if." ?x .12THE PLANET EARTH cricmxl?THVUES The Promise for the let Century ?99 Beyond \Utl?l Transcript of THE GREENING OF PLANET EARTH CONTINUES The Promise for the let Century 69? Beyond FEMALE NARRATOR MALE NARRATOR FEMALE NARRATOR A video was produced in 1992 called The Greening of Planet Earth. It explored the pos? itive aspects of increasing amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It examined how enriched levels of C02 stimulate faster growth in trees and plants, improve water?use efficiency in growing things, and increase the yields of almost every important food crop globally. The video also convincingly countered scare stories in the media about the frightening ramifications of global warming. And today, The Greening of Planet Earth remains a very positive vision of life in our world. Yet, there are still TV news reports speculate ing about the spread of tropical diseases and about sea levels rising two feet or more. Still, newspaper stories speculating about vanish, ing wildlife and about cropedevastating droughts. And, still, magazine articles specu? lating about melting glaciers, summer heat? waves becoming more intense, and hurri? canes and storms increasing in severity. These reports are pretty powerful and pretty scary. But are they true? Are all of these terrible things going to hap? pen? Are rising levels of carbon dioxide cauSv ing apocalyptic global warming.7 And does recent scientific evidence contradict any thing that was said in The Greening of Planet Earth? There is no question that the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing from about 270 parts per million before 1800, to about 365 now, to an estimated The Greening of Planet Earth Continues MALE NARRATOR FEMALE NARRATOR doubling to 720 or more within the next 100 years. But is this leading to apocalyptic glob~ al warming? Contemporary news reports would have us believe it is. And they are still speculating. ?Global warming is no longer in doubt.? ?Left unchecked, lobal warmin would lead to environmental holocaust.? ?Climate anel is confident of man?s link to warmin Since temperature measurements indicate that there has been a slight warming over the last century, what can we learn about it from the earth?s climate history? Climate History SALLIE LOUISE BALIUNAS Over the last 100 years, the instrument Senior Astrophysicist Harvard?Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics records say that the eath has warmed about half a degree Centigrade. But most of that warming occurred early in this century before most of the carbon dioxide from human activities were put in the air. So that early 20th Century warming had to be natu? ral. What is the cause of that warming? The sun changes its energy output every eleven years with its sunspot cycle. Sunspots are these areas of intense magnetic field and they come and go every eleven years. We have records of that going back 400 years, since the time of Galileo. The ups and downs of the sun?s magnetism match up very well with these changes in the climate of the earth. So we estimate that most of the changes of the last several hun? dred years and in fact some have estimated the last ten thousand years can be caused by these ?uctuations in the sun?s energy output. The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 3 THOMAS GALE MOORE Senior Fellow, Hoover Institution Stanford University DR. BALIUNAS DR. MOORE ROBERT DAVIS Associate Professor, Environmental Sciences University of Virginia The climate is naturally very variable. It has changed quite a bit over time. Fifty million years ago, it was about twenty degrees warmer than it is today. It?s gotten gradually colder over this period of time, but with sharp ups and downs. Since the last Ice Age, there have been two warm periods dubbed by climate historians ?The Climatic Optimum? and ?The Little Climatic Optimum.? The Climatic Opti? mum was four thousand to seven thousand years ago. It was about as warm as they?re predicting is going to occur at the end of the next century. It was a great period for human beings, for plants and animals. The second, The Little Climatic Optimum, was thirteen hundred to a thousand years ago and, to tremendous advances in city build? ing, in exploration, in cathedral building, and university building because people were not victims to the cold climate so much. So they could go out and grow crops. They were healthier. They were longer?lived. And all this because the climate was a bit warmer. A warmer world and an enriched carbon dioxide world will mean plant growth is more vigorous. The bottom of the food chain is plants. All animals eat plants or eat animals that eat plants, including us. The question everyone should ask is not ?Is the earth warming,? but, ?How is the warmv ing being felt across the planet? Where is it warming? When? And by how much?? It turns out that most of the warming is occurring in the high latitudes, in the winter, and across the planet, at night. 4 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues ROBERT C. BALLING, JR. Director, Office of Climatology Arizona State University PATRICK J. MICHAELS Professor, Environmental Sciences University of Virginia MALE NARRATOR FEMALE NARRATOR For whatever reason, right now, it becomes quite newsworthy to go out and tell people that we are about to have apocalyptic cli? mate changes. The second you make that pronouncement, it?s easy to go around the world and find examples to support your viewpoint. But it would have always been easy. There would be no time in earth?s his? tory when you would not have been able to go around the world and find damaging hur? ricanes and tornadoes and whatever. They are not linked to the build?up of greenhouse gases. The evidence that increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is going to cause a disaster is somewhere between slim and none. However, the evidence that it?s doing a good thing by lengthening the growing season and making plants grow better is somewhere between large and overwhelming. You know, there?s more in the research about this Little Climatic Optimum period. The Anasazi Indian civilization in the American Southwest reached its peak because the pe0r ple were able to farm twice the amount of land as before. It was warm enough in England to grow grapes and support a thrin ing wine industry. And since alpine mounv tain passes were no longer blocked by snow, trade routes opened between Italy and Germany. These warmer periods in history become even more interesting when you realize that they occurred when the level of carbon diox? ide in the air was far lower than it is today. This makes it pretty difficult to make any connection between rising C02 and the even slight temperature increase we?ve observed during the last one hundred years. So, if sunspots account for the earth?s small amount of warming, if we?re warming main? ly the coldest parts of the planet in the win? ter and at night, and if warmer is better than colder, then why all this controversy? The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 5 MALE NARRATOR Because of computers and computer simula? tions called General Circulation Models. So what are General Circulation Models? What do they try to do? And how hard or easy is it to make a realistic one? COMPUTER SIMULATIONS DR. DAVIS ROY W. SPENCER Senior Scientist, Climate Studies NASA, Marshall Space Flight Center DR. MICHAELS DR. BALIUNAS General Circulation Models, or GCMs as we refer to them, are trying to simulate the die mate of the Earth at the surface as well as through the upper atmosphere. Climate includes not only temperature and precipitav tion and cloud cover, but also the atmOS? pheric winds, changes or the movement of these systems over time from one month to another, evaporation from the oceans and from the land, precipitation onto the surface, global ice sea cover all the aspects of the earth, of the planet, that are related to the atmosphere and to the oceans. It?s very difficult to create a realistic compute er model because the atmosphere and the surface of the earth, and the oceans and veg, etation systems are all so very complex. And the ways that all these components of the system interact are so complex. They inter? act in non?linear ways which we really can?t predict. One thing changes, which changes something else, which changes something else. There?s this cascade of processes. People have to understand that the entire global climatevchange hysteria is driven by computer models. It is not driven by reality. Reality is not warming up like those models said it would. The models say that there should have been warming of about a degree Centigrade. There?s only been half a degree, and it occurred before most of the greenhouse gases were put in the atmosphere. In the last twenv ty years, there should have been warming of maybe three?tenths or even half a degree The Greening of Planet Earth Continues DR. SPENCER DR. DAVIS DR. BALIUNAS DR. DAVIS DR. BALLING Centigrade, according to the computer simu? lations. And the very precise satellite records tell us the earth hasn?t warmed at all in response to this greenhouse gas increase. There are three different systems for monitor? ing global temperatures: the surface tempera; ture dataset from thermometers, the satellite dataset from earthrorbiting satellites, and then weather balloon instruments which are, of course, launched from the surface. We only have all three of those datasets for the last twenty years, that is, since satellites were launched in the 19705. But what they tell us is that the surface temperature meaSv urements suggest a warming. In terms of the landvbased record, which does show some warming, there are a numr ber of problems that need to be considered when we?re looking at those records. One is that, at the beginning of the period of record where we were taking temperature observa tions, many of these cities were located in shallow, sloping valleys where cold air tends to pool. Then there?s the problem of having a ther? mometer over land in a good location where a modern city grows up. Modern cities have concrete, buildings that generate heat, cars driving by. All that creates an artificial heat that elevates the temperature, but doesn?t really reflect a true climate measurement. The result is that the temperature record at the surface is a contaminated record and urbanization needs to be factored out of that if we?re going to get any kind of accurate rep, resentation of how surface temperatures have changed over the last hundred years. What?s surprising, though, is the satellite sy5r tem that was specifically designed to precise; ly measure planetary temperature shows no warming whatsoever. The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 7 DR. SPENCER DR. BALLING DR. SPENCER DR. BALLING DR. MICHAELS We have balloons that go up through the atmosphere twice each day from locations around the world and they?re in near?perfect agreement with the satellite record. They see no warming at all. So we have a situation where the surface thermometers show warming, the satellites and the weather balloons do not. And cli? mate models tell us that all of those systems should be seeing warming. The models themselves look pretty good at first glance. But, actually, they?re not well connected when it comes to the ocean and the atmosphere. There are problems with the clouds and the rain and the surface ener? gy balance. There are problems with the ice caps and there are problems with energy ?uxes in low latitudes. I have a friend who says they?re like sausage you really like them until you know what?s in them. There?s been a big change in the amount of forecasted global warming since 1990. In 1990, the official prediction of global warm? ing was about by the end of the next century. More recently, in 1992, that was revised downward to 28? warming. In 1996, the warming estimate has been further reduced to In virtually every case as the models have improved and as we have improved our rep? resentation of changes in atmospheric chem? istry, the predicted temperature rise into the future gets smaller and smaller. The most recent scientific evidence is overv whelming that the forecasts of global warmr ing are going to have to be reduced even furv ther in the future. At what point does this thing become an issue that is simply a non; problem, even to those that are concerned about it.7 8 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues MALE NARRATOR FEMALE NARRATOR MALE NARRATOR I also found something interesting in the research about computers and General Circulation Models. Here, ?In order for a computer to run a complete circulation model, one that takes into account all the known aspects of our climate system, scien? tists would need 1036 more computing capac? ity. That?s 10 followed by 36 zeroes. Well, so far we?ve observed a very dynamic cli? mate with numerous up and down fluctuations in temperature, and computer simulations that aren?t as trustworthy as anyone would like. So why don?t we take a closer look at this carbon dioxide we keep hearing about? It seems that every time they mention car? bon dioxide on television there are unpleas? ant video clips of factory smokestacks and car tailpipes. Is what they are showing Is carbon dioxide a pollutant? CARBON DIOXIDE SYLVAN H. WITTWER Professor Emeritus, Horticulture Michigan State University DR. BALLING DR. MICHAELS Carbon dioxide is not a pollutant. Carbon dioxide is a nutrient a very important nutrient, perhaps the most important. C02 has been part of the planetary atmos? phere since the first day this earth evolved. The plants and virtually everything we see evolved in a period of time when the C02 level was very much higher than it is today. C02 is something that plants love. They take up C02, they use it, they give out oxygen. We take the oxygen and give out C02. So it?s hardly a pollutant at all. It?s quite a naturally occurring gas that appears in our atmosphere and it?s very important to sustaining life on this earth. In terms of the broad geological perspective, the carbon dioxide concentration of the atmosphere right now is low. Almost all the plants that we live with and depend upon for food evolved in an atmosphere when the The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 9 DR. MOORE DR. BALLING C. LEE CAMPBELL Professor, Plant Pathology North Carolina State University DR. BALLING FEMALE NARRATOR C02 was higher in the atmosphere, much higher than it is today, and higher than we could possibly get it even if we tried. Well, as a matter of fact, there were times when life flourished on earth. The time when C02 levels were something like ten times current level was when the dinosaurs were running around, and that was when plant growth was so vigorous they created all the oil and gas that we now use. It was a very fertile period of time for the earth. Some scientists believe that nine thousand or so years ago, agriculture sprung up all over the world. We saw people domesticate plants in Southeast Asia and Asia and South America and Europe and North America, all at about the same time. It also corresponded with when the carbon dioxide had increased from about 200 parts per million to about 250 parts per million. It gave agricultural plants a competitive advantage over weeds. It may be that carbon dioxide is the reason we domesticated plants. When we?ve looked at the literature on experiments that have been done with increasing levels of carbon dioxide, what we basically find is that most plants respond the same way more carbon dioxide gives us more biomass. So, if we look at a forest, a rangeland, a marsh, a wetland, or an agricultural field, what?s really happening with more C02 is that you have more plant material produced. Increased C02 worldwide, with few excepv tions, means plants grow better, period. We can see plants ?growing better? and also see the results of C02 as a plant nutrient in the Netherlands, where they grow food crops and ?owers in enriched levels of C02. And they do it in glass houses what we call greenhouses. 10 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues MALE NARRATOR We are about to visit PBG (in English), the Research Station for Floriculture and Glasshouse Vegetables. It?s a government sponsored facility in Naaldwijk, just outside of Amsterdam. GREENHOUSES GUSTAAF ANTON van den BERG Head, Glasshouse Climate 59? Technology Research Station for Floriculture ?99 Glasshouse Vegetables Naaldwijk, The Netherlands MALE NARRATOR We grow vegetables at two to four times the outside carbon dioxide level. That means between 700 and 1400 parts per million. We are growing all the vegetables that com? mercial growers are growing, but the main products are cucumber, tomato, pepper, egg; plant, squash, lettuce, and radish. The results of growing at elevated C02 levels are: more rapid growth, earlier maturity, larg? er fruit size, greater weight, and a greater total yield of about twenty?five percent. As a standard, commercial growers are using C02 enrichment in the glasshouses and the results they find are about the same results that we find in our experiments. Throughout Europe and also throughout the world, com? mercial growers with modern greenhouses are using elevated carbon dioxide levels the same as in the Netherlands. We go up to about 1500 parts per million. That has no negative effect on human health. To get negative effects on human health you have to go much higher; that is, higher than five and ten thousand parts per million, at least. Looking at rising levels of C02 from the viewpoint of the plant, there?s no problem at all. We will have a higher production. Talking about ?higher production,? there are about 25,000 acres of commercial green; houses in the Netherlands growing vegeta? bles, flowers and bulbs worth some $7 billion The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 11 FEMALE NARRATOR DR. WITTWER LEW ZISKA Climate Stress Laboratory Agriculture Research Service U.S . Department of Agriculture DR. CAMPBELL DR. BALLING a year. And greenhouse agriculture is expanding all over the world: from Spain, Italy, Turkey and Greece to Japan, Taiwan, China and Korea. Since only about food crops stand between humans worldwide and star? vation, let?s take a closer look at carbon dioxide and its effect on food production. Are rising levels of C02 a frightening thought? AGRICULTURE Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide do not frighten farmers. They do not fright? en foresters. Forestry output is increased. Agricultural output is increased. And this applies to all the food crops. Food is the most important renewable resource we have. Probably the single most important food crop globally is rice. From my experience working with tropical rice in the Philippines, certainly C02 is able to increase yields of rice most of the traditional semi?dwarf varieties of rice that are utilized. So, hopefully, that will increase rice yields as C02 increases in the atmosphere. We have found that increasing the C02 level from the current level to two times what we have today would basically increase plant yields. We have worked with corn. We have worked with soybeans. We have worked with wheat. For corn, our yield increase is about 17 to 18 percent. For soybeans, it would be more about 25 percent. And for the wheat, it would be probably between about 20 and 25 percent. I look at the literature fairly regularly on this and it seems overwhelming that plants throughout the world agricultural plants do very well when the carbon dioxide is increased. We see soybeans in Iowa being 12 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues DR. WITTWER JAMES ARTHUR BUNCE Climate Stress Laboratory Agriculture Research Service US. Department of Agriculture DR. BALLING DR. CAMPBELL FEMALE NARRATOR reported upon that have a much higher yield for higher C02. We see strawberries in China and grapes in Italy. We see winter wheat in Europe. You can go around the world and you see evidence that increased C02 yields more productivity for our most important agricultural crops. It has been estimated that the rising level of atmospheric C02 has enhanced global food production ranging from eight to twelve per? cent. Now this is a universally free subsidy that is increasing daily, that is available to all, and to the entire earth and to all food crops, and all forest crops and all range crops. Increased carbon dioxide may change where plants grow, especially in terms of being able to grow in dryer places, so that the distribution of plants may change as carbon dioxide goes up. Doubling of C02 would cause not just an effect on individual plants, but also a redis? tribution of the plants around the world. There are people who argue that dryland areas like this desert we?re sitting in right now could be greening up a bit due to the increase in C02. In some dryland areas where it?s rather marginal in terms of people getting by, this increase in plant cover could ultimately yield an increase in grazing and more cattle, and maybe an increase in the standard of living in some of these countries. I think we should monitor the increases in carbon dioxide. We should look and see how plants are growing, how the ecology is changing, and then we should adapt. That?s what people do best. We are an adaptable species. Plants are adaptable. And we should work with the earth?s system as it changes. Well, scientific research shows that enriched levels of C02 have a positive effect on just about every important food crop around the world. The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 13 MALE NARRATOR FEMALE NARRATOR And in addition to what was just mentioned, there are numerous additional experiments that confirm it: in Switzerland peanuts, beans, and peas. In England: wheat and strawberries. In Italy: soybeans. In Canada: tomatoes and peppers. And in Denmark: barley, not to mention cotton in Mississippi, pasture land in New Zealand and clover in Germany. In addition, a doubling of C02 may even cause a greening of many lands worldwide now considered to be marginal. Enriched levels of C02 mean faster plant growth, increased agricultural yields, and something else of great importance. EFFICIENCY PARK S. NOBEL Chair, Department of Biology UCLA DR. BUNCE DR. NOBEL DR. ZISKA DR. NOBEL DR. CAMPBELL Increased levels of C02 have another conse? quence. In particular they can improve the water?use efficiency of plants. That is, the amount of water that?s used by plants to produce the same amount of growth actually decreases with increased When we have the elevated the high? er atmospheric level makes it easier for to go into the plants so the pores called stomates don?t have to open as wide? ly. When the pores aren?t open as widely, it?s more difficult for water to come out. So there?s actually less water loss per unit of carr bon that?s being taken up into the plant. As a result of that, water?use efficiency goes up. So a higher watervuse efficiency means we?re using more efficiently in terms of the water requirements for the crop. This will change some of the ecosystems. It may allow some plants to grow in areas that now would be considered marginal for the growth of those plants. 14 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues DR. WITTWER MALE NARRATOR FEMALE NARRATOR MALE NARRATOR So, we?d have more biomass production, plants in a little bit different area, and we may actually be able to farm some of the areas that would now be considered desert. This is important because in the world we?re in today, water is going to become probably the most limiting natural resource as far as food production is concerned and as far as the bio? logical productivity of the earth is concerned. There is a limited amount of fresh water in terms of quantity. There?s a limited amount of fresh water in terms of quality. According to the World Bank, forty percent of the earth?s population could be living in countries with insufficient water supplies by 2025. So improved water?use efficiency can be critical. Enriched levels of C02 also have a positive effect on trees. In fact, trees have already been positively affected. In 1992, the Forest Research Institute of Finland reported a percent increase in forest growth between the early 19705 and the late 1980s for all the countries of Europe, and this included Germany?s Black Forest, once thought to be dying out completely. And other studies indicate that by doubling the C02 content of the atmOS' phere, the growth rate for many trees could double as well. It?s estimated that ninety?five percent of all fruit trees, ninety?five percent of all nut trees, and ninety?five percent of all forest species could expect to have dramatic, posi? tive responses to enriched levels of C02. And this includes Loblolly pine in Georgia and Scots pine in Belgium. The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 15 REINHART CEULEMANS TREES One of the major ways which we use to study Research Director, Professor of Biology effects of elevated C02 is open topped cham? University of Antwerp, Belgium ROBERT TESKEY Professor, Forest Biology University of Georgia DR. CEULEMANS DR. TESKEY DR. CEULEMANS DR. TESKEY bers. Within these open topped chambers, we enrich the atmosphere with C02 and compare the growth of the trees within the chambers with trees in similar chambers without additional C02, as well as with trees grown outside the chambers. For a number of years, I?ve run an experi? ment in elevated C02 in this Loblolly pine plantation where we?ve enclosed portions of the canopies above us in rich levels of fifty percent higher than the current ambir ent, and a hundred percent higher than the current ambient. With increasing levels of C02 most trees increase their growth and their biomass pro, ductivity. This could be both aboveground and below ground. In our experiments with pine and poplar this has been very pro? nounced and has been shown as well in many other studies in the United States and in Europe. I think most scientists are finding that ele? vated C02 is enhancing productivity in forests. The degree of enhancement is dependent on other resources on the site. If sites have high fertility, the enhancement is large and long lasting. Nitrogen is one of the most essential nutri~ ents for the plants which the plants take up from the soil. Under increasing levels of C02 the nitrogen?use efficiency which means the carbon taken up per unit of nitrogen taken up is increasing, is improved. The timber industry in Georgia alone is a $14 billion industry. The increase in C02 in forests in Georgia and the southeast should increase forest productivity and should increase the amount of fiber available for the industry for paper and wood products. 16 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues DR. CEULEMANS DR. TESKEY DR. CEULEMANS FEMALE NARRATOR MALE NARRATOR Within Europe we?re working together in a research network with fifteen different labs and research universities in different coun? tries in the European community. We all do similar studies with elevated C02 on a num? ber of different tree species. Most of the results from this collaborative effort have shown that all species improve their growth and productivity. However, the magnitude of the response differs, depending on the species, the site, and water conditions. Water?use efficiency is enhanced under ele vated C02 conditions because the trees are growing more, but they?re using about the same amount of water. Water?use efficiency was actually increased two to three times in trees that were growing under elevated C02 conditions. Forests cover about one?third of the world?s surface, so they play a major role in the car! bon balance of the globe. Under increasing levels of C02 we have seen that some of the forests improve their carbon uptake. Some of the carbon which we release from fossil fuel burning is not retrieved in the atmosphere nor in the oceans and might have been stored in the forests on the different conti? nents in the world. The reality here is that it?s very difficult to find any relationship between carbon dioxide and dramatic global warming. What we know for sure is that the climate change we can reliably expect is both modest and benign. 0nly unreliable computer simulations pre~ dict apocalyptic global warming. Provable, observed reality tells a very different story about a small amount of beneficial, nighttime winter warming in the coldest airmasses. Carbon dioxide is a plant nutrient that caus? es faster growth, increased yields, and improved water?use efficiency. And this translates into more vigorous tree growth The Greening of Planet Earth Continues 17 FEMALE NARRATOR worldwide, the ability to grow more food for more people, and the capacity to grow it on what are now marginal lands. When we strip away all the scare headlines and over?simplifications, a very different pier ture emerges: a picture of humanity and nature growing together, adapting to changes in the environment as we always have. A picture of people enjoying the ben? efits that enriched levels of carbon dioxide bring to all growing things. And a picture of the ongoing industrial evolution of humankind as the greening of planet earth continues. THE END 18 The Greening of Planet Earth Continues With special thanks to: Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. SALLIE LOUISE BALIUNAS, Senior Astrophysicist, Harvard? Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics ROBERT C. BALLING, Director, Office of Climatology, Arizona State University ARTHUR BUNCE, Climate Stress Laboratory, Agriculture Research Service, US. Department of Agriculture C. LEE CAMPBELL, Professor, Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University REINHART CEULEMANS, Research Director, Professor of Biology, University of Antwerp, Belgium ROBERT C. DAVIS, Associate Professor, Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia PATRICK J. MICHAELS, Professor of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia THOMAS GALE MOORE, Senior Fellow, Hoover Institution, Stanford University PARK S. NOBEL, Chair, Department of Biology, University of Califomia?Los Angeles ROY W. SPENCER, Senior Scientist, Climate Studies, NASA, Marshall Space Flight Center ROBERT TESKEY, Professor, Forest Biology, University of Georgia GUSTAAF ANTON van den BERG, Head, Glasshouse Climate Technology Section, Research Station for Floriculture Glasshouse Vegetables, Naaldwijk, The Netherlands SYLVAN H. WITTWER, Director Emeritus, Agriculture Experiment Station, Professor Emeritus of Horticulture, Michigan State University LEW ZISKA, Climate Stress Laboratory, Agriculture Research Service, US. Department of Agriculture Produced by: Greening Earth Society, Arlington, Virginia This program was made possible by individual members of Greening Earth Society, consumer?owned electric utilities and Western Fuels Association, Inc. 1998 Greening Earth Society (2R1 I [mm Greening Earth Society 4301 Wilson Bouelvard, Suite 805 Arlington, Virginia 2220341193 Phone (703) 9076168 Fax: (703) 907?6161 E?mail: info@greeningearthsociety.org For more information call toll/free (8774766784)