead of bombs, wheat and rice grains, piece of paper, cotton wadding and some unidentified particles were dropped. These materials fell chiefly -in the Chi Ya Hsiang and Kwan Miao Street, (Area "A" in map) and around the East Gate district (Area "B".in map) of the city. After the all clear signal (5 p.m.), specimens of rice grains were collected and sent by the police to the Kwangteh Hospital for examination, which revealed the .presence of micro-organisms reported to resemble P. pestis. (This was, however, shown to be erroneous. by Dr. Chen Wen-Kwei later). Although the finding was by no means conclusive, suspicion that the enemy had scattered plague-infective material was in the mind of the medical workers who saw the incident on the spot. (I) . REPORT OF SUSPECTED AND PROVEN CASES OF BUBONIC PLAGUE: Nothing happened until November 11th, seven days after the "aerial incident" when the first suspicious ease of plague came to notice. This was a girl of eleven years old, living in Kwan Miao Street (Area "A" in map), complaining of high fever (105.7 F.) since November 11th. She was admitted to the Kwangteh Hospital. No other positive clinical finding was recorded but direct blood smear examination was said to have revealed the presence of P. pestis like organisms. She." died on the 13th of November and post-mortem exanJ,ination showed highly sus.picious evidences of plague, smears from internal · organs exhibiting similar organisms to those found in the blood (Cast> No. 1-Table). (II) - 195 - On November 13th, another case was found dead. On enquirv the patient had high fever on November 11th and died on 13th. Liver puncture was performed. Direct smear examination showed the :rresence of micro-organisms resembling plague bacilli. This patient was living on Chang Ching Street in the East Gate district (Area "B" in map) (Case No. 2-Table). Two more cases came to notice, both with high fever and enlargement of glands in the groin, ("buboes") beginning on November 12th. Smear examination of gland puncture fluid showed the presence of plague-like micro-organisms in both cases. One died on the 13th and the other on the 14th. Both lived in the East Gate district (Area "B" in map) (Case Nos. 3 and 4-Table). The fifth cas.e, admitted to the Isolation Hospital on November 19th, had fallen ill with fever and delirium (and buboes) on November 18th. He died on the day of admission. - Autopsy revealed apparently nega. tive findings. (Case No. 5-Table). The sixth case, a man of 28, living in Kwan Miao Street (Area "A" in map) came down with fever, malaise and buboes on November 23rd and died the next day. This case was proved by Dr. Chen WenKwei, Head of the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Central Train-' ing School, who had just arrived from Kweiyang with an investigation unit, to be genuine bubonic plague by post-mortem findings, confirmed by culture and animal tests (Case No. 6-Table and Document K-1). All these cases were natives of Hunan and had lived in Changteh or in its immediate environs for years. Since then to date no fresh cases of plague have come to notice. CONCLUSION: The last case seen was proved to be bubonic plague. The clinical histOry and smears from five other cases leave little doubt that they were also cases of plague. (III) a. INFORMATION GATHERED FROM INVESTIGATION AND ENQUIRY: General information: Changteh is a city situated on the western shore of the Tung Ting Lake, directly on the northern. bank of the Yuan River. Formerly, highway connections were available between this city and Hupeh pro· vince in the north, Changsha in the east and Taoyuan and other cities - 196 - in southwest Hunan. At present all the highway communications have been cut and the nearest highway is at Chengchiachi (60km) to the southwest by river. River traffic to Changsha via the Tung Ting Lake, and to Yuanlip.g and Chihchiang via the Yuan River is still open. At present, therefore, communications with Changteh is only possible by boat or by footpaths. Changteh has hot summers and cold winters which begin early in November. At the time of enquiry, atmospheric temperature ranged between 40-5o·F. Changteh was an important business centre in northern Hunan but since the war its prosperity has been much reduced due to frequent enemy air-raids and the cutting off of highway communications. b. Medical Institutions at Changteh: Kwangteh Hospital-a missionary hospital of 100 beds. Hsien Health Centre (Wei-Sheng-Yuan) clinics. holds out-patients An isolation hospital of 50 beds was established after the outbreak of plague. c. Medical Statistics: Changteh has now a population of about 50,000. No mortality statistics are available. It is known to be an endemic centre of cholera, and cholera epidemics have arisen from year to year. There has been no noticeable increase in human deaths prior to the •aerial incident'. Since the first suspicious death from plague, records were kept of deaths in the city by the Hsien Health Centre, information being obtained from the police and coffin dealers. From November 12th-24th, seventeen deaths were reported in all, including those suspected of plague. No information was available about the causes of the other deaths. d. Environmental Sanitation: General sanitation of the city is rather poor. Frequent air-raids have destroyed many houses. Most new houses are built of wood and provide easy access to rats. Area "A": K wan Miao Street and Chi Ya-hsiang region (see map). This district is almost in the heart of the city and habitations are over-crowded. Streets are narrow and dirty. Several of the houses - 197 - in which plague deaths had occurred were visited and found to have dark and poorly ventilated rooms with no floors. Garbage accumulations were commonly seen in the corner of the rooms. Rat holes were found everywhere. Other houses. did not differ in general appearance from those described. Area "B": East Gate region (see map). Although less crowded, this district was even less. impressive, being the living quarters of the poorer class. Environmental sanitation did not differ mater:i!ally from Area "A". On enquiry it was elicited that no conspicuous increase of rats was found either prior to or during the present outbreak. An Indian "wonder" rat-trap was set in one of the plague-death houses for three successive nights but no rats were caught. Some 200 rats were "bought" from the people and dissected but none of them showed any evidence of plague infection. These rats could not be traced to their place of origin. Many "tangle;:foot" flea traps were also set in the houses in which plague death had occurred, but failed to catch any fleas. - 11}8 - SUMMARY OF FINDINGS IN SIX CASES OF BUBONIC PLAGUE IN CHANGTEH, HUNAN, CHINA (For detail See Documents K-1 & K-2) 1-' Case No. Name of Patient Sex Age Place of Occurrence Date of Onset of Disease Result Clinical & Laboratory findings 1. Tsai Tao-erh F. 11 Area A* Nov. 11, 1941 Died Nov. 13, 1941 High fever; blood smear positive for P. pestis morphologically ? plague !Dr. P. K. Chien 4. Hsu Lao-san M. 25 Area B Nov. 12, 1941 Died Nov., High fever; enlarged groin glands; 14 1941 smear *"'Area B-East Gate region (see Map). IDied Nov. 19, 1941 Diagonosis Seen by (Kwangteh Hosp. Changteh). Autopsy: Drs. Tan and P. K. Chien (RCMRC Group II, leader). ? plague Dr. Fang Teh-cheng Fever; delirium; ? enlarged groin ? ? plague glands. Autopsy: Findings: ?? splenic smear o Animal I motility ( +) L inoculations (I Indol reaction <+> Glucose, lactose, sorbitol, sucrose, xylose, rhamnose, I arabinose and . 1 Isolation pure galactose all give I culture gas and acid 1)at l culture L (1st pasformation after sage) hours. , 1 Animal ( albino rat' (No. 1 ino.cula-11 3)->alive II I I l l24 t1on I I I/ (No. coliform colonies l Animal inoculation (2nd passage) (using the liver and spleen of the dead albino rat No. 1); albino rat positive. 252 M-7 STATISTICS OF CASES OF PLAGUE OCCURRING IN DIFFERENT MONTHS IN THE ENDEMIC AREA OF NORTHEAST CHINA, 1947-1951 (In percentages, taking the highest incidence as 100%) Text 1: Monthly Distribution of Plague Cases in Endemic Area of Northeast Chma m 1947. · - 253 - tOO so 60 40 2.0 0 Text Fig. 2. Monthly Distribution of Plague Cases in Endemic Area of Northeast . China in 1948. zo 0 "ii , !1 § '< (I) E: '< 1!; Ul tl) 0 !<:: 1:::1 (I) r Text Fig. 3. Monthly Distribution of Plague Cases in Endemic Area of Northeast China in 1949. - 254. - tOO 60 10 0 <-< to p :;.t p' g) > 'CS ..... Ill '< c:: :::1 (';) ..... .: '< > .: qtl r:n. (';) 'CS :-'" ,..0 (> z 0 :<: t:J (';) !' Text: Fi'g. 4. Monthly Distribution of Plague Cases in Endemic Area 9f Northeal!lt China in 1950. Text Fig. 5. MonthlY Distribution of Rodents found Infected with Plague in Endemic Area o{ Northeast China in 1950. 255 100 60 60 40 2.0 0 .... I» ? »j (I) ?' a> ;; c... > '0 ;; '< § CD c... q > qo. UJ <0 0(") z 0 :<: tJ (I) r Text Fig. 6, Monthly Distribution of Plague Cases in Endemic Area of N,o:r;thc;8$t China in 1951. 100 80 00 40 e.o 0 Text Fig. 7. Monthly Distribution of Rodents found Infected with Plague in En.d®1J<; of Norll;lea:;;t. 19[il. DOCUMENT M-8 SKETCH SHOWING THE ROUTE ALONG WHICH THE AMERICAN PLANE DROPPED VOLES IN KAN-NAN HSIEN (44) (2) (2) 5th Lu N (:!"!) 7th +· lOth District 5th Lii Lii (44) (57) (:!5) 6th Lii 7th Lu 2nd LU 1st Lii (I) (42) (7) 8th {,ij Air plane tiying fi'"Ont. Southeast to· North\l'CSt 4th Lii 1st Lii - 257 - 'I 'I j... Fig. 1. Chart showing the course of a double fuselage American plane intruding over KanNan on April 4, 1952. .. I*J '• \ . l. • 1L . { Fig. 2. Map of the tenth district of Kan-Nan Hsien showing where the American plane dropped the diseased voles. (The numbers in parenthess indicate the numbers of voles found). r·-------.._ ·-,___ ) \.. .. \ .....---.,_ _ ___..... --- Jl ------ -=-=- - ·U .......-::-:· Fig. 3. Map of Kan-Nan Hsien and its neighbom·hood . '