Analysis of a 24 -Year Photographic Record of Nisqually Glacier, Mount Rainier National Park, Washington By FRED M. YEATCH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A contribution to the International Hydrological Decade PROFESSIONAL PAPER 631 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WALTER J. HICKEL, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY William T. Pecora, Director Library of Consress catalo~r"CBrd No. 71-oo2800 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1969 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 CONTENTS Page Abstract _____________ -----------------------------Introduction ______________________________________ _ 1 Purpose and scope _____________________________ _ Reasons for the program ____________________ _ Purpose of the report _______________________ _ Selection of study area _____________________ _ Previous investigations _________________________ _ Photographs _______________________________ _ Surveys and maps _________________________ _ Acknowledgments ______________________________ _ 1 1 2 2 Description of the area _______________ --- _________ --Physiography _________________________________ _ Climate ___________________ - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - The photographic program __________________________ _ Network of stations ____________________________ _ Photographic series not published ________________ _ Time of year and weather conditions _____________ _ Camera equipment _____________________________ _ Light conditions _____________ - ________________ -Scale corrections on prints ______________________ _ Quantitative interpretations from the photographs _____ _ Changes in ice thickness ________________________ _ Changes in lateral ice margins ___________________ _ Longitudinal slope of the ice surface ______________ _ Snow lines and firn edges _______________________ _ 1 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 13 13 21 Page Qualitative interpretations __________________________ _ Characteristics of the terminus __________________ _ Debris cover and its distribution _________________ _ _____________________________________ _ ~oraines Crevassing and general character of the glacier surface _________________________________ _ Terminus to profile L ______________________ _ Profile 1 to about 1,000 feet (300 m) above profile 2--------------------------------1,000 feet (300 m) above profile 2 to above profile 3---------------------------------· Erosion and deposition _________________________ _ Banks and lateral moraines _________________ _ Outburst floods ____________________________ _ Flood of October 14, 1932 _______________ _ Flood of October 24-25, 1934 ____________ _ Flood of October 25, 1955 _______________ _ Nat ural changes below glacier from floods and other causes _____________________________ _ Conclusions _______________________________________ _ Recommended photographic procedures ______________ _ Photographic stations __________________________ _ Optimum light conditions _______________________ _ Selecting the view _____________________________ _ Equipment ____________________________________ _ Recording the photographic data ________________ _ References ________________________________________ _ 22 22 22 22 34 34 34 34 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 49 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 ILLUSTRATIONS Page PLATE 1. Map of Nisqually Glacier and vicinity, showing locations of the photographic stations and cross profiles __ In pocket FIGURE 1. Map of south side of ~ount Rainier and vicinity ____________________________________________ - __ ---3 2-5. Photographs of Nisqually Glacier, from confluence with Wilson Glacier to the nunatak, as seen from station 7: 2. 1890 (date uncertain) _______________________________________________________________ ----8 9 3. August 1915____________________________________________________________________________ 10 4. August 22, 1945_____ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ ___ _ __ __ _ ___ __ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ ____ 5. August 27, 1963 ____________ ------------------------------------------------------------6. Photograph showing ice margins for selected years in period 1890-1965-------------------------------7-1 0. Photographs across glacier in series 14- W (profile 2) used to determine slope and changes in ice thickness: 7. August 21, 1942------------------------------------------------------------------------8. August 27, 1952 _______________________________________________________________________ -9. September 8, 1960 ____________________________________________________________________ - -10. August 30, 1965____ __ ___ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ __ ___ __ _ _ _____ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __ __ _ _ ___ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ 11 12 11. Graph showing changes in ice-surface elevation, or glacier thickness, at profile 2 and above profile 3------12. Photograph of area where changes in icc thickness above profile 3 were measured on the photographs in series 15, showing minimum icc conditions in 1944______________________________________________ 13. Photograph showing ice margins around the nunatak for selected years in the period 1942-65 _______ ----14. Graph showing longitudinal slope of the glacier surface at profile 2 _________________________________ --- 18 III 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 CONTENTS IV Page FIGURE 15. Photograph showing several areas of firn outlined on a 1955 view taken from station 13_________________ 16-19. Photographs of the terminus in series 1-NE, taken from points at or near the old highway bridge: 16. 1903----------------------------------------------------------------------------------17. 1908----------------------------------------------------------------------------------18. July 5, 1929---------------------------------------------------------------------------19. August 19, 1942------------------------------------------------------------------------20-25. Photographs showing the lower part of Nisqually Glacier, as seen from station 5: 20. August 31, 1942 __________________________ - _ ____ _ _ ___ _ ____ _ ____ _____ _ _____ ____ ___ _ _ _ _ ___ _ 26. 27-31. 32-34. 35. 36-38. 39. 21. August 22, 1951------------------------------------------------------------------------22. September 1, 1954 __________________ -- ____ ---- ___________________________ ~ _ ______ __ ____ __ 23. September 11, 1959 _____________ ------- ___ - ----- _- ___ __ _ ___ ____ ____ _______ ____ ___ ____ ____ 24. September 8, 1962 ______ ----------- _____ -------- ___ __ __ _ _______ _ _ _______ _ ___ _____ ____ ___ _ 25. August 30, 1965------------------------------------------------------------------------Photograph showing patterns of small recessional lateral moraines on east bank in 1940, as seen from station 12________________________________________________________________________________________ Photographs of Nisqually Glacier near the nunatak, as seen from station 6: 27. August 27, 1952____ ____ ______ __ ____ __ ___ _____ ___ ____ _ _ _____ __ ___ ____ __ __ _ _____ ___ __ ___ __ 28. September 1, 1954 ___________________________ --- __ __ _ ___ ________ _ ____ ___ _ ___ ___ __ ___ ___ __ 29. September 5, 1958____ __ __ ______ __ ___ ___ ____ _ ___ __ ___ ________ __ ___ ____ ___ ___ __ _ _ ____ __ ___ 30. September 6, 196L___ __ _ _____ __ __ ____ ________ ___ _ ___ _ _ ___ __ ____ _ ____ _ ___ ___ ___ _ ___ ______ 31. August 30, 1965__________ _____ _____ ___ ______ __ ___ _ ___ __ ___ __ ___ _ _____ __ __ ___ ___ ___ __ __ __ Photographs of upper reaches of Nisqually and Wilson Glaciers, as seen from station 13: 32. August 28, 1949------------------------------------------------------------------------33. August 30, 1957------- __ - _____ ------------ __ - _----- __________ -- _ __ ___ __ ___ ___ __ __ __ __ ___ 34. August 30, 1965------- _-- ----- ___ ---------------------- __ ____ __ _ _ ____ _____ __ _______ ___ __ Photographs showing erosion of old lateral moraine from 1947 to 1965_________________________________ Photographs of Nisqually valley below the glacier, as seen from station 3: 36. 1934----------------------------------------------------------------------------------37. August 25, 1947-------- ______ -- _-- ___ - ___ -- -------- __ -- __ - ______ __ ________ ___ ____ _____ __ 38. August 31, 1965 ____ -- ___ ----- _______________ -- __ _ __ ____ __ __ ____ _ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ ____ _ __ _ __ Photographs showing river channel just above the highway bridge, as viewed downstream from station 2 in 1949, 1950, 1956, and 1965 ________ - ________ ----- _____ __ ______ __ ___________ ___ _______ __ 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 50 TABLE Page TABLE 1. Descriptions of the photographic series, 1890-1965 ______ - ____________ - ------------------------------ 6 ANALYSIS OF A 24-YEAR PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD OF NISQUALLY GLACIER, MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK, WASHINGTON By Fred M. Veatch Abstract A systematic coverage of Nisqually Glacier by photographs taken from a network of stations on the ground was begun in 1942 to explore the value and limitations of such photographs as an aid in glacier study. Principles developed may be of value elsewhere, especially for the program "Measurement of Glacier Variations on a World-Wide Basis" of the International Hydrological Decade. Nisquaiiy Glacier in Mount Rainier National Park, Wash., covPrs 2.5 square miles (6.5 square kilometers) (1961) and extends from an altitude of about 14,300 feet (4,400 meters) m•ar the top of Moulllt Rainier down to 4,700 feet (1,400 meters), in a horizontal distance of 4.1 miles ( 6.6 kilometers). Analyses were made of the annual photographs taken by the writer for 24 years from about 20 stations. A number of pictures taken sporadically from 1884 to 1941 by others were also available for use in the study. Where possible, the results obtained from photographs were compared with those from the avalilable engineering surveys. Such detailed analysis of an extensive photographic coverage of a single glacier may be unique. ·Photographs illustrating the retreat and advance of the glacier's west ice margin in a reach extending for about a mile (1.6 kilometers) downstream from Wilson Glacier show that, by 1965, most of the ice thickness lost in that area between 1890 and 1944 had been recovered. Withering of the stagnant valley tongue down glacier from the nuntak is portrayed, as is ilts spectacular reactivation in the 1960's by a vigorous advance of fresh ice. Some of the visible characteristics of advancing and receding termini are ndl:ed. Annual values of the glacier's surface slope (5 to 10 degrees) at a cross profile were measm:ed on photographs with respect to a projeetritus or Mt. 8 ANALYSIS OF 24-YEAR PHOTOGRAPIDC RECORD, NISQUALLY GLACIER , MOUNT RAINIER, WASH. Figure 2 .-Nisqually Glacier, from confluence with Wilson Glacier to the nunatak, as seen from station 7 in 1890 (date uncertain). (Figures 2-5 were photographed from the same viewpoint as was used for the photograph published in the Geological Survey's Annual Report for 1896-97 (Russell, 1898).) Note some similarities to 1963 view in regard to extent of ice and paHerns of crevassing; note also the absence of a large moraine near the west canyon wall. Photograph is believed to have been taken in 1890 by W. 0 . Amsden, but may have been taken in 1896 by a member of the I. C. Russell (U.S. Geological Survey) reconnaissance party. QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATIONS FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS Figure 3.-Nisqually Glacier, from confluence with Wilson Glacier to the nunatak, as seen from station 7 in August 1915 by G. L. Parker, U.S. Geological Survey. This view was taken from a slightly different location than the others in series 7; it was higher on the hillside, with camera pointed farther to left. Note (as is graphically verified in fig. 6) how the conformation of the surface slope of the ice along the west canyon wall was different in 1915 than in 1963 or 1965, and how during the intervening half century many changes in exposure of the rock formations occurred. Note also the two moraines near far edge of glacier, marked by debris lines. 9 10 ANALYSIS OF 24-YEAR PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD, NISQUALLY GLACIER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASH. Figure 4.-Nisqually Glacier, from confluence with Wilson Glacier to the nunatak, as seen from station 7 on August 22, 1945. Upper part of glacier is at about its lowest known ice mass, as evidenced by the exposure of bedrock. There is almost no crevassing in middle reach. Slope at proFile 2 (location in Fig. 20) is very flat and broken below there. Note the light-colored medial moraine approaching nunatak from upper right. Sources of debris may be deduced. Note also large ice-cored moraine along west edge of glacier. QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATIONS FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS 11 Figure 5.-Nisqually Glacier, from confluence with Wilson Glacier to the nunatak, as seen from station 7 on August 27,1963. Note transverse crevasses developing in east part of glacier above nunatak indicating the direct down-valley movement of that ice. Ice-cored moraine seen in Figure 4 is now subdued because oF the rejuvenated movement. Note that since 1945 the glacier has recovered much oF the volume evident in the 1890 view. 12 ANALYSIS OF 24-YEAR PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD , NISQUALLY GLACIER, MOUNT RAINIER, WASH. Figure 6 .-lce margins for selected years in period 1890-1965 are indicated on the series 7 photograph taken August 23, 1951. Note that by 1965 the glacier had recovered much of the ice thickness it had lost since 1890. QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATIONS FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS 13 vertical scale of the valley wall on a photograph could believed to be accurate to within plus or minus 25 feet (Sm). readily be calculated from these distances and the It is most interesting that thickness changes were camera's focal length. nearly synchronous at profile 3 and at the bulge 1.2 km In the second example of ice thickness analysis, data above profile 3. The minor inconsistencies between the for the graphical plotting of the changes in ice-surface graphs in figure llB may possibly be caused by differelevation at a single cross-profile axis were derived as in timing of the ice advances of Wilson Glacier ences follows. On each annual print of series 14--W (figs. with respect to those of Nisqually Glacier above Wilson 7-10) the distance was measured between a selected An attempt was made to check this timing, but Glacier. rock feature on the canyon wall directly opposite the the results were not satisfactory. The reason for this photographic station and the ice margin directly belo~ it. The results were converted to a common-scale basis may be the small upward angle of view in the photowith respect to the print for year ~f the lowest ice, graphs of the top of any ice bulge on Wilson Glacier; 1951, as was described in the previous example, and the they do not place the lip of the bulge sufficiently in outline or profile. Another source of inconsistency may be values were plotted graphically against time (fig. llA) and compared with the thickness changes indicated by the irregular changing shape of the top of the ice bulge the annual cross-profile surveys. The graph of thick- occurring from year to year. ness changes measured on the photographs could not be CHANGES IN LATERAL ICE MARGINS given a vertical scale in feet (or meters) unless it were obtained by comparison with field survey results, as Some of the ice-thickness analyses in the preceding is this case, or by geometrical computation using map section also indicate changes in position of the lateral data and the camera lens focal length. ice margins of the glacier. Such changes are further On the graph in figure llA the scale of the photo- illustrated by lines around the nunatak as shown on an graphic measurements was adjusted to closely fit the enlarged part of the August 22, 1951, view from series scale to which the field surveys were plotted. There 6 (fig. 13). The ice margins for each of the selected are a few small inconsistencies between the field sur- years indicated were transferred by tracing from one veys and photographic measurements in figure llA, single weight print to another, over a very bright light. probably due .to the low vertical angle between the All the annual prints used must be enlarged to the same camera viewpoint and the distant ice margin which is scale. not always clearly: visible. Still, such a graph for a The maximum error incurred in figure 13 is estimated valley glacier lying between steep canyon walls is to be ± 30 feet ( 9 m) measured along the surface of the roughly indicative of the changes in ice thickness in the ground rather than vertically or horizontally; the averentire cross section of the glacier opposite the point age distance from the camera is 2,500 feet (760 m), of measurement. varying from about 2,100 to 2,900 feet (640 to 880 m). A third example of a method of determining ice It was found that the topographic maps and crossthickness variations from photographs utilizes the profile survey results currently available for this glacier measurement reach indicated on the 1944 view in do not contain enough detail to permit the derivation of photographic series 15 (fig. 12) taken looking up gla- as accurate data on changes in the ice margins, in some cier. In the annual photographs of series 15, distances areas, as can be determined from photographs. were measured down from a bedrock feature to the crest, as seen from the photographic station, of a LONGITUDINAL SLOPE OF THE ICE SURFACE "standing" wave or bulge in the glacier surface nearly The photographs in series 14--W (figs. 7-10) were 4,000 feet (1,200 m) up glacier from profile 3 at an found suirtable for obtaining measurements of longitualtitude of 8,400 -+- 100 feet ( 2,560 -+- 30 m). This bulge dinal slope of rthe glacier surface at profile 2. On each (fig. 12) occurs at the downstream end of a reach of annual print the angle of slope was measured by prorelatively flat slope, and its crest is seen in profile when tractor wition of intense light such as is available at a glacier, a rather slow film is preferable so the middle range of lens openings can be utilized. A film with wide exposure latitude is needed for satisfactorily reproducing all the shades of contrast that are present in most glacier scenes. Color photography is superior to black and white in recording vegetrution, which in the case of many receding glaciers is a very important change to be recorded. For this purpose 35 mm film should be satisfactory. If the photographic party is equipped with two cameras, it is believed worthwhile tha:t the views at all 'the photographic stations be taken both in black and white and in color. A desirable format for the photographic image is 4 by 5 because of iJts ready adaptation to ordinary 8- by 10-inch (20- by 25-cm) enlargements. With any other proportion, part of the negative must be masked when an 8 by 10 print is made; selecting the part or parts of each picture to be masked out and placing the guide marks on each negative for use of the enlarger operator IS a time-consuming and relatively unrewarding process. The rapid shutter speeds normally usable in this work make hand-held camera exposures generally satisfactory from the standpoint of negative sharpness. However, consistently betJter results, both as to sharpness and proper positioning and levelling of the camera, can be obtained with a tripod if enough time is available. As mentioned earlier, no advantage has been found in this program in the use of a lens filter-such as a K-2 (yellow) one. A haze filter for reducing the effect of ultraviolet rays on film at high alti,tudes is helpful in color photography. RECORDING THE PHOTOGRAPHIC DATA When the annual photographs of Nisqually Glacier are taken, data are entered on a looseleaf "Index to Photographs" form prepared for recording the following: Column headino Information indicated Negative No _____________ _ Serial file number, entered later in the office. Film No_________________ Manufacturer's exposure number, which is given on each film of a film pack. Cam. and F.L____________ Model and size of camera, and focal length of its lens. Film and Speed___________ N arne of film, and its ASA speed. Column heading By_____________________ _ Date-------------------Station No ______________ _ Direction _______________ _ Hor. or Vert ____________ _ Std. Time---------------Exposure 1/-- ___________ _ {_______________________ _ Information indicated Initials or names of each member of the party. Month, day, and year. Number of the photographic station. With respect to points of the compass or to the glacier's valley, like "up" or "across". Enter H or V for position in which the film is held when exposed. (Inadvisable to use Daylight Time.) For example, enter "200" to indicate 1/200th of a second. Lens opening. Filter Remarks A print of each form sheet that has been filled out with the data on a season's pictures is carried in the field for possible reference in succeeding years. REFERENCES Field, W. 0., Jr., 1932, Glaciers of the northern part of Prince William Sound, Alaska: Geog. Rev., v. 22, p. 316-388. --1937, Observations on Alaskan coastal glaciers: Geog. Rev., v. 27, p. 63-81. --1947, Glacier recession in Muir Inlet, Alaska: Geog. Rev., v. 37, p. 369-399. Giles, G. C., 1960, Nisqually Glacier,_ Mount Rainier, Washington, 1959 Progress Report: U.S. Geol. Survey, Tacoma, Wash., open-file report, 31 p. Harrison, A. E., 1954, Glacier studies with a camera: Sierra Club Bull., v. 39, no. 6, p. 60-65. - - 1956, Fluctuations of the Nisqually Glacier, Mt. Rainier, Washington, since 1750: Jour. Glaciology, v. 2, no. 19, p. 675-683. Hofmann, Walther, 1958, Der Vorstoss des Nisqually-Gletschers am Mt. Rainier, USA, von 1952 bis 1956: Zeitschr. Gletscherkunde u. Glazialgeologie, v. 4, no. 1-2, p. 47-60. Johnson, Arthur, 1949, Nisqually Glacier, Washington, Progress Report 1946, 1947, and 1948: U.S. Geological Survey, Ta• coma, Wash., report on file, 3 p. - - 1960, Variation in surface elevation of the Nisqually Glacier, Mt. Rainier, Washington: Internat. Assoc. Sci. Hydrology Bull. 19, p. 54-60. LaChapelle, E. R., 1962, Assessing glacier mass budgets by reconnaissance aerial photography: Jour. Glaciology, v. 4, no. 33, p. 290-296. Meier, M. F., 1968, Calculations of slip of Nisqually Glacier on its bed-No simple relation of sliding velocity to shear stress: Internat. Assoc. Sci. Hydrology, Bern Assembly 1967. Pub. 79, p. 49-57. Meier, M. F., and Post, A. S., 1962, Recent variations in mass net budgets of glaciers in western North America: Internat. Assoc. Sci. Hydrology, Obergurgl Symposium, Pub. 58, p. 68-77. Russell, I. C., 1898, Glaciers of Mount Rainier: U.S. Geol. Survey 18th Ann. Rept. 1896-97, pt. 2, p. 355-415. 0 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1969 0 352~93