.\ FÐ h: Õ Þ # È ËJ *> ñ è, Èà èJ Þ Ø J .J z þ'"%; 4 Þ-*{' € % "Õ W1 N 4 m Õ - þY m æ Þ '@1 W w ffi À I T N( oo Þ*à ffi ffi æ U ffi U1 e*j æ s n h K ry rc w1 t N EJ P N Þ Þ æ ffi cw ÞrJ Õ w Õ ts¡d þqd P N K Þ& :" w *d Ël ,l 14 Þ4 ffi J4 A1 n rn þ 4 ry * ì:-: '['he SL/R FACU, WATF,RS of WII{^JIPEG Riuers , Streaffis, Ponds anrl ltVetlands . 1874 ,^ I9B4 T'[-{E CVCn-IC,At I-{ISTORV OF URtsAPd f-ANÐ -by Robert Michael W. Graham A Practicum submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree, Master of Landscape Architecture Depart¡nent of Landscape Architecture University of Manitoba glinnipeg, Manitoba, Canada 1 984 DR,,\ÅNAGE Permissj-on has been granted to the Library of the UnÍversity of Manitoba to lend or seII copies of this practicum to the National Library of Canada, to microfilm this practicum and to lencl or sell copies of the film and the microfilm and tç pu¡fish an abstract of this practicum. The author reserves the publication rights and neither the practicum, nor extensive eitracts from it, may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author ¡ s wrj_tten permissionl l .--lFF----- ACKbJOWLEDGEN{EI\T In recognition of their support and enLhusiasm, I wish to thank the members of rny commitLee; Garry Hilderman, Assistant Professor, Department, of. Landscape Architecturel Univergity of Manitoba; Dr. Robert Newbury of thé Freshwater Instiiute, and E.B" McLachIan, AssisLant Professor, Departmenb of Landscape Architect,ure, University of Manitoba. In particular I wish to acknowledge Garry HifAerman for the original ia"u which forms the core of this study. *ç I am further indebted to a nWber of individuals for their generous assistance with various facets of this study, among themi Tim Ross, Map Archivlst, for the provincial Archives of Manitoba' !ùithout whose very generous help this study would not have been possible; Nils Christensen, of. the ManiÈoba Soil Survey,. for -his expert air photo interpretation of.the path of Colony Creek and Dr" Larry Stene, Department of Geogråphy, University of Manitoba, for his interpretation of the beheaded Seinè River. I would also like to acknowledge the Faculty of Graduate Studies for the financial support through the University of Manitoba Graduate Feltowship. Finally I wish to thank Gloria LesIie Greeniaus for her implicit support and William Rock Jr", Chairman' Department of Landscape Àrchitecture, Uñiveisity of tóronto, for the initial encouragement. This historical sLudy is dedicated to Rebecca, who is the future ,@/v^ F-- ABSTRACT The modern day City of is situated on Lhe poorly drained floor of pro-glacial Lake Agassiz, one of the Yinnipeg flatLest regions on earth. gfith-in the area no'd bounded-by the Perimeter HighYay sixteen major streãms and at leasL twenty smal1 coulees once e*þtiud into the Àssiniboine and Red Rivers. Behind the levees of these rivers large areas of marsh existed providing detention storage of surface waters. The overflow from these r+eLlands fed.many of the streams. The Èirst settlers in the region mimicked the natural drainage regime by damming the waters of the sLreams to dríve grisL mills. Later *€gr.icuItural settlers, ogcupyings the uninhabited but marginally draíned Iands behind the to drain the wetlands. During the exploãive giowth period ot Lhe City lçyqç..Þ"g?n (1880-1910) the drainagg regime was radicalÍy alterèd and añ expensive and inadequalÉ conduit system was substituted in its place" Serious flooding ãpisodes have occurred from the first alterations up to the present day" In an attemþt solve the flooding problems, overcome the expense of conduit systems and add amenitlr, atoseries of stormwater retention ponds was introduced by private developers in lÞeS. Functually Lhese impoundments imitate the griginat hyárãulic EelaCionsirip between the ponds, wetlands and streams of the native landscape. Approximately one hundred years after the elimination of the natural drainage regime, Plan glinnip.g 1981 calls fõr the preservation of all natural watercourses in recognition of their high value for ãtortn drainage and recreational amenity. Of the original thirty-six streams and coulees only ninã exist AII wetland storage areas have beeñ eliminaLed. This practicuñ traces the !9d.y. historical progression of land drainage in the City of Winnipeg, ãummarízes the design criteria for future urban stormwater management, ånd outlinãs-itt. present condition and rehabilitation potential of the historic water features. :ii:: I F"'1!-!-i:' COI\TEI\TS _€ I. TþSTRODUCTTON OO O O WATER, TTME AND THE CVCLES OF CHANGE LEVELS OF ACCURÀCY: THE SURFACE WATERS, 1874 TT " TT{E NATTW LANDSCAPE A}qD TT{E URBA}q TA¡{DSCAPE INTRODUCTIONOO'O THE NÀTIVE LANDSCAPE PRECIPITATION, RUNOFF TOPOGRAPHY AND O SOI LS VEGETATION VEGETATION ÀND RUNOFF EVAPOTRANSPI RATI ON C . o o 2& 25 26 26 26 28 29 30 30 -:-ñ,s..T;:a= 3âr CLIMATE WET AND DRY CYCLES 35 37 . THE STREAMS THE NATURE OF THE STREAMS INTERMITTANT STREAMS O 3B 3B 39 39 42 46 46 PERENNIALSTREAMSOOOCO PONDS AND WETLANDS THE URBAb¡ TANDSCAPE IMPERVIOUS AND PERVIOUS SURFACES URBAhI VEGETATION AND SOILS O O TIT. TJEGTSTATTOB{ A&{D LABTT} DRATE{AGE TN lr&fE WTh{8qTtrEG REGIOP{E &3{ OVERVïEW EARLY LAND DRAI}TAGE IN THE RED RIVER VALLEY TEGISLATIOIiI: PROVINCIAL . LEGISLATTON: MUNICIPAL o.T.;. o THE SEPARATION OF RESPONSIBITITIES Oô O THE ORDER OF DRAINS 49 50 51 o O 54 54 C O IV' TI{E TRA¡{SITION FROM A RURAI, TO AN UREAN I,ANDSCAPE O SI.TE OF THE FORKS C O SETTLEMENT OF WINNTPEG 1862_1873 CITV OF WINNIPEG: THE FIRST DRAINS OOC WATERS OF COLONY CREEK 0 THE FT,OOD OF 1877 THE FIRST LAND DRAI TAGE PLANS THE THE THE THE O O 0 PROPOSALAOCO"C PROPOSAL B € C PROPOSAL C. PROPOSAL D. THE DIVERSION OF COLONY CREEK O O 4E 57 58 58 60 oo ao oc 61 72 75 75 76 77 77 78 w: COLONV CREEK AND THE FLOODS OF 1880_1882 79 83 Vu I NTRODUCTI ON nd THE CHESBROUGH REPORT EARLY I,IARNINGS CITY COUNCIL AND THE EXTENSION OF 84 B7 B9 THE SYSTEM vï" 93 RETURN OF THE WET CYCLE THE ÀLVORD, BURDICK AND HOWSON REPORT RELIEF STORM SEWERS RETURN OF THE WET CYCLE 1962 THE SEPARATE SEÌ,ÍER SYSTEM. . LOCAT FLOODTNG 1972, 1974, 1977, 1979, 1984 POTLUTION 1900-1960 ô 94 96 a7 oo JJ " o SURFACE RUNOFF POLLUTION POLLUTION 1984 vrï oà oo 101 101 10s 107 107 109 " RETENTION PONDS DESIGN BASIS G O BENEFI TS oo ECONOMICûcoo oaoo POLLUTION RECREATION (OUET, USAGE) AESTHETI CS : WITDLIFE O' 1 10 1 11 1 1 1 12 12 't2 13 13 oooc UNEARNED INCREMENT AND COMMUNITY STABILTTY 13 16 i [jìi tì i :ì :ìi ì::: ¡: :'ì :ì .ìì ì:a V"S, CONVENTI ONAL COb{ÐUIT SYSTEM VTÏI " THE FIJTTJR,E OF 116 STORMWATER TMPOUNDMENT 1tr7 T,ANÞ DR.ATNAGE 118 REGIONAL SCALE PLANNING DUAL DRAINAGE MAJOR AND MINOR SYSTEMS FUTURE STORMWATER DESIGN REFINEMENTS 1 119 119 123 123 123 124 ROOFTOP STORAGE PÀRKING LOT STORÀGE PROPERTY LINE SWALES PARKS AND RECREATION ON SITE oo AREAS O ïx. O 124 124 125 125 125 126 PONDS DOWNSTREAM STORAGE OPEN CHANNEL STORAGE OFFSTREAM STORAGE-'" ONSTREÀM STORAGE DUAL USAGE: THE DEVELOPMENT oô OF PARK WATERVIAYS 128 TT{E HTSTORTC STREAMS ANT¡ B{ETT,AS{DS RE-VTSTTET} 1984 PRESENT CONDITIONS, REHABILITATION AND COMMEMORATIVE OPTIONS NORTHWESTQUADRANT O O C SoUTHWESTQUADRANT . o. NORTHEÀST AND SOUTHEÀST QUADRANTS IN CONCLUSION ETELTOGR.ÀPHY oooe o oo ôoo aoco oa O oo eo ao co .18 oo 29 29 33 34 44 MAp Br8&rffiRÄp&{Y Appendi 153 N A. lHE E" o o î58 CHESBROUGH REPORT JUNE o o o o DESIGN OF DRAINAGE 1882 159 c ê SYSTEMS 166 " 167 3tF5', i:ðPCl:-Ì:ìl:r.ì::r'.il :: ',:il:: .ì,j LIST CF FIGURES Page 11 2" T2 3. 4" 5. :. 6" 7 " B. 9" .a :li ilr ü 10 it-:' of Vüi_nnipeg 787 4 The Surface Waters of Wj-nnipeg L984 A Pran of the Route of the Half Breeds on the 19 June, 1816 Portion of Map of Red RiveLSqttlement, circa lB34 Sections 7 and 11 of Plan of Red River Cohn.y, 1838 PIan of Selkirk Settlement, by H"y" Hind, 1858 Plan of River Lots in the Parishes of St" John" St. James and St" Bonifaqe, Province of Manitoba, i-874 ". The Serpentine Line in the parish of St. James The Oxbow of the Red and Gouletrs Drain, L874 Survey Notebook No. 543, page 14 Inksters Creek in the parish of Kildonan,1838 1. The Surf ace Vrlaters " 13 13 I4 15 16 I7 18 19 .a ¡'l 'iìi'i ,:r ,.:. i lf; $ 'ì iÈ ÌÈ ,:].:: .ì a '$ ì¡: :l: d :,:iìì, , . ilì:jì:!r:::r-. : : :ì:.'ì. .. ::::Èi . ü I ,41 . ,lì I Inksters Creek in the Parish of Kildonan, i-874 12. John Inkster'!s MilI Pond and Flume on Inksters Creek: Survey Notebook No. 535, page 159 13. Early Draino Survey Not,ebook No" 535, page L52 14. Early Drai-nage Works" 1883 15" Hydromorphic Soils and Surface Vüaters of Vüinnipeg :.-87 4 16. Contour Map of the City of Vlinnipeg¿ 1948 17" Recession of Lake Agassiz 18" Vegetation j-n the Native Landscape -= 19" Edge of Burnt Timber and Swamps, 1874 20" Wet and Dry Cycles in the Red River Va1ley IBOO-1983 . " 2r. Approximate Limits of spring Flooding in vüinnipeg Region 22" The Oxbow of the Red, 1883 23. The oxbow of the Red and the beheaded seine River, 1g3g 24" Pre-settlement Hydrology 11. 25. Peak Flows and Runoff Volumes 26" ín the Urban and pre-Urban Hydrology in the Tmpervious Urban Core 19 20 20 2L 22 23 27 31 32 44 36 40 41 4r 43 Landscape 43 44 Core: Portage and Main 1980 28" Hydrology in the Urban Resj_dent,ial Land.scape )o Typical üüinnipeg Urban Residential Landscape 27. The Urban 30 " 44 . 45 The MunicÍpalities of Greater Winnipeg Prior to Unification Designation of Drain Orders 32" Surface Drains in !{innipeg Regiono 52 31" The 52 1984 53 General Survey of Upper Fort Garry and _its Immediate Vicinityo 34. Encroachments on Browns Creek, 1848 33 " 36 " 37" 38" on Browns C;.;, 39. The Colony Creek Flood of 1882 colony creek in st" James Parish, 1874 survey Notebook No. 4L" Plan of a Piece of Land Bought Þy Dr" J"c" schultz, lB73 40" liì' :! .. 1848 circa 1871 The Paths of Colony Creek: Detail of C.{: !ott, Parish Lot Surveys, IBg4, deríved from Parish River l,ot SurveysfSTTT" " . The Doupe Dj-version Proposal The Colony-Omands Diversion, 1883 35" Encroachments 43 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 538 69 69 .. 42" Prítchards Creek in the Parish of St. Johno 1874, SurveY Notebook No" 43" Lot Subdivision in Bed of Prit'chards Creek, 1983 McPhilliPs CitY Atlas 44. Sewer Outlets Replace the Streams: Detail of Undated Map of Sewer Districts, circa 1905 45. Flooding in the catchment Basin of colony creek, July 290 1942 46" The Combined and Separate Sewered Areas 47. Flooding in the Catchment Basin of Pritchards, St- Johns and fnksters Creeks, JulY 13, L977 48" Flooding in the cat.chment-$asin of Macleods creek :. ì l 95 100 r02 103 114 Effects of Combining Rooftop Storage and Roof Gardens offstream storage Replicates Natural Oxbow Storage 122 56" lr, 7L Decline in the combined sewer Areas 51" Conventional Piping v.s. Impoundments: Cost Comparison 52. Impact of Urbanization on Runoff 53. Effect of Storage on Runoff Peaks s4" Combined. Rooftop and Parking Lot Storage Hydrograph 55. ììl 70 110 :r l 70 49" The Southdale Stormwater Lakes 50" Neighborhood . 538 11s L20 120 LzL 126 f-- =F--.' Y i.ìË :rì 59" of Winnipeg I874 RevisÍted Sturgeon Creek and "Grants M1II" o o Sturgeon Creek Erosion and Bank Instability 136 60" Truro Creek North from Portage 136 6L. Truro Creek North of Portage 136 57. The Surface Waters 58. " 136 o (Colony) Creek in Brookside Cemetary Omands-Colony Creek Diversion Current Condi-tion 62" Omands 63 135 Dammed 137 L37 64" Encroachments on Omands-Colony Creek Diversion 737 Colony-Creek: Detail of ¡,tËf.Jllíps, 18B3 . . . 66" Broadway and Osbornes The Coulee of Colony Creek, 1984 ." 67" Browns Creek: Detail of Mcphillips, 1883 . " 138 65. of Browns Creek Coulee, L984 69" The Remnant Coulee of St. Johns Creek 70" The Former Mouth of Tnksters Creek 7r" The Former Path of Macleods creek; Detail of Metropolitan trfinnipeg, 1950 . 68. The Former Mouth 72. Frozen Storm Sewer in Former Bed of Macleods Creek - 138 138 138 139 139 139 139 . 73. Remnant Mouth of Macleods Creek ' 74. Surface Ponding in SPring in the 75" The Surface Waters of Winnj-Pe9, L984 140 Oxbow, 140 2024 L4T The Lot 16 Drain Looking I'{est l.42 " 77" The L,ot 16 Drain Looking East r42 76 Chapter I INTRODUCTION a} 2 'l cyctEs oF cHANcE A relationship has been perceived by man to exist between water and time since the beginning of civilization. In parLicular, flowing waters, rivers and streams, have evoked in man an awareness of time and its transiency. The movement of water over time is cyclical in nature and is termed the hydroJ_ogical cycle. Water passing from the land to the rivers to the oceans is evaporated into the air, forms clouds, and falls again as rain or snohr upon the land. It ls the rate of movement in this cycle that is of concern to man and of vital concertr to his settlements " "'l F{ATER' Tr}dE A¡{D THE This study concerns itself with the surface waters of Winnipeg over a one hundred year time span lpproximately during which a cyclical movement can be observed in the treatment of land drainage. It is my hypothesis that the nature of the dra inage regime was not fully understood by it,s' first settlers or by the engineers who laid the groundwork for the alterations that we live with today. In fairness it must be acknowledged that Canada vlas a "rìer,J" l_and and that the settLenrents Lhat occurred, and thei r subsequent growth, rvere severely hampered by a lack of prec ipi tat ion records and inadequate regional data. In the course of one hundred years however, we have come to understand the nature of the ì.andscape and even begun, hesitantly, to replicate or approximate its drainage processes. The Prairie is a land of subtleties and extremes; a vast geometry of sky and earth (Stegner 1953), clouds, sky, grass and, more problematically, water. The average annual rainfall in Winnipeg is about 15"22" per year with a range of from B.14" in .l939 to 24 "39" in lBTB (t abette, 1966) " That i s a potent ial var iat ion of approximately 1 6". Summer stortns are brief and violent and it is not uncommon for 2" to falÌ in one area in under an hour. The highest amount of rairl recorded in Winnipeg was 10.26" in a 24-hour period. On unpaved and level_ ground, storm waLer percolates downwards until saturation of the soil occursr at which point iL begins to collect and run directly across the Iand surface into a networ k of dra i nage runways , s t ream channels and rivers. On the lacustrine clay floor of pro-glacial Lake Agassiz in the I.linnipeg region, the land rises for the first ten miles on either side of the -2 ¿¡in- ¡ ,:.ll iri ..:È it\-ì side of Ltre Red originated. Those exiting inLo the Red on the east bank originated in the highlands of the southeast ' The numerous streams of the area were settlers. highly valued by the first Historian W. L. Morton in an essay entitted, "The Significance of Site in the Settlement of the American and Canadian Wests", developed two major premises that Fi rst1Y, relate to those streams. " o o o o that the settlement of the West was ' in a large measure' a competition for that the s i te" , " ¿ind secondly , absolute signi f icance of site is most and society pronounced in primitive becomes progressively Iess so as society The grows more complex" (Morton, 1 950 ) ' development of the City of Winnip"g from the Selkirk Settlement to the present day the natural of and the obliteration case excellent ís an drainage features study for Morton's thesis. The grist mills of Lhe Red River Colony were powered by the dammed waters of Cat f i sh Creek ( now omands ) , I nks Eers Creek (now Selkirk), Macleods Creek and Sburgeon Creek and others not yet positively These mi lis were subject to ident i f ied. the interntittant nature of the streams and only abouL 2 ot 3' per mile" fn combinaLion, these simple facts conLribute to the central problem of settlement at the northwestern edge of the Tal1 Grass Prairie, at the junction of two rivers whose waters are capable of rising 40' above summer average. The hisbory of urban settlemenL in Winnipeg from 1816 to the present day has been a gradual, painful, and only partial coming to terms In the process' a with these realities. unique landscape was largely obliterated and the natural drainage regime of the I believe there area profoundly altered. f rom .a close learned be lessons to are -Ëexamination the nabive -rhiñnipeg of landscape and its drainage regime. Within the region no$/ bounded by the Perimeter Itighway, êt least thi rty-six streams and coulees at one time emptied into the Àssiniboine and Red Rivers providing a natural drainage network for at low water, the region. In addition, there were innumerable small spr i ngs emptying into the bed of the Red River (nuttan, 1896). Lake Manitoba, some 25' above the City of gtinnipeg's elevation, lies to the northwest and it was from this direction that the streams exiting on the north side of the Assiniboine and the west Red River at a raLe of .¡ :ì ì:l i,:r :ii :iì, i.a ::.i: ììl :,: :,. i. ¡l -3 operated most effectively when the dams built up a sufficient head of water during the spring freshet. They were often at a standst i II later in the season or vrere washed out by summer stormwaters (Kaye. 1) Early maps of the city cteaity Iindicate , these streams and their coulees (Parr , 1874¡ McPhillips, 1883). The oblique angle air photographs taken of the City in 1927 however indicate that by that date most of the stream courses had been obLiterated or r¡¡ere remnant only. As late as the 1970' s, lands abutt ing Macleods Creek in East Kildonan, formerly the site of a Selkirk Settlement grist mil1, disappeared beneath a high ri:se- apartment complex over the helpless objections of the City of Winnipeg's Water and Waste nep?rtments. There is still no aclequate legislation to protect such streams. Wetland depressions, of which the Oxbow of the Red in St. Boniface and the Elmwood Lowlands are but two examples, met a similar fate and were drained or filled in. A number of factors may be c ited for the gradual disappearance of these imporbant features. I^let lands on the prairies have historically been rega rded as wasteland and would have been dra ined -4 for agricultural purposes or fil1ed for development. The streams were seasonal and intermittant in nature. A stream bed on the prairie may lie at fow water for several months or even years before suddenly overfì-owing its banks in a freshet or sLorm" The rapid and at times explosive nature of urban growth in glinnipeg between 1BB2 and 1913, in the absence of any specific legislation to protect streamways, also led to their disappearance. The CharLer of the Winnipeg Parks Board of 1893, called for the estab] i shment of green spaces. Àlthough the Winnipeg pains goarã r"¡as heavily dependent on advice from the Minneapolis Parks Board and the precedent of their Parks Act, they made no mention of streams or provision for thei r protection by the establishment of linear parkways along their courses as was the case in Minneapolis. A huge loss to the City, but in hindsight, understandable in the light of the control that businessmen and developers in that era of Boosterism exerted on the city in its early years (artibise, 1975) " Oríginally wooãedl the coulees of many of these creeks and streams had long since been stripped of their trees leaving their banks susceptible bo unsightly erosion, whictr -:N f' : 1:ì ll I'i ì. ìl .,r i the nat ive urban form responsive to ignored in l¡as landscapes surfacã waters that sYsLem a conduit favor of urban form uni and rigid necessitated a structure, Possibilities no\'¡ exist for a refined approach to land drainage dug Lo the adopiion bY the CitY of a dual drainage policy" survey In undertaking this historical far as as uncover' it was my intention to and process permi the t , ex i st i ng records of the alteration oÍ. bhe native ""q,r"n.íng tañdscape-in the development of tfinnipeg from the Selkirk Settlement to the present day. No study of this nature has ever the traces undertaken that beän area tfu in development of land drainage that became the modern daY Ci tY of Winnipeg. My chief interesL in this study has bãeñ the interaction of man with the Winnipeg of ., the regime hydraulic to show will seek study rñis låndscape. that the "new" land drainage concepts adopted by the City out. of necessity in the 1 970's essent iatfy mimic the region' s original hydraulic regime. In this regard McHárg's êtut.*"nb that a knowledge of naturã's processes is irrdispensable f 9t the wise rlä. of the land by man sheds, in considerable I ight on thi s hindsight, hi story. would also have cont,r ibuted Lo thei r disregard. with the coulees, streams and wetlands that went many of the unique qualities Red Lhe of landscape the characterized There was no visionary Iike River Plain. Olmsted to speak for those values on the prairie as he had spoken for the Fens in Boston. The plains Ìvere too ravJ' too new' too often seen as a blank page, or "rich prairie vrastes" (rlind, 1B5B) upon which.it ivas man's destiny and right to inscribe with these his visions of the future. a features also went the possiblity of that celebratd - its iñrique cityscape surface wãters - the regions most GuLters' stormsewers' problematic issue. replace the streams and ãna ditches coulees, stormwater retention ponds mimic the marshes, and ponding in parking lots temporarily replicates the wet meadows' This study wilI address the historical evol-ution of land drainage in Winnipeg and I will the fate of its surface waters. show that a unique Prairie seek to Iandscape was, and is still treated with scant rãgard for the nature of the land and, iñ the early years, with little conrprehension of the region's hydraulic Àlthough the potential for an r.gime. 5- Y -* If one accepts the simple proposition thaL nature is the arena of life and that a modicum of knowledge of her processes is indispensable for survival and rather more for ex i stence , health and deli9hL, iL is amazing how many apparenLly difficulL problems present ready soluLion" Let us accept the proposi t ion that nature i s process, that it is interacting, that it responds to laws, represent i ng va Iue s and opportunities for human use with certain Iimitations and -tvén prohibitions to cerLain uses. 984, poLent ial and the i r or commemorat ion , presented in conclusion. 1 rehabi l i tat ion 1.2 LEYTELS OF ACCURACYg TSTE SURFÂCE for is s 187& In order to most accurately document the nature of the native landscape prior to 1874 and its transformation over time, I have depended entirely on primary source maLerial, beginning with the FidIer Survey of 1816 and ending with the Manitoba SoiI Survey of 1953. In assigning names tb the streams I have used those ascribed to them by Sinclair , 18i4. with the exception of Catfish Creek (Fidler, 1816), which is today termed Omands Creek, a search of the hi stor ical I i terature reveals that invariably names for the streams r¡rere derived from Lhe owners of the lot through which they exited into the rivers. As changes in olrnership occurred over t ime I have, for reasons of simplicity, chosen the names as of 1874. A number of discrepancies arise from cross-referencing of the various maps during the period 1816-1888 due to the vüATERS (McHarg, 1 969) . In just over one hundred years the City of_ Winnipeg has come full ãircIe, "from pothole to pothole" (Hilderman, 1981 ). There were, however, significant losses with _lgng term effects ãlong the way. Viewed in a larger context, these losses will be seen to be much larger than merely aesthetic " In summatioñ, stormwater design concepts for future land drainage development wilI be outlined. An overview of Èhe significant drainage features of the native landscape as they exist in 6- ìa- Land Surveys of 1873-74. For Lhe first time the beheaded channel of the former Seine River appears as do all the streams exiting on the easL side of the Red River north õt the Forks. H.Y" Hind's Plan of the Selkirk SettlemenL, oD the map of part of the Red River Valley, 1857, excludes Brovrns and Logans but indicaLes a creek particular terms of reference of each Settlement survey. Fidler's Plan of the .1816, (Figure was June it on Red River as rk and i s Lord Setki f or 3 ) , was undert.aken region Lhe of survey the first extensive Ä number of that hras to become Winnipeg. in Lhe century later identified features streams Three map" t.his from are missing River Assiniboine into the that exited v¡est of the Forks, and three streams that exited on the east side of the Red River This north of the Forks are missing. the delineate to was undertaken survey limitË of Lhe Selkirk Settlement in and Lhe surrounding area vÍas' detail, running out of what is today Elmr¿ood Cemeteiy in East Kildonan where Taylor f"d outlineã the former channel of the Seine River (r'igure 6) " I,lhat are we to make of these disðrepancies? They may relate in part to the limiLations of the terms of ieference of the surveys, they may be drafting errors or be attribuLable to the intermittant nature of many of the streams themselves. Hind's stream in Elmwood may have existed for some years after the great flood of 1852 as the swamp indicated ËV Taylor slowly drained to the Red River ' We ovre the most complete inf ormat ion of the native landscape to the Dominion Land Gêorge Surveyors Duncan SincIair, McPhiffips, and their assistants, who undertook the River Lot Surveys of' the Notebooks from the Parishes in 1873-74" survey indicate that the primary purpose of thi s survey r'ras to del ineate the exact boundaries of the old river lots and the tlrerefore, treated less exactly. -= The Map of. Red River Settlement post 1826 with Lord Selkirk's signature and attributed to Fidler's successor George Tavlor, excludes three streams exiting CoIony but into túe Àssiniboinei includes(rigure 4). excludes Browns and Logans map This may have been only an interim because Taylor's PIan of the Red River surveyed in 1836, 37, and 38 is more complãte and indicates a more thorough ÀIthough a recónnaissance (nigure 5) " from missing are number of smaller streams River Assiniboine the of the north side west of the Forks this map is the most accurate of the region until the Dominion -7 @ n!iìrì. W:','ì:l boundary between. Lhose lots and Lhe ouLer two miles of hay privilege abutting the neh¡ sectional survey. This was necessary to prepare for the anLicipated influx of serpentine configuration just south of the boundary between the River lots and the Outer Two Miles (rigure 8). Such a serpentine line appears nowhere else on the River LoL Survey Maps of 1874. The hypothesis that this is in fact the underfit bed of Colony Creek is supported by test imony of ,Joseph Doupe D. L. S . be.1878. f ore agriculLural settlers into the West. No survey vras undert.aken of the ínner portion of these IoLs that extended in perpendicular fashion two miles back from the Red and Assiniboine Rivers. These were private properties and the Rebellion of 186'l had been prec ipitated by just such an incursion. The notebooks reveal that the surveyors, in the majority of cases, walked from station-to-station along the rivers. To this \de ovfe our knowledge of -ælmost all outleLs onto t-ñ*e - Red, Ässiniboine and Seine Rivers and our almost Lotal lack of knowledge of. the landscape inland for a distance of two miles" Thus no accuraLe Lopographical informat ion exists about Lhe tands in their native sLate, north of the Assiniboine or ¡,resL of the Red River above the Forks (rigure 7') " The conjectured connection the glinnipeg City Council May 27, certified graphic representation of the complete path of Colony Creek ex i sts today, íf indeed it ever did. However, FidIer (1817) indicates an extensive zone of willows, a diagnostic tree of streams and drainage runways, in the path that Colony Creek would, presumably, have taken as it drained towards Lhe Assiniboine River (rigure 3)" No The River Lot Survey Notebooks vary greatly in level of detail. Mcphillips' Notebook No, 543 is clearly the work of a meLiculous craftsman and to it $re o$¡e our detailed information of the Oxbow of the Red which contained Goulets Drain, one of the early alterat ions of the dra inage pattern (figure 9). This survey also records the impoundment and re-channelling of Inksters Creek by John Inkster (figures 10, 11, 12). between Colony Creek at its exit west of the Hudson' s Bay 1ands and Colony Creek as it passed through Town.ship II, Range 2R, Sec t ion 14 S.E. 1/4 just north of the Par i sh of St. James rests on the 8- i I i ..... : Iocation of these drains, marshlands and standing wat,er problems can be inferred As regards the for spéc i f íc aieas. originãf City of Winnipeg Sewer System of T. H" Parr and E. S. Chesbrough, Lhere are only two maps exLant. A map of the. sewers on George McPhillips' 188Ë, superimposed.1881, indicating. the Map of ttte city system the otiginal layout of !ts]9t= ' ,-,n.ãtuloguedl in a barrel in the Archives of the clty of winnipeg, along with both H. N. RuLtan's exquisitely rendered Plan the of the Assiniboine River 1888, and (circa Districts original Map of Sev¡er 1885) as laid out by T" H. Parr and E' S' Chesbrough. A map of the sevrer districts and outÍets superimposed on McPhillips' Map of Winnipeg 1905 is to be found in the erètrives of tte Province of Manitoba. No exact date exists for the latter although by it represents the system as completed were maps Such 1914. approiimately piãsumabty, updated periodically and the' àarlier,rãrsioñs discarded" This appears also to be the case with the Manitoba Department of Natural Resources' Water of Reãources Branch, who have no records '1950's" the than earlier works drainage centurY During the course of this ProviñciaI Water Resources have been under the jurisdicLion of a number of different Sinclair's Plan of River lots in Lhe Parishes of St. John, SL' James, and St. Boniface (1874) prepared from these Survey Notebooks, omits Browns and Logans Creeks' This may relate to the dry years. of the early 1820's or to the superimposition. of Plan the ãtreet layout of John D. Parr's (r'igure 8). 1874 oi the City of Vlinnipeg Parr's on piominently Both creekã appear PIan 187 4 and- George McPhi 11 ips' Map of A sÇarrltg t t " rl scaling !rfrom wrnnlpeg tó877" of Winni City ot the Crty the coulees of the plans indicate these two betr'¡een 50 been have the two stieams to been hard have would and 75''wide so t.hey of the Survey Ruttan's to miss. H. N. to Armstrongs-Point from ?6siniboine River a provided 1888' in completed Headingly, the on detail of Ievelfurthei relationship between marshlands, coulees 1 and streams. Concerning the alterations to the Iandscape's drainage regime after 1 880 In the case of land there are many gaps. drainage ditches there is only one extant map published bY J. F. Ruttan and Co" in 1883 although a number of ditches appear in the Survey Notebooks (nigures 1 3 and 14). e numbér of ditches' some specified as Government Drains, others labelled only drains, appear on this map. From the -9 indec ipherable, making it ertremely to trace alterat ions to the drainage regime. The City of Winnipeg's f i Ie of these photographs has been l-ooted over the years, making it impossible to spot check many spec i f ic areas. ìr Nevert,hel"ess t races of many of i: original sLreams hrere observabfe in photographs studied. departments which may account for the l-ack of material on the historical progression of land drainage. The fact that the area that i s nor¡r termed Wi nn ipeg ex i sted as separate municipalities or cities until amalgamation in 1970 can also be cited for the loss of records " di f f icult The Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Winnipeg Map Sheet Area 1953 yields only general information about the region now lying within the Perimeter Highway due to the extent of urban development existing at the time of the survey. Within that int, the areas of hydrqmorphic :* constra soils are outlined enabling =a -general picture of the areas subject Lo regular ponding (rigure 15). The City of glinnipeg Survey Department undertook topographical surveys of. the inner City as early as 1914" One early example, updated to 1948 and drawn to one foot contour intervals, exists which gives a clear picture of the original subtle ridge and' swale topography which still exists in the City despite extensive grading (r'igure 16 ) " The 1927 air photographs have an indexing system that is virtually - 10 ìirj " i,ì:: :,:. .i:.ì,i ìì) , ì:: , :i li'. i:l ' The '-Surface Waters of Wínnipeg -1874 COMPILED FROM THE SURVEYS P. FIDLER 1816.G.TAYLOR 1838. G.McPHILLIPS lB74 ' ).DOUPE H.Y' HIND l88O 1857 ' OF D. SINCLAIR ' C'N'RUTTAN C¡ty of WìnnìPeg Survey Department Scale tot23 ffi ' 50,000 t /1-\ ffi) Y I Figure 1 1874 and the SBB ... ir 1. E.G'E N'D STR Ë'Á MS I '? nj'rI'i . _ --!-"',u^ {t¡ .-.\ I .-4"1--, Dulald Drarn D 'Eì Sturgeon Creek p Truro - Miry i 3, Omands-Colonypd 4',Sellzirl¿ - Inl¿sters r 5 ', B¿rnns * 'l-aylors i 6 Leocts r 7 Beauer Dant r I Baldry i 9 Beqùielais Coulee i Mc rl Mar¡¡macle LAKE or WÄTERCOURSE Stoitnwater Basins , l.-. .. i, 't exlsttng lllijlllill prii'äte existing ffil Fort Whyte clay pits D'fclEç g-L'!lÇ-qdq4l majôr ditch irnpounded ditch existing stormsewer Surface hrers of Winnipeg CON4 PI LlÌt) lllì.()lvl Wolks and Oper rs Division of The Miles FIïIíï[LLE:--::-:[-- Figure City of Wrnnipeg -- _]:::::]:jl i r Altcrcd by inrporrnclnrcnt d [)ivcrsi on p f)rovinci¡l Watcrwry lìcnr nrnt 'ì r t.r! ,a) ,s \t )\ \ in,o;u,,,. ñ*\ Ni iùÈ 4--- . *i X\ .:-/'?'.,J'--o" S\ : t N,{ \\\\ r.o .* r'l iñ \È -N\ R\¡ ê¡¡¿ ?.¡- ç ..\\ .y ìS, T I -¡ ì "!ù¿^. \N f.-. ,.-)4y'ár, 7,,/á lnir a,,,/.Øu. "/¿tut"¿,{ 4á,r{r/'áaz, á'/f, .4*tt/tt"t .//ã //. y'1t,4'/rvr'rth,/or, n, ''y''*n'a" 't7./¡¡r,, .'.//,; .:; ',à',. ?¿¿.4,-i,. î)4' o:'*'' tu' y'tu'' -/a' /'¿o¿' n¿ //'a/ //¿¿t¿'' //ty''?r¿,/',u' ,t t¿t N//r¡;ttìrztì .lò- (/4/rrat y' ''"/¿2,-/q'y'â" //t;'ft; la,"z-y'/tt1l" Figr.rre À Étan 3 of the noute Archives PAM half breeds tþS pirFPue4 by. HBC thelüc@ ffiof î ãf rillo*" fying-j¡r the region of drainage runways. 13 'Q the zone Colony Cree]<'s HBC Archives PAM 4 p"tti"" of Uap of ned niver Setifenentl signed.by to C-eorge Taylor) ' Note r.ord SelkiE@uted Logans Cree] t- Å '¡S ura ,so \," - $ O tr J iÈ -4. í, I --- --- ,î.-(jè,!,'.i\1'"'//':7- S :- .- - o -- - r ,L 'ì, L *.--- -.'.\st""'1'?r , Figure 6 Portion of Plan of Selkj.:rk Settlenent, i:857 prepared ii,.-: ]¡eport. on the Þq>loration of the Cou+trtr' Betvçen t, 1858. Note tfre stream o +' ry pe¡¿ The G¿.-- 2Q \ t/ 3 j. DouPE 9 Pritchards 10 S! lohns 1t lnþ.sters AssiniLøine {¡ser 12 Taylors I3 Mc Leods WETL,A NDS #v, Marsh The Surface Waters of Winnipeg - 1874 COMPILED FROM THE SURVEYS P. FIDLER 1816 .G.TAYLOR 1838' H.Y. HIND G.McPHILLIPS 1874 1857 . OF D. SINCLAIR . ). DOUPE 1880 . C.N.RUTTAN City of Winnipeg Survey Department Scale r0123 ' 1874 1888 and the \'-¿ \e ffi or Hayland Pond FLUVIAL I'4,¡\DFGìy[S a. beheaded channel of the Seine Riuer b. Oxbow of the Red 50'000 Milesffi Figure 21 I "^l d"&." Æ¡e . .P. È$ ø Éul f tti %; p ie! d d !6p East of Red River' of Burnt Vücod and Suranps j¡r (dt"ii plan of River Lots the parishes of Kildonan j"á st. pauls , Lg74l . Srnnnps have been attrij:uted to C" Ïã-=" i¡ water table after the death of trees' Sdée &-t /,5M,#M -f(-ffi,: [f *\*- '*'' Figr-rre El:q:re 22 PAM ffrã O¿ccn^t of the Red (Detail llcPhitlips l4ap of Wilnípeg, 1883). Ttris enol:Illstls land form was drajrred by 41 a srnatl j¡rterrnittent stream' 23 Arch-ives PAl4 Th" O.f""t and the Beheaded Sej¡re River' Taylor's the region, 1838, i¡rdicated the beheaded ;ï;-"i 'S":o. fuver for the fi¡st tilre' It rn-rst Lrave been for long ãáp.¡f" of storing large anpunts of water area the p"ti"a= of ti¡re. Sjnclair, L97 tterned nnrsh or haYland- 5--' l.it¡$ : i4 åä ffi ìå*! XH ffi Hã .'J d:d ilø i trd ffi c#g $ "ß fl ð l.z' í7-. f.t ir \T \ 4r' 'ì *-<, formed under conditions of clays), excessive moisture or standing water, indicaLe the general ext,ent of the wet meadows (figure 15). In addition it must be remembered Lhat waLers would also tend to collect in micro-depressions in the subtle ridge and swale topography. The extent of these depressions must have been considerable, as continual reference Lo these ponds is to be found throughout the nevrspaper accounts of the early years of Winnip"g. In particular, the waters of Colony Creek, entering the area from the northwest and sheet draining across the prairie, formed extensive areas of standing water (ooupe, 1878)" *: In addition to wetlands the attributable to the micro-depressions in the clay plain, two large marsh areas existed as a result of the erosive power of the Red River in flood; the Oxbow of the Red river in present day St. Boniface and a beheaded channel of the Seine River in present day East Kildonan (rigures 22 and 23) " The Oxbow served as a natural Iocation for off-line storage during the spring flood. After the subsidencã of Lhese waters, the Oxbow released its waters into the Red through a small ephemeral creek, although two areas of standing waLer evidently remained in most years. The marshland in present day Elmwood v¡as ereaLed when the Red River. over time, cuL into its inside bank thus beheading the f inal reach of the prot.oSeine River (Stene, 1984), ?,"3 TT{E UREAN LANDSCAPE In general terms, the altered or urban Iandscape can be, for purposes of description reduced by land drainage engineers to definitions of pervious and lmpervlous areas. Impervious sur faces such as buildings, concrete or asphalt roads have, incrementally, come to occupy a greater and greater pereentage of the t{innipeg landscape. This is Lrue of aIl" urban eentres across North America and i ndeed ,7, t1'! 42 At4 Þ 3n ng a round the wor Id . The inefficiencies of the conduit system in place in Winnipeg today and the massive and expensive overhauls of that system in the past (and to be expecLed in the future) are, in large part I attributable to the increase in impervious area over the Iast century. In addi t ion the remaining pervious areas have had their original soils and vegetation altered I /^\ = 10% : tL o H É PRE_ URBAN TIME Sou:¡ce: Ervironnerrt Fíqrrre 24 j¡r landsca¡:e Native the Hydrotogy 43 Canada Figure 25 p"ãf ffo*s Source: Brvironnent Ca¡ada and. n¡noff volunes i¡r the urban and Pre-urban landsca¡:e. --r!wq!--' ///'.. C+\ Fígure Fiq,rce 26 Hyd:rcIoE¿ j¡r the Inpenrious Urban Core 27 The Urban Core: Porbage and l4ain, 95? Tnpervious .'---q:!w V tj =Dtr ) n L_J \ lttl I I r--\ \ t-.----\^ I .'' U )-V^ - -;. ) -f Éo I 1007. ILJ q ÕE O -ro D clCf f--ltr] n 't__l [] I I i t= =_ E --ú -,O .; itn LJLI ]{ 3Z'/"oaouND wArER E r- !¡ DO T-l Figure 28 Fiydrotogy Figure j¡r an Urban Residentjal (Combjned SYStem). t5 Neighborhood 29 ryþicat Inner City Residential }feigirborhd rüe ratio of inpnrious surfaces (roads, buildjngs) to ¡rervious surfaces allows approxjretely 35-40u runof f . - ..-\r which in turn has alLered the amount of precipitation runoff. Figures 24 through 29 illustraLe the diffãrences between runoff in the pre-setLlement landscape and the differenL degrees of runoff to be expected from differenL types of urban areas. 2"3U1 TMPERVTOUS A}qD PERVTOUS SURFACES Professionals concerned with land dra inage base thei r calculat ions on computations of impervious and pervious areas. These areas are, f or--galculat ion of runoff and sizing of conduiL systems, ascribed values or coefficients of runoff that approximately characLerize their abi I i ty to absorb prec ipi tat ion . The coefficient for an area is estimated from the percentage of raínfa11 expected to runoff from that area. The following approximate values characterize the percentage of runoff to be expected from a specific type of area (Lynch 1974). Area Type Roofs, ashphalt and concrete pavements, other waterproof surfaces % Macadam, compacLed earth and gravel, without plant growth Impervious soil, cover 90 -46 with plant 50 Lawns and planted areas with normal soil 20 ttroods 10 The more urbanized an area has become, the higher the I i keI ihood of greaLer surface runoff values. In l,linnipeg, general-1y, in urban resident ia1 areas 35,'a of the precipitation falling as rain runs of f into the stormsevrers, and in commercial, industrial and downLown areas 90e" of aIl rainfall runs off to enter the storm sewers (MacLaren 1974) " 2"3"2 URBAN VEGETATTOT{ A}qÐ SOTLS The original soils of the area have, widespread land drainage vras undertaken, undergone and are undergoing a gradual change in character (ntf i s 1 953 ) . Stipped of their native vegetation, these since Runoff 70 afe highly soils, unless re-vegetated,baking'3nd ã.r=."ptibIe to compaðLion, highly if,eet- and gully erosion ' and Invehicular urbanized arèas pedestrian greatly traffic has compäcted the soil, inf ilLrat ion caPac itY " ;;ã;; i;e Th" vegetaLion from manY-.urban of ,ã*o*rutthe abilitv of ;;iis has f,rtiñ"r reducedhold À ln. soil to absorb and or water' industrial visit to any construction demonstrates site after a rainfall amply problems lf,. exacerbated standing water of striPPing from the result lf,"t soil' of and the compaction €-; ""õ"t"tion grasses of. the The characteristic tall high their with landÀcape, nati;; values ï;;;rãeption and- evapotranspiration replaced ;;;;, i; Lhe urban lãndscape been BIue Kentucky of mixture ü';ú.-uuiquitous lawns' These Grass' c;";;-and ñed rescue and mown to ;;-htghrv prized by urbanofman' have very 2'5" ãxcess långtts iaiely in and are values interception i;;-rainfall in the stress moisture iubject to extreme bakins the turn' rn ;;õíáÃ;" cray soils. that takes of the upper layers o! th9 soil lowers an further summer i; pr... -apacitv bv reduced already i;¡iitration grass of Ãã"ing and the regular - removalevents of thunderstorm the In litter. -47 rain often falls June, July and August, as to inhibit lnt"ñsitY with such pgrvious called so Lhese in i.iiltraLion -, - *ttiãtt are then caPabre - o f ;;;;; high values to surface ;;;tríbuting r iverbank Lree oi iginal lrt. runoe r . bY man ' rõã"i.= have been extended across the plains . and -bv many =ãi".tively, non-native species' ã"õ*ãÃt"a these trees' "l*' for i^Ë"i""ption-valueã ooillow are high tlq pãptar, u"f,, mäpIe, Lhev can ãÃã'in hãa,tily- planted districts åmetiorate otherwise hiqh ;ï;.iiicantty' in swales and iuñotf valueã. when planted the potent iaI . ditches these spec ieä havestanding waLer t;--;iõ.i t icantrv reduce problems. Chapter 3 LEGISLATION AND LAND DRAINAGE AN OVERVIEW =w 3,'l EARÍ,Y f,AlqIS ÐRÂT}qAGE TN TFTB REÐ RTVER VATLEY The f irst settlements vrere along the well drained levees of Lhe Red and Assiniboine Rivers. Access by water $¡as the major factor in Lhe choice of site and apparently outweighed Lhe dangers of spring flooding. Only after these lands were occupied did settlers move back from the rivers into the marginally drained prairie lands. That move necessitated the first agricultural drains (figure 14) Farmers and set.tlers regarded (and indeed, continue to regard) marshlands, sloughs, and pot holes as obstacles to agriculftaral product ion. From the beginn ing of agrieultural settlement in Manitoba Lhere have been projects to drain lands for development" H.Y. Hind in 1859, had been the first to make the case for the economic benefits of land drainage. If the drainage of many thousand square miles of svramp and marsh in this part of the country should ever become a questïon of national interest, I know of no enterprise of the kind which could be executed with so little cost and labor, and promise at " -49 the same benef ic ial time such widespread results " Land dra i nage wor k s i n t.he Wi nn i peg area of Lhe Manitoba Lowlands mosL certainly date from the pre-1874 period These early drains were agricultural and the first record of them is to be found in Lhe Survey Notebooks of Sinclairs River It is Lot Survey of 1874 (rigure 13). difficult to separate these agricultural drains from the early drains of the settlement of l.linnipeg. Both were simply shallow ditches dug to receiving water bodies to drain standing waters" In the glinnipeg region, originating as it had as Lord Selkirk's agricultural settlement and only later developing into a trading centre, agricultural and urban drainage r^rere essent ia1ly one and the same. During the first period of urban growth Hon. C. P. Brown, Minister of Public Works for Manitoba, whose decisions regarding the drainage of Winnipeg were to have such far reaching results, stated in his AnnualReport of 1880 that; The evils arising from a superabundance of water caused by a succession of very weL " seasons, :* could on 1y 3. be counLeracted by an efficient drainage systemo Immigrants were either deterred from enLering the Province t ot were forced to pass through it and settle on drier plains beyond. So apparent did this become that the Government made it an important part of their policy to inaugurate a comprehensive draínage system... Extensive marshes in dry seasons of 7 or B years ago, comprised comparatively smal1 areas but, augmented by the wet seagons of the last 3 or 4 years, have overflowed and deluged the surrounding country, in some sect ions forc íng settlers to ? LEGTSLATTONs PROVTNCTAT" The f irst Drainage Act (S" M. .1880, C.2 1st Session) was assented to on February 14, 1880. f,finnipeg lay in, what was at that time, Drainage District No. Warkentin (1967) summarízes this period, That year ( 1880) drainage plans vrere made, surveys undertaken, 3 " and some ditching commenced. The ditches were shallow and not very wide and were therefore rather ineffectual.. ". Prior to 1880 littIe effective drainage was accomplished. During the wet years of the late 1870's Lhe Provincial Government constructed a number of drains to the Assiniboine River to drain marginal lands, Other drains $rere dug in connection with the construction of the railways, the first Colony Creek Diversion among them. These early drainage works were constructed as the need became apparent, with little thought of downstream consequences or the future needs of drainage in that area. The inefficiencies of this type of planning have J.ong since been recognized but Winnipeg was to learn only by painful trial and error during the abandon homesteads. . " " " -50 jurisdiction did not favor or encourage regional planning of drainage tñis is particularly true of ouLlets] those drains crossing several munic ipal boundaries such as Omands Creek" Omands the boundary Creek was, hi stor ica1ly, and the CitV winnipug of between Lhe CiLy creek exits the Although of St. James. the w i thi n ver Ri ne i in boi Ass i nto the responsibilitv the limits, city winnipeg f or iis-maintenance vras the burden of St ' The split period 1874-1 882 and' as lte shall see ' this trial and error was to extend uP to the present day " 3 [,EGISÍ,ATIOhüs Mt'IlqICIPAf, The need for a more comPrehensive program }ed to the Land Drainage Àct 1875 (s.-lt. 1895, c.11) assenLed to March 29Lh' Under terms of this act, 1875. Maintenance Districts vtere formed" Each munic-ipality lÊtas responsible for wðrLhe Ìis wet lands , and dra i nage st reams , within its own boundaries. From that time, uP until amalgamation of the various muniåipärities in the winnipgg region undet ittu City of Winnipeg Act 1972, land drainage was the sole responsibility of and no the iñaividual municipalities, Iegislation. was enacted to specific piotect streams or drainage runvrays ' The resulting involvement of numerous agencies resultãd in a fragmented approach À systematic approach tó land drainage. requires that drainage be planned for a wtró1e watershed, f rom the highland areas, through to the final water disposal area' 3" James al-one " disappearance of incremental Macleods Creek in East Kildonan during the 1950's and 1960's can be attributed to the Prior lack of such a regional authority' i ty ipal ic mun t; un i f icat ion i'n 1972 , each to incentive had a political and economic The encourage develoPment boundaries (r'igure 30) " 51 within its --lY--rj *. -\-__.&&€@ lii i w,n*,"H io*., ---1/' i -G i a G ECALE -"t:t!!t:¡ Fign:re 30 City of Wì¡ni-peg N.d. I,btropolitan freater blinnipeg prior to i:nification lücte the path of Colony Creel< exiting j:rto the Assi¡i-boj¡e Ri-ver just west of Armstrongs Þojrrt. This topographical jlfornu.tion e>p {R:È ç.*Þd ----j q \ Áf ---- \ .ø@'eßrX -\'- è l,:øøiì t4-- å' IFffi -t F'€**-g l6r 'l - -4-'\ -----=Þ-- *æ. rl ¡164P5æ-7 '1F.!rR.5.E. ì¡ rl lt r/ Li. Nrl ìÈ ,,ì/'F*i lllx ll r¡i.-ll J r it É ,ôl ,/// 'wo,i vql -F j+þ> rl-ç\tt,z zao t7 ¿ '4:7"'i 65 C.S. lott base nap ìn priwate collection Figure 36 j:rdicate the approxj¡ate paths of Colony Creek h¡res Ttrð patns of Colony Creek After DouF. The dotted serpentine as. surveyed bY JosePh DouPer 1880- .*-ûo M io*. \ x=s re rJ /9.à Èà-;> è>: €æ\ \-\ 4*þß -l _@ $ \ \i\l t4-- -_ ---- \-*'"p**.*t p.&&.@6r S N \^\-\\\¡ *Þ** ¡a''.---*R--r-\ --ì:-\,-\'a¿ €se -\ €. .\-@ Êi ñ* x.WF3æ-7 &-.;5 Tp{1.R.-5.E. .--\\ ,A -- --Qt.-ì --);r- -¿{ I\ ¿ì .tt/' I þ à i t//// I I lltt f È- u,æ ¿@t7e Þ,O-gþ r Figure 37 Ttre Doupe Divêrsion h sal This proposal would have taken adrzantage of the natural inch¡¡ation of the waters towards Colony Creek Coulee. 66 -ìJ[ -. ' .-'i i/-\\ìr- -){. .-1 (--.--*\ \ -.--\-_\-\ \-. \ \. \-\ì--\. \\-.-}; \r-\ ?!-ìt\:.=.i )^\ I -ì ,-J PAM Figure 38 ¡ i,ì riré O'nan¿s{olony Diversion (Þtail of Fj-gure 14) and }ftrnicipar undertakilg j]1 1880' Note that the The Grands{olony Diversion was a joint Federalr'provincial creer t= -ut outfall, protected the city from the the drajn utirizing st. Johns diversion, j' combj¡ration with jn northv¡est' the problene.tic waters arising 67 ::ç_--_ y'@" {W/* Figure 39 Base lt4ap Courtesy of Ra1ph Balcander Street Fh¡re (the black ljne) was unable to draj¡r the floodv¡aters68 -ru . tiè-**-. ê ,,. gle*¡*o.¿¡...''2.¿¡é.-f,od"¡ F# \ È'. à tr¡-€ r l t r " Per, P¿, - ,¡.rêo* ,;4' ü¡.-- .i.\l -- ¿..{ r1 I:i ' ¿'. ì .t :t å ¿.tt¿ ¿ ¡s Q-/.{¿ t rr¿e ru /' "ízott,,y r.'att.¿ 'l ,'r' ì+", ,ll J ¿ .t{c,rr i¿'4. Z"o; .' 'l'.,".. I rIil . L * sd ¡.d.ex***,r*gr Oê....ñ.ã. /" -%'f 'e' I 1 I r oq,^ l: ,,r ì" "' ,r -r'1"' rE r i/, { r .r lå +'¿"¿1 i I ì.i, r tlÈl.r,i I S.-.u" l'' I '$l 3"s I I ì ì : i ^j: \*" \ ò.' ! lJz¿l I i lîl .'N ! -r{-J .ì1 .1 -J :r..',, ¡'-ì -l -. 1tt :r'!\¡ iti r. 'S hì ¿,' ìl,å t¡- 1 ! *, \;l;i¡u ' ,.,t -.'iÈ.:''" ..74!"' t:' -lq ; . ¡ .É t lt i ....,1 t' È Í Þ'.i ...1 ¡ . ì\ ì:it.;*úl ¡\ t t i-ì ¡i "..ìJji I t \i r 4o Colorry freek jrr St. Janes Parish, L874, Sun¡ey }üctebod< No" 538. PAl4 ion of lots west of \r¡hich nny possibly be attrj-buted to drainage rurhlays actj¡g as natural bou'rdaries" the cccrlæ á9 È -i \¡ Pþ þ I x.b I& iil 8 q o oÞ o z ò: CJ 7 T,S € 6t c) s {.iÌ :r D .l Figr:re t. rt ^l ls t m ñ o o9.1s& c ¡l'ã -t> NZ 8s ; ! m f.$ z ì n o PAS{ 4JtLre sue to nen first thre Dr. Spence was one of j¡ arising darnages fot centurlz, the last city, from alterations to the streams- Note lots laid out i¡ tÌ€ floodplains of tle coulee Proper" Figure --:_. /',,.;,6/l -/otrrr'o,l !' .\'' .ñ¡,1 t, .t/, /.,,/,./r ,/rttt/ .rt,. /rrrttt/. ,/)ottrt/r¿.r.. tro/.r 'ar)trrj /r, ,1-,,, 'tl. 33 I ¡ J í, ) ^1r , ¿ê'-' I )/ ---- ,/.d" '-;:,,,' '".,,i-tj: l> ¿ .B\ \ä .J \,\ - tå Jþ s ss Jõ, ^td -sP cD+ úq t"{ pAI{ Figure 42 Pritchard Creel< L874, Survey }eötebook Iüc. 539 Note thre bridge over what \^¡affi I4ai¡ Street and the indication tlnt this Creek drai¡ed waters from three di-rections" Figure 43 PA¡4 Pritchards Creel< IB93 lüote the layout of residential lots over the bed of the forner stream that once carried waters frcrn one of the arms of Colony freek" 7A -:ryFllìT *_L__. t*/Jt*JJ___ u"',ls\J1 f:l I ¡ìl i ì 1 ¡ l!. r Figi.re PAM 44 Seit¡¡er ûrtlets Replace the Streams By 1905 the rnouths of the streams had been reptaäed by combined sanitarlz and storm sewers that r"ere laid j¡r or adjacent to the coulees of the forner creeks. 71 4.4"0,1 THE FLOOD OF 1877 On April 20, 1877 the Manitoba Daily Free Press reported that, e.+ 4 The warm weather of the past few days melted the J-arge snowbanks on the prairie north and west of the city... " and the three great natural outlets being cut of f w i thout provision adequate having been made for carrying off the water, the consequence was that part of the city being Iower than the pra i r ie, the wa ter came pour i ng down i n l;j¡ rge quantities. The gullys of the three natural outlets, Colony, Browns and Logans, had been filled or culverted" The Board of Works had installed one underfit culvert, on Browns Creek where it had formerly crossed Main Street over the objection of T. H. Parr City Engineer who "... it was said" had intended "more than one outlet, buL the Counc i I dec ided otherwi se. " (uorp, April 20, 1877). ÀLderman More pointed out i¡r Council that "He himself had told them that eight feet of water came down the gully (of Browns) by the -72 Market and"". that amount couldn't be put through a three foot pipe. we could see that more outlets were necessary." The consequence was that the bed of Browns Creek west of Þfain Street began to fill and spread over the area. To meet 'l the emergency, a dam, 50' in l-ength vra s constructed on Alexander Street, several- blocks north-west of the market; and to carry the waLer to Logan's Creek, gangs of Iaborers e¡ere put on to construct a drain from the miniature ocean to the creek ... about in former years large quantities of water were drained off by Logan' s Creek, but thi s year scarcely any found its way to ( ¡¿opp , the river through it. ApriI 20, 1877) The City and/or private land drainage systems had cl-early interfered with the natural drainage of the region. The efforts of the City to deal with the floodwater read rather Like a versíon of Þlalt Disney's The Sorcerer's Apprentics" The dam on Alexander Street, -.:.s.ws crossed Street, small streams gurlY the into ;;;-toå¿ and ran the. geIIars on- tft. other side ' to the market were filled of the from viewed lft".eiling... , the i.ãr of ttt. ci tY HalrwesterlY and northerlY ;;;itiãwith ãpó..tu¿ to be covered over an råi'g" lakes, extending square four ut"ã of Probab1Y averaging-a ;ii;=, and ""..(MDFP, APr i I foot 2o i; dåpth. ' eased the water f rom the gulfy being at the market r " "but the over backed uP it sPreadthe halr i;;á northwest of describins a' iðï;y Harr) and"' down across semilcircle coming Street and lots to Alexandei Here a reaching Main Street" ' Main across drain was cut littIe a off which drew sliã.t, of the h'ater into a catch-basin street' ;; the other side ofitsthev'ay into it found ;;;i;i.hlarger the but iÍ-t" main sewer, -'* portion Poured down the qutter' iirrinÇ carrying u"åv-trtå earth ing the lI i f and . . of the street ' Àt Market the of ã"fiy north there were a ' large ¿hi;- time the of houses out oni relY ;;;.r ent were which pi"i t i" the ã,-tiiounaua bY water""' broken' was dam Sträet ÃIexander being orders to that effect or rush tl' eased rhis õi;;;: coming - down iater that vrasjust referred Street Alexander water the course of but to; south of t"åft.a into the. gullY -rising raPidIY the ¡narket, and Main of it r.tåh"d the level 1877 \ . of wa ter Passing The approximate amounL Iet s of Browns t out three tttt""g-tt- Lhe and colonY wourd then be ;;;;;; 445,054 400 cubic feet ' ' The amount of water is a-great in the åäãr-itig"t than is usual to sãrinq; but those who ought is such k;;; ;;" contident that the ' : -' not t.he case, and attributable mainIY is Ïiãoaing the to the very sudden thaw and outlets oi the natural - The "Ioóp"g" sewers, not being : . ." entiretY' åå""tructed to their t"nãtn"r outlet to drain a great 73 ,;tlE jw= portion of the deluged land not having been const.ructed owing to the wanL of the necessary f unds ) . . . rdere unequal to thé task of carrying off such a vast body of water as lies to Lhe (unne, NorLh-v¡est of the Ci ty. ApriI 20, 1977) " because a sewer vras built (¡anFp, South April 24, 1877) . In a particularly sanguine frame of mind, Alderman McNee felt that there, "was no occasion for alarm, nor need to go Lo any great expense to save a few citizens from a temporary inconvenience" (uone, ApriL 24, 1877) " The remark, although perhaps not typical, r¡¡as hardly an attitude to be expected from a City Council aspiring to civic and commerciaL greatness. The divisiveness in Council was characteristic of the inf ighLing between wards (ertibise 1975) and also clearly indicates thaL land drainage lras being treated on a piecemeal basis, heav i ly in f luenced by poI i t ical and f inanc ial considerations. The nature of the landscape upon which the City was being built was not being treated as a whole problem and would nõt be so treated for nearly one hundred more years. Despite an amendment passed on ÀpriI 23 to create "a special committee with povrer to consult and examine resident engineers and send for persons and paper and report upon t.he suf f i c i ency of sewerage and a I so to report upon a remedy against flood oo..", Terming the amount of vrater unusuaL indicates the predicament sett,lers in a face "new" land without extensive records. The years 1ng!eorological 1875-1880 are now classified, a ceñtury -çlater ¡ âs wet years. I t -ib - highly un1 i kely that had the sewers Ueeñ constructed to their entirety, such a volume of water could have been carried off without access to the natural outlets. In a Council meeting of ApriL 23, 1877 Àldermån Alloway stated that, "no engineer r¿ould think of draining all the watei that came off the prairie this year which flowed in from I to '10 miles out." Opinions, however, differed sharply on the CounciI, Alderman Brown stating "that anyone could take off the water if he had money enough to build sewers out into the country"" Alderman ÀIloway put "blame upon the North Ward alderman. . . who, - ,:---_ in the Ward, must have one in the Nort.h, without waiting to see how the sysLem worked.,' 74 be dealt with on a larger scale. A number of solutions were proposed, each of r¿hich sheds light on the-nature of conditions in Lhe drea at the Lime, and indicates the several conceptual approaches to the 878 broughL renewed the spring of flooding. The April floods of 1878 were further exacerbated by underfit se!ùers and the blockage of the natural outIeLs. Broken sewers, erosion and property damage were again the resulL. On MaY 13, . - A'G"B BãnnaLyne approached the City Council, the attention to calling dangerous condition of his warehouse on the bank of the creek opposite the open Portion of*the èãwer, where the action -:s oÌ= tn. water had caused the land to sIip, drawing the Piles away' and asking that the sewer be repaired or he would look to the city to make good. any damage. (uorP, May 13, 1878). 1 problem. 4.5 TT{E FTRST T,AND ÐRÃT}qAGE PLANS 4.5.1 PROPOSAT, A In May of 1878, T. H. Parr' CitY Ehgineerl and the Board of Works proposed a õooden fl-ume, six feet square and "six inches narroh'er at Lhe top so that it would be bound in place by the pressure of the earth on its sides", to be laid down Alexander Street in " such a ltay that the top could be made available for a 1878)' siãewalk" (¡aorP, MaY 28, was intended Presumably the wooden flume to minimize the risks of erosion by the velocity of the large volumes of water The question during spring runoff. uncommon in htas not water ariseã, ii I' of By 1878 health problems associated with the pollution of stagnant ponds by raw senage seeping from box-closets were commõn placé iñ the summer. Ît the city sras to be connected to the railway, and grovt into the commercial centre envisioned UV City Council, the íssue of land diainage, it was recognized, would have to 75 r:lì :ì . ,ta, .atì .::]; drjsÞÐ*ïiÊ- w Browns Creek then why r{as i t f elt a 6' rhat a wooden f lume 6' rqide, set in the ground to a depth of 6' would be subject to severe frost heave does not seem to have occurred $30,000 scheme (¡¿nrp, May 28, 1878 ) There is today no graphic record of this" early master plan for draining Winnipeg. The flume, est imaLed to cosL 58000 00, was intended to carry of f Lhe wat,ers" of Colony Creek sheet draining from the northwest towards the coulees of Browns and Logans Creeks (¡¿Of p, May 14 , 1B7B ) 4"5.2 flume would be sufficient? Lo anyone. PROPOSAL g Unconvinced by Parr's flume proposal, Council called upon Joseph Doupe D.L.S" to give a second opinion. His proposal (rigure 36) " parr stated thãt "the fÌume proposed would carry off all the water 'shich accumulated in that port ion of the -çity as well as all that came -Çrom the north and at the same time would prevent. . . water flowing south and flooding the low land in the vicinity of Notre Dame Street." (¡¡nfp, May ZB, 1B7S). It lras pointed out to Council by Alderman More of the Board of Works, "that a great deal of the sickness in the city during the past ttro years had been caused by the stagnant waters behind the city... the outleL proposed was the shortest route to the river and would also relieve Alderman Logan from any further damage to his property" (¡anrp, May 28 , 1 g7g ) . The Alexander Street flume was acknowledged by Parr to be only part of a larger g25 prefigures later diversion schemes in its combinat ion of man-made ditches and natural streams, Doupe test i f ied that from his fietd survey, "he had come to the conclusion that nearly all the water which overflows the back part of the city comes from the S.W. quarter of sect ion 4 , Township 11, R2E where Colony Creek spreads out and runs all over the prairie, both north and west" (Uof'p, May 28, i BTg ) . Doupe stated that the proposed Alexander Street flume would only carry off all the water if it were "continued beyond the city limits" ". and said Èfre 1east expensive plan would be to carry the flume down Notre Dame Street west and tap Colony Creek at a cost of $11,000" (figure 37) (uorp, May 28, 1B7B). 1 76 --:'-€K--- Lheir ponds t{ere Laken away" (¡ronÉ, May 28, 1878). rL is difficulL noL s ¿; b; c-yn icat and assume Lhat LYon' be to much sense ftopos.I madernLoo any case, it v¡as doomed iistenea to. in due to the exteñsive investmenL Browns of plains property within the flood damages i 4.5.3 PROP0SA& g, Alderman Fonseca ProPosed Lhat to "ÀIexander Street was not the place laid b;iiã it (tt¡e flume) but iL should be the as Common Street. . . " down ' i.*".o.t.ion would be materially reduced by of Logans Creek, east of the utilizing )' Main Street. o . " (uof'p, May 28, 1878 in B proposal lfri. proposal was simi lar to its äo*Lination of ditch and natural watercourse & The 4 " 5. Creek. The Àlexander StreeL flume proposed by the Board of Works was adopted by City Council on MaY 28, 1878" The larger portion of this scheme, dcknowledged by Þuru to total uP to $30,000 vtas not, it appears from Council Minutes, for ever an piäsented to Council who opted made Lhat scheme man-made äntirely inadequãte provision for frost heave and was lncapabl" of draining the waters pãna.a by the blockage of Browns and From a close reading of iof"ns crêek. records in The Manitoba Coúncil meeting Daily Free presã, it would appear that the Doupe proposal, which treated the drainage issue at a regional scaler wâs ignored for to repolitical reaions. The proposal was not äp.n the course of Browns Creek " -ç -:e PROPOSAÍ, D. inal ProPosal Put forward bY Àlderman Lyon might be termed the "good steward" sãheme añd combines eminent sense with sensitive whimsy. Lyon thought the easiest v¡ay to handle the flooding problems ooütd be to, "oPgn. the natural rf iatercourse by the City HaII (Browns)' would there up filled been not had that never have been any trouble from waterto' if the city undertook He vras afraid drain ponds they might get into trouble' want as ... residents- in the suburbs might for city to raise ducks and would sue the f - f even discussed" The flume was during the summer constructed partiallY '1878 suf f ered and ót 77 .æú,¡åb ] -- considerable damage due to frost heave that winter and during the spring runoff of 1879. The flumer âs constructed, had indeed proven to be inadequate to drain the standing waters and on May 27 the City Engineer was instructed by Council- to, "advertise for tenders for excavation of the ditch to the City Iimits." (tqnFp, May 27 , 1879) " 4"6 THE DIVERSION OF COLONY CREEK ..ã During the wet years of 1870'q, -as the marshes f i 11ed and spi lled over into intermittently drained lands, it became clear to the Provincial Government that if the Red River Valley rr'as to attract and hold agricultural settlers, a system of drainage would have to be applied. The evils arising from a super abundance of water, caused by a succession of very wet seasons, could only be counteracted by an efficient system of drainage. Immigrants were either deterred from entering the Province, or vJere forced to pass through it and settle plains on drier - ;#- Extensive marshes in beyond.. " dry seasons of seven or eight years ago comprised comparat ively smal-1 areas, but , augmented by the wet seasons of the last three or four years, have overflowed and deluged the surrounding country, in some sections forcing setLlers to abandon homesteads... so general did this state of things become that there was a serious question as to what effect it would have on the permanent settlement of the country. (E11iorr, 1978). During the late 1870's the Provincial Government constructed drains to the Assiniboine River and others were dug in connection wiLh new railway construction. The first diversion of Colony Creek was a narrow and shallow ditch connecting the West branch of Colony Creek \"¡ith Omands Creek, excavated (in part) to divert the water of Colony Creek from undermining the bed of the Midland and C. P. R. South Western Branch Railways (nigure 3B). However in the wet spring of 1880, the MDFP of June 24 reported that the "railroad grade on the Winnipeg Branch is making a regular dam along a part of its 78 ". Reports of CitY Council meetings published in the MDFP, indicaLe Lhat local árainage (privaLe) works vrere stil1 being piecemeaÌ, undertãken Proceeding in of incrementally I as was the filling Caught between natural streamcourses. damage claims resulting from inadequate drainage works, the continuing demands for and land drainage by private citizens, mounting expenses for repairs to drainage the City turned works already instalted, to the Province which in turn requested the assistance of the Dominion Government. The diversion known today as Omands Creek was the result.' On June 1, a committee consisting of Alderman Wright, Pearson, Strong and AIIoway was formed to "wa i t upon the Minister of Public Works with reference to the widening and deepening of the ditch between Omands Creek and Colony Creek" (¡toFP, June 1, 1880). The Hon. C. P. Brown, Minister of Public Works had already received a petition "from a number of citizens respecting the condition of Colony Creek" (tqnFp, June 15, 1880). on JuIy 13, the "speciaI committee appointed to intervíew the Government in reference to the excavat ion of a di tch between Colony Creek and Omands Creek", announced wêy, and backing water over large sections of country west of the City. " The problem was to reoccur over the next few years. 4" 6.1 COT,ONY CREEK 1 AND THE FLOODS OF 880-1 882 to the establishment of the ra i Iway rudimentary the despite beds and was experienced diversion, severe flooding in the City of Winnip.g due to the waters of Colony Creek in 1BB0 and again in 1882. Thê Alexander St reet f l-ume " succumbed i n several places under pressure of running water" (¡rlrp, April 29, 1BB0). Culverts collapsed, properties encroaching on the stream were severely undermined, and time damages were claimed for the first Spence, "arising by James City against the fiom the Portage Road being diverted through his property on account of the washout on Colony Creek" (¡¿nrp, JuIy 28, 1880) . The damages claimed by Spence vlere to be the first of a long series of such claims by citizens against the cityr uP to, and including the Present day" Due 79 ]:]w-' to Council Lhat "iL was the intention of the Government t'o proceed."." (¡¿nfp, JuIy 13, 1880)" The wat,ers of Colony Creek, which lies outside of the city Iimits, vùere formerly carried in two different directions, one branch spreading itself out in a northerly direction, and finding its way into Lhe Red Rivei through SL. Johns CoIlege Creek, I nksters Creek, and other outletsi and the other branches emptying inLo the Àssiniboine near Fort Osborne, and at pe¡ints further west. fn order to drain a large portion of the City, a ditch thirty feet wide was cut, by the advice of the city englneer, under the joint authority of the local and The Dominion Governments, extending from Colony Creek near its inLersecLion by Notre Dame Street lo Omands Creek by which it was connected with the Assiniboine River. À dam was at the same time built across the branch which emptied its waters northwards, in order to force the ent í re stream into the ditch. " " Along the east side of Lhe ditch a quantiLy of earth hras Lhrown up, f ormi ng an embankment to prevent any overflow in Lhe direction of the city" (unrp, ApriI 2e, 1gB2) The winter of 1881-1882 lvas marked by an exceptional snowfall late in the season al-1 of which melted rapidly in ApriI 1882 while the ground itself remained frozen. For many mi les the unusually great quant i ty of snovr which had covered the prairies has all melted, leaving the whole country under water as far west as Long Lake. The natural tendency of water this is...southward".. its course, being interupted by the grading of the CPR, o o o has been dammed up so that its depth north of the track is in places 2 or 3' deeper than that to the south" (¡¿orp, ApriI 24, 1882). The waters of Colony Creek, diverted into the Omands ditch diversion which $¡as underfit for the intensity of flow, broke " BO and The city in a norLhwesterly direcLion ;u"uy reach can eye the as bêyond as far a is *ôt. iiL" an inland sea or lake than 1882)' (¡tanitoba ApriL.24,sun, piuiiiã" õo relieve the floodwaters City Engineer T.H. Parr was obliged to cut through the embankment of the CÞn Southwestern branch, "to let some of Lhe super-abundanL water through the ditches easLern embarkment and the, htater no longer kePt back was I ìl: , :,Ì ì , i,i, : l ¡ ì',i'ì l'i:ì. ìr111 between the then conf ined grading of the Manitoba SouthWestern Ra i IwaY and t'he CPR South-Western Branch and The Air This resulted in its Line.." vray rising and finding its aíded street', Logan rapidiy down by the ditches along Lhe sides, tire Alexander Street ditch and to f lume being insuf f ic ient (MDFP, APrir, it away" *ä carry 24, 1882 ) . The water "flooded the entire area'of the city" (Figure 39) and "seemed to culminaté in the gully at Ross Street seeking the old natural outlet by the creek (nrowns) to Red River, but here again its efforts were prevented, for in cÍosing uP the naLural outlets no had been made to sufficlent provisions(t"taniLoba Sun, ApriI supply their place. " 24, 1882). At the, "corner of Logan and Princess Streets a water wheel might have been ãriven. " (ptanitoba Sun, Apri I 24, 1882) " down through Creek. " the former channel fo Colony â9âinst Parr's During this fIood, to dig resolution passed a õouncil advíce, to James at Street Main across ditch a open a channel to the Red River and rä1i.,r. the flooding in the manufacturing and protect their and business district had termed the Parr interests. business banks of the the "impracticable, scheme, Red River bóing so much higher than the 24, country farthei west" (MDFP, Apri1 The 1882). Council disagreed with Parr' ditch was excavated and faited to drain water. It ltas, "difficutt to discern any object in thus injuring the StreeL", the Free Press noted, stating that "aIl this comes from keeping a paid professional gentleman to give ãdvice and then acting ãontrary to hi; judgement. " (¡aorp, ApriI 24,1882). 81 "# w- Throughout 1882, the breach of the embankment along the east side of the Colony-Omands Creek Diversion was repaired and the grades re-establ i shed. This diversion of the waters of Colony Creek effectively blocked the source of the waters of six of the major streams in the Winnipeg area; Colony, Browns, Logans, Pritchards, St. John's, and Inksters. Within twenty years only traces would remain of many of their original courses. Residential lots were subsequently laid down and built over their former coursesT sewers laid in or adjacent to their beds, and the stage was set for the flooding 'äepisodes that have marked thë 'City's growth since that time (figures 40, 41 , 42 and 43). -82 Chapter 5 THE COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM ,T. !E-F-- 5..I TNTRODUCTION The first storm sewers in the City of Winnipeg, had been constructed in 1876 under the direction of T.H. Parr, City Engineer, and the Board of Works. These rudimentary sewers vrere seriously underfiL for the waters they were intended to receive" These pipes initially emptied directly into the Red and Assiniboine Rivers. The Alexander Street flume, a part of this system, had carried runoff waters f rom the western sect ion that $¡ere polluted by seepage from outdoor "closets". Health problems, specifically typhoid f ever, were common -in- summer months and were attributed to the stànding water that stagnated throughout the area intended to be drainecl by the Alexander Street flume, The Colony-Omands Creek Diversion of 1880 opened tire v¡ay f or the development of a system to deal with precipitation falJ-ing within the city. with the coming of the railroad in 1882, and the certainty that commericial growth Ì{as imm-tnent, the City recognized the need for a sanitary and storm water drainage system. On February 9 , 1882, MF " E. S. Chesbrough, the First city Engineer of Chicago, was requested to come, " in connection with a drainage scheme for Lhe -84 I j -:;È ì. ,. ::.'. (t¿nFp, February.10, 1BB3). It had city." been determined by Counc i I that "an eminent sanitary engineer should be got to visit the city to devise a system of dLainage", Lhe system partially in place (unne, being clearly unsatisfactory February 10, 1BB3). 5.2 TIIE CHESBROUGH REPORT I n June of 1BB2 , E. S . Chesbrough, termed a "pioneer and internat ional author i ty on the proper des ign and construction of sewers", came to Winnipeg to advise upon a conduit sysLem for the City (anH, 1943) " Chesbrough had designed the original combined system (storm and sanitary effl-uents combined"uiuts in a single pipe) intended to serve the "loop" downtown area of Chicago. That system, said to have a capacity f.or 1" of rain in 24 hoursr wãs inadequate by the turn of the century, and due to urban development, even a moderate rain resulted in flooding of aII basements not protected by backwater valves. Chesbrough's report , presented to City Council on June 7, 1882, and adopted by them on that date, sheds considerable tight on the many problems --.- The disPosal of Your sewage musL be in sðme Place where it cannoL to the again become a nuisance have a FortunatelY You cíty. deeP and wide rivär sufficientlY last one experienced by Winnipeg in thechesbrough (eppenãii A) hundred years ' froposed a combinêä system for winnipeg' In reference to what is called the separate sYstem of sevrage' as which has been sPoken of not I do CitY' advisable to this would be wise to think it here, because of it recommend it the needless extra expensehave must You entail. would stormwater sewers and theY can to carry avray the se$'age .Ë be madewithout ttre necessity -.ef óioput otttãr sewers for Lhis PurPose' the abundant with espec ialIY The Present water suþPIY of "' ' and Iabor materials of ptiä.i seem to sevters f or i"qrrired Your must and hi9h, extravaganttY be the i r retard tõ tend construction, especiallY in viev¡ taxes increased the of extension' consequent upon their (¡,lnrP, ¡un. B, 1BB2 ) ' the Considerable emphasis was placed on to due city the by experieñced "nuisance" raw by tttà poflution of standïng waters toilets' outdoor from Seeplng sewage ånd raPid to receive without aIl the fà"o*ing of fensive, sewage tttat a PoPulation twentY timeã as large as the Present could Pour into it ' (¡,tlrP, June B, 1882). remarkably On this point Chesbrough was popt't1t Iotal s ipeg' winn i9n accurate . 13 (i;;luding the muni.ípulities) , îas Rivers '856 in lggz. The Red añd essiniboine serious Present a1931 ãiA not begin toproLlem when until ana odor Ëårr"lián wide 280'064" reached popuiution [ù. åruu chesbrouqh was ó; bhe issue of ãapacity, i'rt witt be necessarv"' --"rit=t to construct outlets and "ät""ã;;;;;ient. irã-"ãt.ã, larger. than ätn"t main sewers much immediate n""ãurities would require. in sufficienb order that they may be i of completed s '" when tñe system ãåpãã itv (¡,rbrP, June B, 1BB2). tlt" Of particular interest' considering over City thg au*åõ.ã claimed against -th" ;;il'ãnu h,rndred Years, is the fact that B5 Ì$g- Chesbrough raised the issue of privat.e versus civic responsibility with regard to drailage in an area so hiètoricallf prone to floods. There is no good reason why ovrners of property under such circumstances (ned River floods) should not run all risk with regard to the flooding of cellars, Lhan those who have cellars near the sea coast with bot toms below high tide" Precautions necessary to protect cellars against f loods, --would also protect them from the backwater caused by occasional (¡anrp, June excessive storms. 8,1882). It would be almost one hundred years before backwater valves would bècome mandaLory, and then only in new development,s. As recent évents have shown, the public has come to regard dry basements as a municipat and not a private responsibility. The sevrers introduced by Chesbrough were based on the Adams modification of the Hawksley formula. -86 this formuLa, "said to be based on a a rainf all of 1" per hour" used f rom BBZ to 1910 and did not account for the degree of pefviousness of the surface ieceiving rain At the time of the introduction oÈ this "formula by Chesbrough, Winnipeg \,¡as a small town whose sLreets were not paved. By 1912, ât the time of the completlon of the system as designed in 1882, Winnipeg lras a city of 136,035 with 2"5 millloñ yards of impervious paving" One half of the total capacity in trunk sewers was built before 1907, and almost g\eo by 19,l0. By 1912 (r+ittr the single exception of the Jefferson Sewer in htest Kildonan servi.ng the area in the Inkster Creek Watershed), all the trunk sewers now in place had been constructed" The total combined capacity of the system in 1943 amounteä to approximately .22 cubic feet per second per acre or slightly less than 1/4" per hour of runof f per acre. Rainfalls of .l " per hour are common in t{innipug. There r^¡ere several early warnings of trouble to 50eo runof f f rom (esFI , 1943) ?Ias come. 5.3 their knees and that basements and cellars vùere flooded. Considerable damage was EART.Y WARNXNGS June 22, 1 909 Meteorological StaLions records show 1.3" fell in 3.5 hours, which is an average of The Vtinnipeg Tribune only .3" per hour. of June 2lra reported a heavy electrical storm which flooded the Main Street and Notre Dame roadway, stat ing that the drains were unable to carry off the water fast enough" July 2, 1 904 Metirological Station records show 2.64" of rain fell in 4.5 hours' The Winnipeg Tribune of June 4, 1904 stated that 3,26" fell in 6 or I hours; 2.64" in a f irst storm and .62" more in a second" The streets tùere reported as small torrents and the Y.M"C.À. basement vùas flooded" Jun'e 24, 1907 the to âccording storm, This 1 Meteorological Station dropped .61 " of rain most of which occurred in two hours. The Winnipeg Free Press, July 25, 1907, stated that "wi nn ipeg !ùas f looded Iast night. " The Newspaper reported that horses were wading in some streets up to --n_ done to the Warehouse DistricL and almost all Lhe large buildings in the business section suffered from flooded basemenLs ' The sewers were "quiLe unable Lo carry off the wat,er. " The basement moLor room of the Free Press Building was so severely flooded that the ptant and presses of !h" Winnipeg Tribune were used for the morning issues (of the Free Press ) " and ",r.ñing The Free Press stated LhaL nearly alI hotels' basements on both Main Street and Portage Àvenue were flooded with between 2 A storm of Lhat and 3 ' of waLer. once in Len expected be might intensity years. August 1 0, 1907 RainfalI in this storm amounted to 1 '57" in approximatelY two hours falling The street s Extensive flooding resulted. were flooded knee deep in many cases ' Broadway and Garry Streets were flooded, the latter "resembling a river" south of Portage. Extensive damages to businesses individual cases on Main $¡ere i.potted; Street ?eached as high as $8000.00. The Free Press, had by this time, installed pumps. -87 s:njffi -. JuIy 19, 1 909 The 1 " 6" that f el_l in f our hours or less, according to the Meterological Station,. resulted in street flooding" August 5, 1909 Two storms occured on this date, tu Despite there early warnings during which severe street and basemenl flooding experienced, with attendant damage and T?s f inancial loss, the ser^rer systern baãed on E.S. Chesbrough's calcu}ations proceeded to completion in 1912. Aware thaL there were problems ahead, after the construction of the underf it combined sewer system, Mr. Aldridge and Col. -BB .-dn Lhe second C = coef f ic ient expressing the amount of runoff in percent of rainfaÌl from a particular type of area eg. park, impervious surface, one year before the ser{er system }ras virtuåIly complete. In Lhe first storm 1.56" fell in jusL under two hours and during the second , 1 .26" f ell i¡r f our hours. The Free Press of August 6 reported that streets vrere flooded and many basements vrere flooded from several --inches to several feet deep. After the first storm, Garry Street below portage was flooded almost Level with the sidewalks, the sevrers. "being unable to carry away the waLer. Ruttan, City Engineers introduced Ratíonal- formula "Q = CiA" ín which: Q = runoff in cubic feeL per etc " i - rainfall intensity expressed in inches per hour A = the tributary area in acres. A rainfall intensity curve used by Mr. Aldridge l,rtas expressed by the f ormula I=60 ¡+10 or the equivalent, according to records of the time, of a two year rãin. Aldridge and Ruttan were av¡are as early as 1912, that the system as buíIt was deficient and would require extensive and expensive upgrading. In 1943 in an interdepartmental memo Àldridge wrote, have for a great many years known thaL something of this We -,-]:ffi keeP waste from collecting gene and to p"tti iyiiig . The de lay i n the part rabeI Lxtension-of this system .can in financial mismanagemen!^-9n åttributed -óått to citY In lBBo' council' of ;;; the purpose $40,0-00 was appropr iated Iot of a watet =trþþfy system but these funds sort would become necessarY in fact, I made some figures-!9t Cot. Ruttan as long ago asit1913' now and, the whole CitY as extends, is in the same Position in this regard."' as the outer districts are builL uP ?!q sevrers constructed theY too will Present tend to over tax the or greater a to trunk sewers require wilI and extent lesser ief some exPendi ture on rel MaY sev¡ers. (etAridge PaPers, 17 , 1943, PAM) . -.; 5"4 were misaPProPriated' in what would Prove to I nstead, conce i ved hastily bea I gave a i Counc tY Ci agreement , to a water suPPlY to fianchise companY' The reasonrng behind this move was simPlY that the citY would thus oUtã iñ a modern water suPPIY . sYstem without the necessitY fo! outIaY . of ãñv large caPital , 1975) ' i¡ttibise p,rËri. f únds. Under bhe terms of the act incorporabing the iii. winnipeg water works in 1BB0right ' to conìpany was granted an exclusive wilniP"g of citv ;;;ãlt'water-both to the city Iirnits' ãnã-rät one-half mile around twentY for Year s The f ranchi se ran pula ted i st and 1882 of , H.õ f nn i nl .luiv flustring' sewer for åuppty that a water purposes ;;;;"t watering, ãnã other publicrate' The was to be provía.a ut a reduced privatelY CITY COT'NCIL AND THE EITTENSION OF TTTE SYSTEM Winnipeg's ' almost rected puUt ic i.sorrä"s were di ing produc growth ã*ãf"=ively towards surricient or rhe allocation ;;;;;;;t:-' supply a sener system to serve ?,rtrãs to expanding communrry rapidly the needs of a slowlY' very came about onlY During the period 1884-1-914 The sewers proposed by Chesbrough' we-re of the termäã " flushing- sewersi' because water of supplv Ãããéiuitv for a ãontinual - owned 89 .: ;ùþe -* expense of acquiring access to the system was bearable only by Lhe commercial etite" the concepts of pr ivate property. letter to the Free Press dated 3, May makes the point " We desire respectfully to draw your attention to the state of the streets and lanes in the Lhickly settled portion of the city, Many of the streets Less fortunate citizens continued Lo rely on the box closet. In 1890 there were onlV 553 se!{er connecL ions, and alLhough this increased to 2,600 by 19OZ this represented only 33ç" ot the houses in Winnipeg (ertibise, 1975). The ext,ent of the pollutional problem during spring runoff and the aforementioned summer storms can be readily imagined when it is runn i ng realized that in 1 905, excluding the suburbs, Winnipeg had over 6, S00 "box closets" or ouLdoor toilets even on such thoroughfares as Main Street and portage been are almost impassable to the inconvenience, annoyance and loss of the residents on those streets, the carters and dealers who have to deliver goods, and all who require to use them to get to their homes" The water becomes stagnant, and with the -Svenue. one street. . . a cont inuous line of outdoor toilets onty a few feet apart $rere allowed to drain freely into a ditch on either side of the roadway. (nuttan, 1 90b) . On accumul-ation of decay i ng vegetable mat,ter, breeds various diseases such as typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc. with which we have been so much, afflicted in these districts of the City. Vthile, as just said, E"S. Chesbrough had pointed out the necessity of sewer connections throughout the city and strongly recommended that these be made mandatory in 1892. City Council chose to do nothing in regard to this matter, fearing addiIional õxpense and protests against this "viol_atioñ" of of the streets are in very shape, the lanes are very much worse...."the natural fatl is so slighL that the slightest some bad_ 90 -h-F- north and south have graded, and consequence being that in the spring and after a1l rains they never A iBBT --TW obstacle obstructs the drainage and the result in hoL weaLher is a mosL disgusting and dangerous po 1 sonous amount ot and of fensive gases " . . A thorough system of drainage will have to be applied to the l-anes... Ifor] i f something is not done at once, one of two resulLs must happen; either r¡re will- have an epidemic, ot the houses in these districts will be vacated. Upon the Council must rest the responsibility of neglecting to take the necessary precautions -to prevent great loss of lif e = and property. (UOFP, May 3, 1 889) . Whi le noting that such condi t ions existed and þrere intolerable, Council proposed provide or attempted to "neither a remedy and maintained the position that its hands were tied by a lack of funds, a position that was hardly tenable in light of the financial commitments so freely made for railways and advertising" (ertibise, 1975). The results of Council inaction rìrere the weII documented typhoid epidemics of 1893-94 and 1900-1905. -91 Winnipeg's typhoid death rate for 1904, the year of the Lwo sLorms that so severely flooded main thoroughfares and basements, sLood at 24.85 per 10,000" rhis was a higher rate than in any other North American or European city. Despite Chesbrough's recommendations and frequent outbreaks of typhoid (1arge1y in the poorly serviced North nnd), ño action r¡ras taken by Council unLil after the epidemic of 1904 that struck the southern secLion of the City populated by the commercial el-ite. (ffris epidemic was later t,raced to the pumping of poì.Iuted Assiniboine River water into drinking water mains to fight fires)" Not until 1905 with the passage of by-law 4143 did the City stipulate that, "aII buildings in the city situated on streets where sewer and water mains exi sted, had to be connected, thus enforcing the recommendations made nearly Although a quarter of a century earlier. considerable opposition was raised to this infringement on personal liberLy and violations were common,with the demise of the outdoor privy (one of the symbols of the frontier town), typhoid fever cases dropped dramatically (ertibise, 1975) " By 1914, the Combined Sewer System now in place and still serving the City of 5 Winnip"g, although considerably upgraded, was completed" Sewer outlets had largely replaced the streams of the nat i,r. landscape (r'igure 44). Between 19'15 and 1939, there grere no sLorms of suf f ic iently high intensity to cause the widespread flooding reported between 1904 and ig1q, although some flooding of a localized nature did occur in 1928, 1930, and 1 939. ::'i lf ì,. i ,;i j ,ì: it -92 ',::: ',; :, :' , .: .ll:,: ,. l' : ì ,' :.: : : :tìr il :,,':,: it. ,i.r.-:: :¡' . ¡ Chapter 6 THE COSTS OF THE ALTERED LANDSCAPE 5&3 ¡w 6.1 A total of 2.34" fell on this date, with Lhe tipping gauge recording a maximum rate of 1 . '18 " per hour f or t,wo hours This storm resulted in widespread flooding of streeLs and basements. July 29, 1942 On this date, 2.72" of rain fell, with Lhe Lipping gauge recording a maximum rate of 1 "32" per hour for two hours. This storm resulted in the most widespread flooding of basements and streets in the history of Winnipeg lo that date (rigure RETT'RN OF TÍ{E ç{'ET CYCLE ÀugusL 16, 1939 " On this date the Winnipeg Tribune reported the heaviest rainfall since 191q. Àccording to Meteorological Records '1 .39" feII in 1/2 hour, fõllowed by 1 "4B" in just over 4.5 hours for the day's total of 3"23". AlLhough Lhis rainfalI Look place over nine hours, tipping gauge records obtained indicate rates of rainfal] much higher than the average. Extensive flooding of basements and streets resulted. Hardest hit was the Colony *€ewer District in the flood p{ains of 4s). Colony Creek. August 1, WiLh the return of the weL cycle and the widespread flooding that ensued, the 1912 forecasts of Aldridge and Ruttan came true. It was obvious that the combined sewer system was inadequate. Prior to 1939, the design basis provided for a storm frequency of approximately once each year. In 1939 this was changed to provide protection from a rainfaLl having a frequency rate of approximately once in two and a half years (Appendix B). 1g41 On this date 2"57" of rain feIl in a littIe over three hours causing extensive flooding of streets and basements, The Free Press reported that most of this rain fell in a two hour period. Records reveal a rate of .95" per hour for two hours. Hundreds of basements vrere reported f Iooded. JuIy 25, 1942 94 -.i r'. ' ]::;;& ' n.r. ¡tr:tqr¡tL 1srÙ ,l 1 ¿ o a Jl- , .q j'; ggw!R Or6nÉts t ¡ú..ri ! s !t (l tÚE l'"lliYiÍ<.--w rÀ t^!Y'¡o¡r Ero N'& Fuoop¡n*ç -t Map 0F THs C¡rv 0F Wlruzu¡Psc sronM or Juiv äs, Figiure 45 95 s!.!.s. lg¿z tflris floodi¡rg nap i¡tdicates tl:e severity of Colony Creek area i:r L942" elq)eriences floodilg. E l¡r¡¡r¡t ¡¡r Þ¡"r¡¡¡r tr.tÞro Ju!t rqr@---. .!^r¡Ér!t t!ô.o¡o 0¡ry È ¡ri lq¡c¡t-----€ Irr.rr o.Lr tr..oro Julr tqrt.l - - - - - - - -.r the problenr of ABH RePort r¡raters backing up into basenents j¡t the Altlrough relier¡ed by larger stormser,qers j¡r the I960's ttre area still , ;;iB*È*- ----1.,,. . l' : 6,ã introduction of impervious paving mat,erials. Between 1910, when the Ëystem lras vi rtually complete, and 1gq3 , the population of Winnipeg increased pprox imately 5go" compaied w i th the f lncrease in Lrunk sewer capaciLy of only about 11e"" . The already inadequate trunk sewer capacity had not kept pace with the' increase in population - oi with the increase in impervious surfaces throughout the City. Since 1900, when the [otal amounÈ of paving vras approximaLely 800,000 sguare yards, the square yardage had increased to 2,500,000 -in j 91 0 (wñen the system was largely complete) . By 1940, payi!g had increased to approx-imately 5,200 , 09q . square yards, I n óttrer wordsl since 1912 when 90% of the trunk sewer system was bui1t, the amount of impervious areas expressed in street and 1ane paving (exclusive of building roof surfacesj *or" Eggi_Ar,voRÐ, $uRÐtrCK eNr) e{owsoN REPORS' In 19&2, faced with the outrage of properÈy owners, extensive damages to commercial establishmenLs, and the threat of infection, The City of Winnipeg commissioned Alvord, Burdiãk and Howson, a firm of Chicago engineers, to undertake a study of the seÞrer system" Their Report g[ . Stgrm Watçr Sçwers for Winnipeq, uan i tgba, March , statealîîan exacting analysis, W that none of the rainfall formulas used by winnipeg up to !ha! time provided for adequate ãtõrmwãter drainage in Winnipeg. + Iiberal provision must be made"More if frequent basemenL and street ftooding is tó be avoided" (ABH, 1943). "fhe original sewers in -Winnipeg lrere apparently properly designed and - ãdequate provision... made for the condiËions existing at the time of Lheir design. " (eaH , than doubled. 1ge3') . Making the requisite "Sewers", the report diplomat icaIly stated, "which may have been adequate, or nearly so, in those areas which h'ere not paved, have...become considerably less adequate...with the greaLly increasèd rate of runoff" (e¡U, 1gQ3) " Between 1900 and 1940 there hras a 50eo increase in the miles of seÌders. In the same period there $¡as a allowance for diplomacy on the part of Messrs. Àlvord, Burdick and Howson, and reading between the Iines of the phrase, ñadequate provision for conditions oi the time,f only refer to the conditions in 1gg}, "un prior to widespread development and the 96 'r...i:.:.i..' _q+___ -:RF increase in catch basins in relation the increase in impervious surfaces. to In other words, that is an increase in the numbers of catch basins per mile of sewer of roughly 65eo. Considered smalt ( in 1943r, compared wíth what was considered the report adequate in other cities, concluded that, "in view of the relatively small capacity of the existing sêVfêrso.. the catch basin capacity is reasonable" (egH, 1943, The reporL then points out that, "there " is some advantage in having a relatively small number of catch basins because this condition permits the development of surface storage and min-hnizes basement flooding during periods of excessive rainfall. " (¡gH , 1 943 ) . Here, in 1943, was the recognition of the positíve nature of surface storage, the value of which was not to be recognized for another twenty years, until the Cíty had grown to such an extenL that the cost of sLorm setrer installation had become prohibitive to development" 260e" 6.3 RET"TEF STTRM SEWERS The Alvord, Burdick and Howson Report noting that a more Iiberal provision musL be made if frequent basement flooding is to be avoided recommended a syst.em of ReIief Sewers identical to those already The report stated installed at Chicago. that "experience has shown that to avoíd too frequent flooding, provision must be made for the amount of raínfall likely to occur on the average of onee in five or ten years. " (asH 1943). Acknowledging that the question of relief r"as largely an economic one, depending on the cosL of sevters and the amount of damage or inconvenience resulting from inadequate capacity, the reporL proposed construcLion of Relief Sewers adequaLe to take care of a sLorm recurring once in Len years. In other words, approx imately 16e" more capacity could be provided by only 8eo rIìoF€ money (protection from a storm of twentyfive year frequency was rejected by the report as not "warranted by the benefits secured") (egH, 19431" The Relief Sewers proposed vrere intended Lo const i tute a basic design adequate up to as far as 1970 " -97 .j;ii¡ltki F!¡-:= The political and financial issues of cost, benefits and taxaLion were quickly raised*. The City Treasurer estimated the cost of Lhe Relief System at 5 million dollars and foresaw Lhree alternate methods of assessment; a frontal charge against the property benefitting, a miff rat,e f or each sewer district r oF a mill rate levied on the City at large. He decided that, "in the long run a levy against the City at large, based on thã value of land and buildings would present fewer inequities. " (City Treasurer, 1943) W. Aldridge agreed stating, "it is the" burden of all.. " from a health point of lråew and the undoubted improvemen-t of the City's reputation, the benefit may be said to be general. " (etdridge , 19q3) . The flooding was not universal however, and Winnipeg at this time was still a divided c ity made up of seven separate and distinct municipalities. In the Colony dist.rict the CiLy SoliciLor noted that, "16eo of the expenditures takes care of 35eo of the flooding, while in the Selkirk district. . . 18e" of the total expenditure remedies only Seo of the f looding. " The City Solicitor in recognition of this adv i sed, the cost were assessed "if against the City at large it would be neces.sary to obtain either the approval of a 3/5 major i ty of the ratepayãrs, or special legislation, in order to borrow the money " . . I t wi 11 be seen, therefore, that there does not seem to be any vray to carrying out the work $rithouL either ratepayer approval or legi slat ion . . " I s it reasonable to collect from the taxpayer $7"1 million dollars over the next Z0 years to remedy what happened in 1937 and 1941 and only partially remedy what happened in 1942,- (not ait Lhe fiooding could be corrected as Aldridge had noted because "t,here are basements which are as low or lower than the sewers" ) but which did not happen aL all during the previous twenty-five years?" (City Solicitor, 1943 * The following sect ion rel ies on interdepartmental memos preserved by Mr. Aldridge, City Engineer in his peisonal copy of the ABH report donated recently to the PAM and as yet uncatalogued" Permission $ras granted for the authõr to PAM) . In this series of inter-departmental memos the City Treasurer had the Iast word use those papers. 98 " -:]w. Undoubtedly at some future date storm se!ùers will have to be constructed, but in the meantime Council would be well advised to proceed slowly. Such Portion of the works as may eventuallY be decided on should in any case be postponed until after the war.". (city Treasurer, 1943, PAM). In 1945t a $2,000'000 money by-Iaw was prepared by Council in response to the Àlvord, Burdick and Howson Report" It was subsequently defeated in a dry season thregl years af Ler the last major f Ìo9-iing episdie. The Report had warned that other sewer districts would develop similar inadequacies as development continued, but these were not to appear for twenty years, Between 1945 and 1962r Do localized major intensity to cause storms of a sufficient widespread flooding occured with the except ion of t,he Red River Flood of 1 950 which t¡as a regional event. -99 6" 4 REm,rruq 0F T¡{E WET CyCr,E 1962 a recurrence of severe In 1962, basement floodings in precisely Lhe areas the ABH Report had pinpointed as needing relief resurrected the study and the City Engineer staLed that the 1943 report_ryas equally valid for the conditions of 1962" uóney by-laws for construction of Relief Sewers were approved subsequent to flooding in 1962, 1964 and 1968. rn 1943 the construction had been estimated at 5 By 1968' million for ten sewer districts. for 12"5 million risen to had the cost a that fact the DesPite seven. only years is considered ten of leveI design good practice tor combined selrer relief , ãnd contrary to the economics demonstrated in the ABH Report, the CítY chose to implement a system based on a five year Consequently the storm return period" experlence areas sewe red combined floodings in both basements and streets from storms exceeding the five year return -.: -' Figiure 46 The Corbined and Separate Selæred Areas area bor-mded by large dashed Ii¡es i¡rdicates tLre o1d conbined system as construcbed by 1914 " Ihe unbrolcen U¡es are se:r¡iced by se¡brate sere€rs and the snrall dashed Ii¡es i¡dicate separate sewered areas sen¡iced by ditches rather ttra¡r conduits. 100 TL¡e shnded .,áèìe¡¿:,- 6 " 5 the extraneous flow, and thus extensive Relief was basement flooding occurs. undertaken in 197 4 for the separate sewered areas exper ienc ing 4 basement million iiooaing and Lo date over Lhe dollars has been expended. Flowever year relurn relief is limited to a five and homeowners have been "encouraged" to insball bui lding seI'¡er check val-ues and sump pumps as a means of preventing back rETE SEPARATE SËWER SYSTEM The separate system rejected by Eo S' Chesbrougir and the City of wlnliP"g -for its firs[ sewer system, was initiated in 1961 for all new developments within the (rigure 46). The sYstem was city designed, using the Rational Formula, toa accommodate st'orm waters f rom between two and five year event (dependíng on the InÈended to alleviate Lhe district). problem of sevter backup and pollutional ãpiffs of ra$¡ sewage into the rivers in wet weather, the separate system soon groved to be inef f ect ive in -þrms of Severe basement Ë'asement f looding. frequencY dug to high flooding occurred at flow into water of storm extreme amounts was attributed This the sanit,ary sewer. in lárge meásure to lot gradingl improper surface drainage, unextended downspouts, plus foundation drains connected to äanitary sevrers. Between 1967 and 1972, the Citt monitored the storm water influx and disåovered the overall average weeping tile flow rate at between 1 and 2 gallons per minute per house, with individual ialues up to 6 gallons per house. Typical sanitary sevter design allowed less than .06 gallons per minute, P€r _ house o r rl Winnlp"g, foundation or weeping tiles are permitted a connection designed to carry up. 6,6 LOCAT Fr,OODIÞ{G 19V2 1 978, 1 984 o 1974 ' 1977 , In 1912 w' Aldridge and H. N. Ruttan had been aware that serious inadequacies in existed and would continue to develop grew development as the combined system aÍ{ay from the rivers. The Alvord, Burdick and Howson Report had also warned that as the with development increased, impervious in increase itant concomi materials, f.Iooding problems would be exacerbated. In 1972, 15'400 homes experienced basement f looding, -in 1,274, 17,860 and in 1978 , S r-OO0 homes, in 1977 , reports totalled 1 0,500 homes that were flóoded. In other words 7,000 more homes 101 . : ' !/ r,' ,:1, ,,,' :i.'\>:r :--: ', L-j-'N i--i)ì'\* lf+P.< I La.'l t' Figrure 47 City of lrrimipeg Basenent Flooding, JuIy 13, 1977 Ttre superinposition of p:citchards, st. Johns anðrnksters creeks on this City of Wiruripeg Basenent Flodj¡g }4ap j¡ùlcates t]:e problems that could have been arrcided. had the waters of the streams not been d.iverted and the coulees retai¡red for surface runoff. Each dot represents 5 or 6 j¡rcidents of basenent flooding. This area has one of thre worst records of ser¡ere flooding. 102 -_3 ---'1¿', s% l l f, il' il = __) - '',-' 'tæaæ usffi ffieWTffiæRryE 7,, tl ì/ '-/ ' 1(\\ - News-Recorcl Annual * to 197 r^ using ttngineering Costs adjusted i na-* . índex nata oÉtt i ned19-lf 4rom sec tor concepl: cost BuiJ-ding Average of winniPeg since for t-h; èity reporÈs Produced conve¡ltsional piping elintinated stream capacity receiving A - Limited alternative. B'-costofconventionatpipingnotinwestigatedduetocostbeing t iwe ' obviousJ-Y Protribi lnilfli:e 51 Source: Tottle, Corçarison CosLs Conduits vs. 19B0 ImpounclrenLs 115 5Þf 7.3.6 T¡ßTEARNED T${CRESdE$qT upgrading Lo a one hundred year event, largely impossible. In conLrast, Lhe Stormwater Impoundment System in I,tinn ipeg provides proLection from a Lwenty-five year event with allowances for the one hundred year evenL. These st,ormwater lakes provide Lhe additional benefit of decreased capital cosLs (Figure 51 ), increase in property values (the unearned increment ) , el iminat ion of basemenL flooding, recreational amenity, increase in aesthetic values, Þossibilities for significanl witdlife habitat, and protection for the receiving stream in terms of pollution load" In short then, the system that most closely mimics the native landscape has proven to be the most, cost-ef fect ive and provides the best protection from stormwater flooding. ANÐ COMMUNTTV STABILTTg The increase in value of shoreline properties was not lost on developers, and the areas serviced by storm wat,er lakes have continued to appreciate in value in cont rast to t.he decline of many neighborhoods serviced by combined sewer systems (nigure 50 ) I t would appear that stormwaLer Iake developments have a much better chance of appreciating over time with the reduced Iikelihood of destabilization due to basement fJ-ooding" " 7 "3"7 COMT/ENTIONAÍJ CONDUTT SYSTEM STORMWATER IMPOTTNDSIENT V.S" A conventional conduit system, in which high replacement and upgrading costs are built in, provides protection from street and basement flooding for a two to five year return period, at best. In Winnipeg, intent has been expressed for eventual upgrading to meet, the ten year event. Upgrading to a twenty-five year or more event would be prohibitiveJ.y expensive within the parameters of such a system and - ì ì .¡.. .. ;&i¡È:, 116 Chapter 8 THE FUTURE OF LAND DRAINAGE 8..1 REGTONAT, SCAT.,E PTANNTNG At the time of the unification of the municipalities in 1972, the responsibility of regional land drainage service r{as centralized and undertaken by the City of !{innipeg" fhis centralization had become vital to the future growth of the CiLy. A critical point had been reached; moèt of the areas situaLed close to the remaining drainage outlets ( rivers, streams and ditches), were fully developed and at capacity" As the various municipalities had obliterated mäny of the natural dra i ns , and cont i nued Lo grow avray f rom -*those remaining, the system had become increasingly expensive and required longer range planning when the cost of land drainage, exclusive of sanitary sewers and watermains, had risen to between $10,000 and $15,000 per acre. In essence it has become necessary to integrate dra inage into other õi ty Regional Services and thus, ðt last, intó the City Planning framework. The success of the first stormwater impoundments introduced by private developãrs, the benefits of increased protection, the reduction of peak flows and pollution loadings, as well as i nc rea sed - '' 1'' recreaLional amenity, encouraged the City to explore the Dual Drainage or Master and Minor Concept of which iñpoundments are but one component " 8.2 I}UAL DR"ETSSAGE Dual drainage sysLems are a regional planning concept designed to reduce the size and extent of expensive storm sewer installations, pollution loads, peak flows and the accompanying erosion problems, by utilizing upstream and downstream storage f acilities., both natural and man-made. To that end upstream and downstream storage facil-ities are utilized in both the Major and Minor systems" Such a eoncept is essentially an attempt to approximate the hydraulic regime of the native landscape and restore the original time values to surf ace runof f 118 . t,:i ;l ì:i ., :: ¡':' ali aìr l:ì 8.3..! 8.3 MAJOR AND MTNOR SYSTEMS The Major System comprises the major drainage facilities rivers, streams' manmade lakes or watercourses, and a definition of their associated flooda By definition the capacity of plains. Lo System must be suf f ic ient ila jor miñimize loss of tife or major property FUTT¡RE STORT{WATER ÐESTGN RETTNEMEB{TS For all new development, in the older combined and separate sewered areas of to Winnipeg, it haè become a necessity of maintãiñ' or reduce the current rate of runoff and thus lessen Lhe possibility flood damage due to backups and overflows during ext.ieme events as occurred during the June of 1984. To that end,storage upstream of int roduct ion fac i I i t ies has opened up cons iderable for new development design possibilities and tne rehabilitation of older areas' Upstream storage captures and detains water near or .[ the point of rainfall the occurrence before the runoff enters mimics, storage system. Upstream drainage original to a -re*ãrkable degree, the Winnipeg the regime ttyaraufic ,of the Iändscape. Figures 52 and- 53 indicate the in runoff of rales between simitarity f runof in and landscape ;;"-settlêment a utilizing examPle design a ito* damage. The Minor System may be characterized as "conveniencé drainage" and includes This storm sewerS, street gutters, etc' p*rot".t ion i s geared to reduc ing . þcaI i zed Ilooding and minimizing complainll trom residenls. By definition Lhis flooding does not resull in major economic loss on has not an individual basis, although such individual where been the case in Winnipeg losses have reached 3000 dollars in some years" The Minor System is essentially äesigned to handle the more frequent, Iess of inteñse sLorms. The required extentthe of function a is the l,tinor System is å"iign of the Major SYstem. and of dependent on the distance "ss.ñtially the outfall to the Major SYstem. compute r ízed hYdrograPh model . GeneraIly speaking, for all types of compute r i zed upstream surface storage ' trydrograph methods (APPendix B) are 119 o,,, Hot¡ lCÉ-r geã E.Ch > l.!l :) *3 t.¡"J F J Í o J t¡. IL o J= f f- cÉ o o z ll o LL ) t¡J :< L¡J o- (E & PRE- URBAN ---_/ lIME Figure 52 TIME þfaclaren Inpact of Urbanization on Rrnoff l-974 Figure 53 Maclaren 1974 Effect Storage on Runoff Peaks Note the sirnilarity betræen runoff peaks from stored waters and the rr.rnoff i¡r the native landscape" 120 EXAMPLE OF EFFEETS OF TEMPffiARY ROOF & PARKING LOT STORAGE. g hS@AL YEAÑ RÂIHPALL EUÞCAICS&IENT HYDROORAPH PARKING LOT .61 Acre GRASS .37 È¿ ø o J g &OOIFIED SUBCATCHdEHT HYRñOSRAPH W itn l" dæp dtitÉbl ¡rccgo \ o$ por¡h€ lot 6 rðûL S UBCATC HMENT t t .\._._._ o Figure 54 Source: Combined Rooftop and Parking Lot Storage Hydrograph " hlote the similarity between runoff peaks from these stored waters and the native landscape. 21 Maclaren, I974 runoff in the . COO m. M, Figure 55 Effects of Comining Rooftop Storage and Roof Gardens 122 ñ:'lrì required Èo design the facitity in order to assess its usefulness sríth respect to the benefits derived from a modificaÈion of the Lime disLríbuÈion of flow (runofÉ) Lo Èhe downsEream drainage system" Return frequencies of "design sLorms" would vary t,he level of proEecL ion desi red " The greaÈest beneficial potential is in Èhe reduction of Lhe overall costs of Lhe urban drainage network (James Fn MacLaren Limited, 19741. Upstream storage fac i I i t ies include the followi ng rooftops, ÞaEking lots, pEoperty Iine swales, parks, and on-site ponds. 8.3,1 "'l RmFT0P STCIRAGE To date no development in Winnipeg rooftop storage. Figure 54 indicaLes, in conceptual form, the benefits to be gained in terms of reduced peak flows, ÞoIIutionaI loadiDgs, ameniLy and aesthetics from a combination of rooftop storage and roof gardens. As no investigations have yeL been underÈaken in this area, a detailed study of the benefits of rooftop storage and gardens in the Winnipeg region would be extremely ut i I izes vaIuabIe. - 8.3 "'l " ? PARK,SBqG r,$tr strtRÃGB Àb the present time no parking lots eNist in WinnipeE ÈhaE have refined Lhe basic idea of Lemporary ponding on impervious maLerial during extreme events, Considerable possibifities eNist in wi th combinat ion moi sLure lov i ng vegetation. However, the major drawbacks of the use of low points for Èemporary storage is the cosE of land and the nat,ural concern of the developer to maximize storage space for vehícles. Underground storage and timed release ot stormwaters v¡ould seem to of f er a solut i on " One inch pondinE in parking lots in combination with rooftop storage as illustrated in Figure 55 indicaLes the benefits to be derived in terms of reduction of peak flows" The drawbacks include user inconvenience and guidelines would be necessary to outline acceptable depths. 8.3.1 .3 pRoPERTg r,rBgE SWA&ES City of Winnipeg land drainage criteria for new housing sub-divisions encourage "perching" of the house and tot grading to 123 - provide positive drainage aþtay from the residence and reduce the possibiliLy of settling and the resultant infiltration of by the foundations weeping ti Ies design Landscape stormwaters. possibilities have thus been created for with wetland areas inLermittent appropriate moisture loving vegetation for storage during ext,reme evenLs. 8.3..I " & PARNS AND RECREÀTION AREAS no open spaces, As of this writing, w"-*th the possible exception oE those surrounding stormwater detention ponds, can be said to have been developed specifically to lengthen overland flow and take advantage of the pervious nature of parklands. Considerable opportunity in the development of new exists residential areas and in re-development of older areas. Drawbacks of such temporary ponding include the increase of mosquito habi tat . 8 " 3 "'1 ,5 0N SrrE PONIIS n addi t ion t.o the stormwater Iakes of residenbial sub-divisions, ofl site ponds have been developed to handle runoff from impervious areas at the Data Taxat ion Cons iderable Centre and the Mint. opportunity exists for development of such ponds in combinat ion wi th I ndustr ial Parks, Recreation Complexes and Shopping Plazas. Although the cost of land is a prohibiting study should be factor, undertaken to determine the feasibility of to encourage such tax incent ives I development. 8.3.2 DOWNSTREAM STORÀGE Dor*nstream retention or detention storage fac i I i t ies are located downst ream from the drainage area, and runoff may be derived from one or several upstream tributary catchments. Such facilities are usually designed to reduce peak runoff and prevent flooding in the main drainage therefore, system downstream and are ' facilities. to upstream supplementary are facilities s torage Down s t ream of flat areas to particularly applicable the as head such minimum hydraulic - 124 - Winnipeg region. to encroachmenLs and the shallov¡ nature of the díLch. The use of computerized i s essent' ial h;ã;.õrãph *uittoas f or desisn in order to .ccount for the distribubion ofrunoffandtheresultingreservoir (J.F. MacLaren Limited' iir"tuations facititïes include open of 1giEl. Types channel storãge ' on-stream ponds and offstream Ponds' 8. 3" 2.? 1 OPEN CT{ANNEÍ, STORAGE is par! icularly open channel storage where flood erfããúit" in flat areas movins'the *As the slow ;;"8-i;--tãi"tivelv and storage iio" increases, the depth pu?þ: reduced iñ iãs"ftíng increases ' "1n rne downstream. Natural watercourses idear for thís form of ;;;;î;;n-iåsion-ãie serpentine storage as th; ãttåtu"teristíc additional provide ;;;;-åi piairíe streams frictional effects' with the Bunns Creek (in combination Truro the seine River' provide c"tãitã Ditch), creek and sturée"n-cr."k - storage currently of stormwaters ' ;;;;'- ãttannet lowered their hut'u - --ihu although .n"iou.t'men¡ã coronv-omands creek ;;i;"tíar. il;;;"iãñ- l" unable to provide storase due 8 " 3.2 " OFFSTREAM STORAGE during These facilities operaLe olly side-channel peak flows by- utilizing resemblance to a bear and spi lIways ox-bows waters in natural r[åtãé"'ãr fràod -teaxs such (r'ieure s6)' ã;;t;õ- flood inundated,-and facilities are i;i;"qu"nÉIy uses such as multi-purpose for ;;;-i¿.u1 exist None parks and t..t"äüionui fierds' in tlinniPeg at Present " 8. 3.2"3 ONSTREAM STORÂGE as ponds and On-stream facilities suchthan of f stream resår.roi rs are more common to reducing the peak storage. rn ãaáibionponds act as settling flow down"rtu"*l-tttu rhe loads' porrutional ;;;inã-i"ã""ins' winniPus imfrouñamen!s of the ;;;;;;"t;' are onstream rããiáentiar s,ru-Aivisions Lot 16 Drain' west ãt is the i;;iiitius, of 9'laverleY Avenue (nigure 76) ' -125- 8.3.3 U$AGE I TF{E ÐEVELoPMEa8T PARK WATERWÀgS DUAI CIF With the introduction of regional scale planning and the recognition of the vaLue of Lhe streams of l,linnipeg for onstream storage, studies v¡ere undertaken on the preservat ion and development of the remalnlng wat,erways. One hundred years after F.L. OlmsLed proposed his revolutionary design for the Charles River in Boston that transformed a polluted t idal swamp into a publ ic park wi th temporary storage for runoff, Winnipeg belatedly sâvr the value of its remaining streams. Studies were undertaken by the City on Ba1dy Creek, Beaver Dam Creek, Bunns Creek, Sturgeon Creek and the Seine River to preserve these outlets for multiuse as parks, drainage vrays and temporary storage facilities" PIan t{innipeg , 1981 , Section L4.3 NaLuraI Drains, notes ùhat the value of the remaining streams is high and that integrat ion of these watervrays into the Iand drainage system is desirable on the basis of economics in addition to their potent ial for development as I inear parkways. Figure 2, however, indicates that the location of all these outlets is, Figure 56 Offstream Storage Replicates Hydrology è Oxbow ìrl. - :: to give the Ci LY ef fect ive cosL of The contiol " (Plan å.quisition is high. vlinnipeg, 1981). do In shorL, alLhough the legal means costs exist to protect the waterways, the are prohibit ive. the with t.he exception of Omands Creek, otr The environmenL urban fringe of the ' streãms of the inner citY have been Iost of as components of a reglonaI sYstem the for linkages as drainagä or Park citizens of WinniPeg. in difficulty The major preserving the waterwaYs as ãra inage õutlets i s t'hat many of Lhe wáterways are on Private lands. Conflicts exíst between the Private onners and the public use of the waterwaYs -€ itte public interest is protected undei Provincial legislatiön including the Water Resources Adminístration Act, the Water Rights Acts, the Rívers and Stieams AcL, and the CitY of This gives the Winnipeg Act. City the right of entrY onto private lands to maintain the ...Problems ãrainage courses. have arisen under the Present esPecialIY with situat.ion, respect to eñforcement and conilicts v¡ith Private owners ( r ights of use ' enc roachment , damãge claims). The acquisition of rlghts-of-way is a mechanism " - 127 .ì ìì il ìi 'f Chapter 9 THE HISTORIC STREAMS AND WETLANDS REVISITED ?~128? 9" 1 PRESEbüT COB{DrrroNsv REH.&BÏLÏTATroEq cowmonarrve oPTroNS rhis concluding section outlines the present condition of the original -waLer or the i r rernnants, and the f eatures , or ' opportunities for rehabilitation pã?ftups, commemoration. Throughout.the åor'rt"è of this study the various sites in The Surface Waters of i llustrated and !li;;ipeg 1874 (nigure 57) were visited traces pfrotogrãphed. In many cases, no remain to the casual observer, nor are bY rnåny caPable of be i ng caPtured row - to the characteristiq fr,á'tesrupils due rmPgrceptible dips-' in iradiãntã iåãã"åvt, depresãions that pond during thundeistorms or sites with an unusual number of manholes are all that remain in some cases. However, in other cases major opportunities exist for development' a¡qp Despite the inPut of agricultural ing' - ,!h" drainug", encroachments, culvert by Fidler loss oi all the vegetaLion noted its in 1816' a minor re-alignment.near waters its mouth and a major diversion of Sturgeon Creek is northwest of tÉe City, streams. in the most intact of the original Provincial this quadrant. Attempts by the cã"ãrñment in the 1970's Lo return private residentiat l-ands abutting the creek mouth The Creek is use failed. t;--ó"Uri. ial .,rttãntry designated as a prgvinc drainage o,ãt.r!¡¡ay'and cairies agricultural from the northwest as well as urban retention Pglds ' stormwater from Extensive flooding occurred in the 1970's Creek bY due to overloaãing of the waters have These agricultural drainage. on culverts and sín"" been diverted (rigures and 57 Portage Avenue enlarged .1 I{ORTHWEST oUÂÐRåNT Of the eleven streams in this quadrant Stu19e9n,' only four remain including Tru?o, Omands and Inksters (now Selkirk)' 9"1 Sturgeon Creek -129- s8). Sturgeon Creek offers considerable as an opportuñity for further study was creek The park watervtay tiãtorical " the in the site of Cuthbert Grant's MilI its last century and the lands surrounding to known junction wilfr the Assiniboine are grounds' É. important Native Indian burial peak In the present century storm drainage erosion flows have caused extensive problems and a comprehensive plan has never been developed to synthesize the conflicting uses of it as a stormdrain and park space" The stream also offers great opportunity for a specific case study of bio-engineering techniques for river bank stabit.ízation and vegetation management. A dip in Portage Avenue just wesL of the Truro Creek culvert, is all that remains today of Scully Creek Omands Creek The Omands-Colony Creek diversion of still exists in the same configuration originally excavated. The upper reach of Colony Creek (now Omands) has been dammed within Brooklands Cernetery to protec t downstream development f rom flood waters from Lhe northwest " The resulL ing pond i Ilustrates the aesthet ic possibilites of integrating engineering 1 McMi I Ian s Traces of this stream are to be seen in a díp in Portage Avenue at Overdale Street and in ,a small wooded coulee immediately south of the roadway. -.r sruro (ui ry ) Truro exists today and carries waters from private stormwater impoundments. The flood plain of Truro north of portage Avenue has been preserved and is utilized as a park and for onstream storage (nigures 59 and 60). South of portage Avenue the flood plains have been enc roac hed upon by rec reat i onaL development in Bruce Park but much of this area south to its confluence with the Assiniboine is preserved in its naLural state. Sc uI ly BBO solutions with recreational facilities (nigure 61). The diversion rrorth of Portage Avenue has been heavily encroached upon by i ndust r ial development and i s subject to floods during extreme events. The diversion is capable of orrly 456 c.f.s. but would be subject, in extreme conditions, to flows up to 950 c.f.s. Three studies have been undertaken by Provincial Water Resources to determine a future course of action. The problem is considerably complicaLed by the extensive encroachments which exacerbate potenbiat flood conditions by increasing bank instabitity (rigures 62 and 63 ) . - 130 - =.'w: 't, Although no trace remains of Browns Creek, the mouth of the coulee outlet is today marked by a grassed amphitheater surrounding a stormsewer outlet in Stephen Juba Park at the foot of. Bannatyne Avenue (rigures 66 and 671. I n the 1 970' s, in the nevr housing for excavations west of Princess Centennial District, of Ross Avenue Street in the vicinity uncovered the bed of the former Creek, still fed by the flow of groundwater" Portage Àvenue the reach of proper remains largely in its original state, although encroached upon. To maintain, or improve upon this area and the lands immediately north of Portage will Àvenue requí re cont inuing surveillance by the City of glinnipeg. In the late 1970's a proposal to build a large complex straddling the coulee of Omands Creek, just north of and adjacent to Portage Avenue, was turned down by the City" South of Omands Creek Logans Creek Colony Creek The approximate site of this stream's s today ma r ked by a ca i rn commemorating Fort Douglas, jusL north of the Alexander Docks at the foot of Alexander Avenueo A smal-I wooded coulee lies just behind the cairn which may possibly be a remnant of Lhe former mouth No &ace remains of this stream except for a marked dip in Broadway at Osborne Street and in a parking Lot at the front of Colony Street, directly behind Lhe old Great-West Life Building (fígures 64 and 65). Some teluric flow towards the old course of the Creek as it passes under the University of Winnipeg, just east of gtesley Hall, During stil-l occurs. construction in the 1970's, bubbling was observed around newly installed caissons. The approximate site of the former mouth of Colony Creek is marked today by a stormsewer outlet instaLled in the last century. st reambed " Pritchard Creek The Pr i t.chard Boat Yard i s bui lt over the final reach of this Creek and only a small indentation in the Red River west of the yards indicates its former mouth" Browns Creek - i .131 - T AILhough no trace remains of Browns Creek, the mouth of the coulee outlet is today marked by a grassed amphit.heaLer surrounding a stormsewer outlet in Stephen Juba Park at the foot of Bannatyne Avenue (rigures 66 and 67\. In t.he 1970's, in the housing new excavations for Princess west of District, Centennial Street in the viciniby of Ross Avenue uncovered the bed of the former Creek, still fed by the flow of groundwater" Portage Avenue the reach of proper remains J-argely in its original state, although encroached upon. To maintain, or improve upon this area and the lands immediately north of Portage will requi re continuíng Avenue surveillance by the City of Winnipeg. In the late 1970' s a proposal to build a large complex straddling the coulee of Omands Creek, just north of and adjacent to Portage Avenue, wâs turned down by the City" South of Omands Creek Logans Creek Colony Creek *ã No trace remains of this streamaexcepL for a marked dip in Broadway at Osborne Street and in a parking lot at the front of Colony Street, directly behind Lhe old Great-West Life Building (nigures 64 and 65). Some teluric flow towards the old course of the Creek as it passes under the University of Winnipug, just east of Dur i ng Wesley Hal-1, st i 11 occurs. construction in the 1970's, bubbl-ing was observed around newly installed caíssons. The approximate site of the former mouth of Colony Creek is marked today by a stormsewer outlet installed in the last century. this stream's s today marked by a ca i rn commemorating Fort Douglas, just north of the Alexander Docks at the foot of Alexander Avenue. A small wooded coulee Iies just behind the cairn which may possibly be a remnant of the former The approximate site of mouth st reambed Pr i 131 :':r r'i. .:1. , .. ' *ì r, ì. I ì! ì, , lìiì iìil ì . , ï:,, :it;. . tchard Creek The PriLchard Boat Yard is builL over the final reach of this Creek and only a small indentation in the Red River west of the yards indicates its former mouth" Browns Creek I ì, i --E According to the owner of the facility, ext,ensive filting occurred over the years to level the site. A nursing home for the aged is located in the final reach of the former sLream before it Lurned northward into the Red River. A considerable drop in elevation occurs as the entrance to the building is approached on the west side, and five manhoLes protecting the building sLand as Lestimony to the former streambed and the gradients of its course. The streambed west of the Red vras built over at the Lurn of the century after the Colony Creek diversion cut off the major source of its flow St. Johns Creek Traces of Lhe coulee of St. Johns Creek are clearly to be seen in St. Johns park easL of Main Street. ÀlLhough an earth dyke seals off the mouth of the Creek and a storm sewer carries off floodwaters in the remnant coulee bed, considerable ponding occurs in spring (Éigure 6g ) . irr. coulee of thi s former stream i s of considerable historical interest because Lord Selkirk landed here in 1816 (Ross 1856). A study to determine the potenLial for re-opening this coulee would be valuable as the construction of the Red River Floodway and the increased protecLion iL affords has decreased the necessity ot the earth dyke. In addition, the area including St. Johns Cathedral and churchyard offers great opportunity for the development of an historical_ interpret ive fac i 1 i ty Inksters Creek ( Selk i rk ) The remnants of one of the severa.L reaches of this sLream now fLows through Ki ldonan park as Sel-ki rk Creek (Figure 6e) " Clear traces of the streambed of Inksters Creek are to be found in road depressions running paralleI to the Red River for half a mile west of Main Street, north of St " Johns Churchyard as far as the Seven Oaks Monument, Slight traces of the depression that marked Inksters MiIl Pond and flume Lo the Red River can still be seen. Con s ide rable hi stor ic significance is attached to this site. John Inkster's home, Seven Oaks House, has been preserved as a public resouree and a study of the area for development as an interpretive walk is needed. " - 132 - ìi--ì_:ll" I --ær 9.'! "2 aesthet.ic value and Lhe development has a history of mainLenance problems along the lakeshores due, in part, to densities and design concept (Chambers, 1978). sCI[fn{wEsr QLAÏ}RANT with the exception of the La Salle River, no perennial sLreams existed in Of the twenty-one this quadrant. intermittent sLreams and coulees thaL originally existed, only five exist today. Beaujolais Coulees Unnamed by Duncan Sinclair in 187 4, this extensive coulee has been altered by impoundment for future resident iaI lake oriented developmenL. Proposed extensions to this system are shown in Figure 74. Opportunity exists in the case of Beaujolais Coulee for site specific design development study on a residential major and minor ízing dual the util design concepts. drainage Beaver Dam Creek :i, i :,1,1 ì:; A fragment of this smaII intermittenL stream, unnamed in the last century, was preserved due to late development in the Charleswood area. Partially impounded, a reach of this Creek serves dual usage as a pa'Ëk waterway and storm dra i nage out f al I . Low banks, culverting and encroachments prevent developmenL of this remnant stream f.or open stream stormwaLer retent ion " Baldry Creek bhe Unnamed in the last century, has stream former of this coulee extensive been excavated and developed into an impoundment system for the residential subdivision of Fort Richmond. The treatment of this conversion is a case study for insens i t ive and unref ined planning and design. Decidedly ditchlike, the ponds have next to no recreational or Westendorf Coulee This coulee, also unnamed by Sinclair has been designated as a in 1874, prevent to Wa te r way Provincial encroachments by uncontrolled suburban development. The Province is inLenL on maintaining this waterway and tributary of the La SaIIe River for long Lerm regional land drainage planning. Specific study on the Westendorf Coulee has not been undertaken. 133 ììl lì.ì. lì .ì',' iilrl ;-:g"ç. 'ì --'. '\' .1. La SaIIe River This. perennial stream running through the Parish of St. Norbert and emptyiñg into the Red River just north oi - thè Floodway has been largely preserved due to its distance from the inLensive urban development in the early years of this cenLury, Large tracts of 1and abutting the stream have been preserved in La Barriere Park and much of the floodplain of the River remains as it was a century and preserve iL for the dual usage of land drainage and recreational amenity. Although extensive housing has developed along its length, the flõodpJ-ains of ln* Creek itself have been preserved" The Cordi te Di tch, excavated i n Lhe Iast century, connecLs with Bunns Creek just east of the Perimeter Highway. Several stormwater impoundments have bèen proposed for this natural and man-made waterv¡ay (figure 2). Bunns Creek and The Cordite Ditch offer significant opportunity for specific study of the Iandscape áesign possibilities inherent in tñe interconnections between man-made and natural waterways " In this connection F " L. Olmsted's design for the SL. Charles River in Boston stands as an important historical design and conceptual model" ago. ï 9.1 .3 ¡{oRTHEAST A¡{D SOUTT{EåST OUAI'RANTS Of the six streams entering the Red River, on the east side only two, The Seine River and Bunns Cieek exist throughout the length of their original bed. A third, Macleods Creek, exists only as a remnant. Macleods Creek This stream, f.ormerly the site of a grist mi11 during the era of the Selkirk Settlement originally extended for miles in marshes and drainage runtrays. An early catastrophe of the coming of the C.p.R., the Creek was originally culverted for the construction of the Bergen Line at the turn of the century. Subsequently, the Creek has undergone incremental encroachments and fiIling, until today Bunns Creek (Taylors) Bunns Creek was designated by the Province as a Provincial l.Iaterlrray in the 1970's to prot.ect it f rom encróachments 134 STREAMS Sturgeon Creek Mc Millans Miry oltheRiwrLots ard the I 2 3 4 Scully 5 Catfísh - Omands 6 Colony J.DouPE 7 Browns 8 Logans 9 Pritchards O. 10 S¡ Johns 1l Inþ,sters fttvv' RíVer 12 Taylors 13 Mc Leods --==---:-:=::=t= hters [.ø ,là of Winnipeg; ?¿ '¡(À q FROM THE SURVEYS P. FIDLER : D.SINCLAIR 1816.G.T .N.RUTTAN 1888 1874 and the W WETL,A NDS Marsh or Hayland ffi Pond FLL]VIAL ¿..,4ADruÀ,TS a. beheaded channel of the Seine Riuer b. Oxbow of the Red Sc 10t23 Miles Figure 57 The Surface Vüater 35 of Witmipeg' 1874' Revisited G E.N STR 2 I Sturgeon Creeþ. 2 Mc Míllans /3 / J1,a. .l q9g4.y.f th. Rl* L"tt ""d th -- (/ \/ \, Ë'l MS 3 Miry 4 Scully 5 Catfish 6 Colony 7 Browns I Logans Omands J. DouPE 9 Pritchards 10 Str Johns 7¡tt¡r¡þoine {¡er 11 Inþ.sters 12 Taylors I3 Mc Leods Yßl The Surface Waters of Winnipeg COMPILED FROM THE SURVEYS P. FIDLER 1816 .G.TAYLOR 1838. H.Y. HIND G.McPHILLIPS 1874 . J. DOUPE 1880 1857 . - 1874 OF D. SINCLAIR . C.N.RUTTAN 1888 and 1874 the City of Winnipeg Survey Department Scale t0t23 Milesæ Figure ' 35 W Pond FI]JVIAL i,4ADru¡øS a. beheaded channel of the Seine Riuer b. Oxbow of rhe Red 50'000 57 Ttre Surface Water WETL, NDs Marsh or Hayland of hlinnipeg, 1874, Revisited Figure 58 sturgeon creel< and. ,,Grants lrfill,, Sone attenpt has been rnade to develop this creek *ã as a park water:i^/ay. The "rnill-" is not Liistorically acgurate. Figrre 59 sa,rrguon creek Bosion and Bark stability CulverLj¡rg has jncreased the erosion problems Fiqure 60 Trurlo Cree]< NorLh Flom PorLage Large arnounts of surface rr-rnoff can be stored j¡ this preserved floodplain" Figure 61 rrtrro creel< North of portage Ttle çbopping carb j¡r the foreground was typical of all- Streáms visited. 136 dq¡ê*- i Figure 62 Onnnds (Colonlt) Creelc Danned jn Brookside Ceretery -;s Fign:re 64 Encroachnents on Ornands{olony Cree}< Diversion Figure 63 Omands-Colony Creek Diversion Current Condition 137 Figure 65 -,_Colony CreeJ<: PA}4 Detait l4cPhillips Brothers* 1883 Figure 67 Browns Creek: PAIU Detâil l4cPhillips Brothers, 1BB3 '':<. ¡/ ..j.:.,.... ,/ "-:.:..., Fignrre ,/ Figure 66 Broadway i¡nd Osborne: The Forner Coulee Colony Creek of 68 The For¡rer lrßcutlr of Brov'¡ns Re-opened 138 "=æ!- Figure 69 The Rennnt Coulee of St" Johns Creel< i Figure The }4cuth Park 139 Figur:e 70 of Irksters (Selkirk) Creek in Kj-ldonan 72 Frozen Stormsewer Creek i¡r the Forner Bed of Macleods Figure 73 Rermtant ¡doÉh of ldacleods Creek Figure 74 Surface Ponding in Spring i¡r and CIdcor¡¡ park -*-' I"- .lrrini¿ruint Rilrer The Surface Works ard Scale\ f"l¡ Figure :' rì I j41 l¿5 i0l T[F'I F-¡€---------F 75 Hopefully the unimaginative and historically insensitive treatment of Vlinnipeg surface waters will not continue in the way conceived by the City's tr{ater and I¡üaste Division. Figure 76 The Lot 16 Drain Looking West There is no longer an excuse for single function man-made streams. Long range planning could integrate this drain wiLh residential development " Figure 77 The Lot 16 Drain Looking East The idea of developing a park waterway linkage system in combination with a land drain has yet to be explored in Winnipeg " 142 L '..T J s has the waters of the Seine" Thi ive ieåulted in stagnaL ion and extens late In the encroachmenLs by vègetation. 1970's, Lhe Waterworks and Í.last,e nàpartment of the City of Winnipeg - in ;;;juction with Lhe Parks and RecreaLion ól;í=íon commissioned a study of the Seine for development as a park vraterway and nåtutaf drain. A numbei of conflicts in proposed use exist however. Extensive encroachmenLs over time have resulLed in varyíng, and in some cases Lãnd uses adjacent to the iÃãppropriate and dumping are common' Pollution rivèi. has expressed Lhe Winnipeg of City ttt" and expanding use maintaining of intentioñ " The ãi tfr. r iver f or urban land draininage turn, is Manitoba Naturalist Society, and intent upon the rehabi I i taL ion natural its pi"=.t',rttion of the river in ãtate. In addition, a lobby of concerned property owners has formed in protest the ãgainst- perceived inadequacies in That Study" SËin" niver Park Waterway study proposed the acquisition of a R'O'w' urban reach bt-ti't.- city along thã rivers park pedestrian a as tå be devälopedis proposal a Such Iinkage systeñr. property that fact the by complícated iigírts of príiate owners along the seine only a small reach remains lying within Lhe Rossmere golfcourse and another short reach at its ðonfluence with Lhe Red' As late as the 1 970's, lands abuttíng the mouth were develoPed ilto cieek highrise complexes, Lhus residential preventing inteñded park developmenL - by itt" City õf wínnipeg. Stormsewer backup and stoimdrain proÈlèms are common in the buiLt over i'ts residential subldivisíons (rigures 71 and 721 " 70, former course The Seine River (German Creek) of all the streams in t'he Red and Assíní{oíne the regson afier was designated by River Seine Riiers, the Waterway in Província1 a as the Province of its recognition in 1 970's the rural for drain regional a as importance The largest and urban areas " The flow of the Seine River was first works souLh of altered bY drainage wir"ióãg iñ- tne last century (rigure "14 ) ' tñat time extensive alterations have these The largest of occurred. terms in radical most alterations, and the the and river the òf the qualitY of River Red The been has i ñtes i ty ór f loi¡ , rloodwa which daity diverts a portion of Since- 143 F$. Y' The Beheaded Channel of Lhe Seine River extend to the centre of the river due to the historic boundary beLween the Parish of St. Vita} and the Parish of St Boníface laid down in the last century" Extensive study of the Seine River is necessary in J-ight of the complicated conflicts of use and interest involved. If the correct balance is not struck in long range planning strategies for the deterioration can be river n further This landform can today be Lraced throughout the residential neighborhood of Elmwood. Fragments of it.s former outline are preserved in topographic variations in small parks, the Elmwood Cemetery and on Carman Avenue. Henderson Highway at for exists opportunity Little of this commemoration or rehabilitation " expected landform, " The Oxbow of the Red .4 rN CONCT,USTO¡I In conclusion I would like to stress that this study, due to its synoptic is intended largeJ.y as a nature, 9. -*o Despite extensive developmenty within its banks, the Oxbow of the Red is still The banks of readily distinguishable. this former channel of the Red River are outlined by Enfield Crescent and portions of the two topographic lows outlined by McPhillips (1974) are the sites of public parks (r'igure 73). Due to low gradients within the Oxbow itself, basement flooding has been a continual problem over the years as has flooding by the Red in peak years. To date, there has been no recogni.tion or commemoration of the nature of this unique land form, and considerable I sincerely background resource paper " hope that spec i f ic design sbudies and ultimately new design solutions will arise of this information. from the collation The Winnipeg landscape was and is unigue, for the and imaginative opportunities and rehabil-itation celebrat ion , commemoration of its' natural and man-made largely are today water features âs this study untouched. Historically, has demonstrated, winnipeE's surface as waters have been treated solely HopefuIJ.y this engineering problems " opportunity exists for the development of an interpretive pIan. - 1 144 -=.:ry: 1' l paper is a step towards Lhe development of a more sympathetic and refined approach to land drainage thàn is demonstrated in Figure 74, The Surface Waters of Winnipeg 2024 compiled f rom the City of [.Iinnipeg's Water and Waste Division's long range drainage schematics. Land drainage plans should be developed by engineers, rêgional and urban planners, and landscaPe architects working as a team. Only such a combination, utopian as it may sound, could do justice to such a rich and We get only an troublesome resource. inkling of the immense urban design possibilities for Winnipeg fro¡n such stognwater retention schemes as The*Ì¡iint and the Data Taxation Centre. The SouLhda1e Lakes, the most refined of the large impoundments (wittr the exception of Kilcona Park) are at present connected by underground pipes but the possibifity exists in future developments for bringing these conduits above ground and creating man-made streams, thereby enriching the landscape. If we cease to regard drains as ditches, and consider them as man-made streams and design them as such, then there can, in the future, be no excuse for such crude unintegrated single function works such as the Lot 16 orain (nigure 75). The possibifíties for treating such - features as important. park linkages, ot integrat ing them with housing development has not yeL been t.ouched. with regards Lo imaginative urban storm drainage in the it is not, inner core of the City, un reasonable to imagine a day when a manmade storm water stream may flow into an pond, the offering intermiLtanL opportunity for passerbys to pause and contemplate bui ldings, reflected in its stiIl \@@*\' 14s - c louds and waters, sky ryaì,r. : Abbreuiations WFP MDFP PAM PÀC PC I^fT cwA ABH Winnipeg Free Press Manitoba Daily Free Press Public Archives of Manitoba Fublic Archives of Canada Private Collection Winnipeg Tribune City of [^finnipeg Archives AIvord, Burdick and Howson Report - L 146 - --T Relief in the Ci!v 9f winnipeg: City of glinnipug, Basement Floodinq ---ffi;fpeg. Waterworks, WasLe and Disposal, January tsibliography 1980 " Creek park - Waterway Studv" of Winn ipeg , 197 4 " Dam Aldridge, W. 8e11, C"N. The Selkirk Settlement and the SetLlers" winnipeg: Printed at the Office of "The Commercial", James st. East, 1887. Beresford, H.E. "Ear1y SurveYs in Manitoba. " Winnipeg: Hist. Sci. Soc. , Series 3, No.9, 1954" Bird, B. The Natural Landscapes of Canada" Toronto: J. WileY and Sons Canada Limited, 1978. uncatalogued papers" Winnipeg, Manítoba: PAM, 1943" Al1sopp, T.R" Àqricultural Weather jn the Red River Basin of Southern Manitoba Over the Period 1800 to 1975. Ðpwnsview: Fisheries and Environment r iãnaaa, CLI -3-77 , 1977 " ArLibise, À" Winnipeq; À Social Historv of Urban Growth, 1874-1914. Montreal: McGill-Queens UniversiLy Press, 1975" Brandson, F.4., and Gifford, G.F. 'Rangeland Hydrology. " Range Sc i Ser"1, Owen, J.R.i Denver, Colo.: Range Manaqe., 1972. Winnipeq In Maps 1816-1972" Ottawa; Publíc Archives of Canada, 1975. winnipeq, Arì Illustrated Historv" Toronto; James Lorimer and ComPanY Publishers and National Museum of Man, National Museums of Canada, 1977 " . Soc. Bunn's Creek Studv. City of Winnipeg, 1973. Bodnaruk, B. Seine River Hvdroloqv Studv. Winnipeg: Acres Consui-ting Services, 1978 147 " F!F-' Chambers, G,M, and TottIe, C.H. Fvalgatlon of Stormwater Impoundments in winnipeq. Ottawa, ontariò: Drainaqe in N"W" MetropoliLan Winnipeq. Province of Manitoba: preliminary Study, Planning Division, I,iater ConLrol and Conservation Branch, Department of l,lines and tlatural Resources , 1968. EhrJ.ich, W,A"; Poyser, E.A.; pratt, L.E.; and El1is, J.fl. Report of Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Win¡ripeq and Morris Map Sheet Areas. Manitoba Soi I Survey, Soi ls Report No. 5, Manitoba Department of Agriculture, October 1 953. CanaAa Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Environment Canada, Report SCAT-1, PublicaLions Section (water), Environment Canada, 1980" Clark, R.H. Notes on Red River F1oods. wi nn ipeg : ¡,1áñTtoUa oepartnrenf-õl ¡ti nes and Resources BuIletin, 1953. Clayton and Teller. Glacial Lake_ Àqassiz. Geological Association oF Cana¿a Special Paper 26, 1983. Daubenmire, R.F. pfe¡ts and Environment. London: ,John wTieyãnA Son.s, rnc-, 1947 Elliott, w.P, Artificial Land Сej¡egg in ¡lanitoba" wInnTfg, ¡lanito¡ã: History-Administration-Law, N.R. I ., University of Manitoba , 1978. Elwes, R.G. Winnipeq Water Works Company Reporb. winni.peg, Manitoba: 1887. Fabos, J.GY.; Milde, G.T.1 Weinmayr, M"V. Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. U.S.A. : Eastern Press, 1 968. . Dragonn, F.,J. "Effects of Cultivation and Grass on Surf ace Runof f . " l^Iater Resources Res. , 1967. Criteria Manual for City of Winnipeq. Witlowdale, ontaiio: James Fo Maclaren Ltd., 1974. Draí!aqe_ Geoloqical' IoglcaL Enqineerinq EngÍneering Malcs Maps and and Report Uçban Development of glinnipeq. Winnipeg: Dept. of Geological Engineering University of Manitoba, 1983 148 " lo_¡ '--"'-.''!r Glock, 91"S. "The Development of Drainage System. " A Synopt ic View: Geoqraphical Review, VoI. 2, pp. 475-482, 1 931 . Hildermart, M. Garry "On the Imitation of Nature." Scrub Journal, I,linnipeg, Manitoba: Department of Landscape Architecture and the Manitoba Society of Landscape Architects, FaÌ1. Gray, D.M", (ed" ) Handbook on the Þrincipies of Hvaroloqy.- Ot tawa : Secretariat, Canadian National 983. Hind, H.Y. Report on the Exploration of the Country Between Lake Superior and the Red River Settlement. Toronto: Printed by Order of the Legislative Àssemb1y, John Love11, 1 858. for the International Decade , 1970. Guinn, Rodger. The Red-Assiniboine Junction, A Land Use and Structural Historv " 1770-1980, ManuscripL No. 355, Committee Hydrological '-+ 1 , W.G. and others. Studies of Rel-ations of Rainfall eg! ¡glpl¡[ in the United States. U.S. GeoI. Surv. VJater Supply Paper 772" Floyt Parks Canada. FIarmon, D.W. St;!eer! Years in tl're Indian Country, 1800-1816. Toronto¡ Editor w. Kaye Lamb, Macmillan of Canada Limited, 1957. tlenry, Alexander. The Manuscript Journals oÉ Älexander llenry, Fur Trader of the North West Company and of David Thompson, Official Geosrapher of the Same Company , 1799-1814. Minneapolis: Editor, E. Coves, Ross Haines Co., 1965 I-lering, R. Report on a Future Water Supply for Vlinnipeq. Winnipeg: The Telegram Printing Co. Ltd., 1907. - I(aye, Barry " "Flour Mi lL ing at Red River ind, Water and Steam". Manitoba Historv, blo.2, .1981. : I^f Labelle, J.J.; Brown, R.J. i and Hasinoff, M.D. Climate of Winnipeq. Toronto, Ontario: Department of Transport, Meteorological Branch, CIR 4437, ct,r .35, 1966 " Longley, Richmond, w. PrecipiLation on the Canadian Prairies. Environlnent Canada, C.L12.72, 1972. 149 - Lynch, Kevin. Site planninq. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Second Edition, the McWilIiams, M. Manitoba,Milestones. Toronto: 1 928. Metropolitan Development plan " Metropolitan Corporation of Greater Winnipeg , 1966 " Morisawa, M. Streams, their dvnamics and morpholoqy " New York: McGraw-Hi II Book Company, 1968. I "T. Press , 1962 " Manitoba Soits and Their Manaqement,. Winnipeg, Manitoba¡ Manitoba Department of Àgr icult,ure, n " d. M" Manual of Practice for Urban Drainaqe, Research Report No.104 proiect No. 76-8-38. ToronLo, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Lhe Environment, 1980" Mayer-Oakes, W,J., editor. Life, Land and 9trater, Proceedinqs of the 1966 ,3conferençe on Environmental Stuòies of the Glacial Lake Aqassiz Reqion. glinnipeg, Manitoba: University of Manitoba Press, 1967. McHarg, Ian. Desiqn With Nature " Philadelphia, U.S.À. ! Natural History Press, Eugene Feldman, The Falcon Press , 1969 " NewLon, Norman, T. Desiqn on Lhe Land" Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971 " Omands Creek, Preliminary Report. t{innipeg, Manitoba: Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Division, Planning Branch , 1977 " Omands , M. B " " Some lilotes on the Rational Method of Storm Drain Desigr-lo" ÀSCE Urban Water Resources Research Program Technical Memorandum No.6, Jan. McPherson 22, 1 1982. À. Stormwater Manaqement þy Use of Impoundments. City of Winnipeg, Penman, g6g. - Creek Phase One, Channel Stabilization and FIood Damaqe. glinnipeg, Manitoba; Dept. of Natural Resources Division, Planning Branch, October 150 1975 " ReporL on Desisn Storm Selection: Çity of ---winnipeg waterwofks, Þlaste and Disposal Divisioñ James F. Maclaren Limited, Phillips, S.F. The ReIat'ionship Betrueen Evabotranspiration þy Phraqlites communis Trin. And Water Tabl9 fluctuation In the Delta Mafsh ManItoba. ptr.p" Thesis, university of May 1978 " Manitoba, 1976. Plan Winnipeq, Water and Wast'9^Çomponent . winnlpeg, Manitoba: MaY 1 981 . Preliminarv Studv on Dçailaqe in {orlhWínniPeq: winniPeg, of. 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Plan of the City of Winnipeg and its vicinity, Province of Manitoba, compiled and drawn bY J.D. Parr' surveYs bY Duncan from actual Vaughan, John A.H. SincIair, Brown Esquires C.P. Johnson, and T.H. Parr, and SurveYors Deputy City Engineer. CWA. Plan of River Lots in the Parishes of St. John, St. James, and St. Boniface, Province of Manitoba, Surveyed by Duncan Sincla i r and Plan of the Settlement on Red River, June 1 B1 6 , bY Peter fidler. PÀC 1826, 1872, " Map of Red River Settlement, HBC undated, by George TaYlor ' Archives, PAM. r Plan of Red River ColonY, SurveYed 37 and 38 by George in 1 836 , Taylor. HBC Archives, PAM. 187 4 , General Survey of UPPer Fort GarrY JulY and its Immediate VicinitY, 31 , 1 848. Surveyed by CoIr. Sergt. P. Clark 2nd Corpl., S. Knowles, 2nd Corpl. R. Renton, Private" J. RoYaI of the) v,thitfietd (al1 Sappers and Miners (and others). (signed) Hampden A.S. Moody, Captn. Com. Roy. Engrs" Hudson BaY Terr. August 1, 1848. P.A.M. - 1874, 153 w-. l: McPhillips, Deputy Signed, G. StoughtonDennis. Dominion Lands Survey Office, Winnipeg, 1874. pAM. Plan of River Lots in Lhe parishes of Kildonan and St. pauls, province of Manitoba. Surveyed by (signed) Duncan Sinclair, Deputy Surveyor, Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg, Manitoba, November 1873. pAM. Plan of River Lots in the parishes of St. Norbert and St. Vital, Province of Manitoba. Surveyed by (signed) George McPhillips;r óeputy E Surveyor, Dominion Lands Survey Office, Winnipeg, April 187q. pAM Plan of the River Lots in the Parishes of St. Charles and Headingly, province of Manitoba, ( signed ) Surveyed by Duncan Sinclair, George Mcphillips, Deputy Surveyors, Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg, April, 1874. pAM, 1877, Map showing the City of Winnipeg and parts of the parishes of St" Boniface and St. ,John in the Province of Manitoba. From actual surveys by G, McPhillips, Jun " D.C.S. City Surveyor. CWA. 1880, Winnipeg, Manitoba.1880. Drawn by T.M. Fowler. Pub. by J.J. Stoner, Madison, Wis. Beck and pauli Lith., Milwaukee, Wis. PAM. George Surveyors " - 1881, Winnipeg, íncorporated in 1873, Man i toba . A. Mort imer , Li th. Ottawa. (r.¡¿. Fowler). pAM. 1881, Map showing the City of ttrinnipeg and parts of the parishes of St. Boni face and St . John in the Province of Manitoba. From acLual surveys by G. Mcphi 1I ips, Jun . D.L.S. City Surveyor. pAM. 1882, McPhillips Brothers outline plan of the City of Winnipeg and vicinity in the Province of ManiLoba" April 26, 1 gg2. cwA. 1882, Map of part of the City of Winnip.g and part of the parish of St. Boni face in the province of Manitoba from actual surveys by G. McPhillips, D.L"S. May 12, 1882. PAM. 154 1883, McPhitlips Brothers' map of parts of the City of Winnipeg and parts of the Parishes of SL. Boniface, St. John and Kildonan in the Province of Manitoba, Winnipeg, July 1,1883" CWÀ. 1883, Plan of Sewers for Winnipug, Man i toba, supe r imposed on McPhiIIips Brothers' map of the City of Winnipeg.. " 1883. CwA. 1883, Winnipeg and Environs, Published by J"F, RutLan and Co., Real Estate and Financial Agents. I.trinnipeg, 'EManitoba, Canada, 1883. PÀM. *'{ 1884, Winnipeg, 1884. Mortimer and Co. Lith. Ottawa" pAM. 1887, Plan of the H.B.Co.'s Reserve, Vlinnipeg, Manitoba, being part of Lot no. 1 of Lhe Parish of St. John. Montage Aldous. Survey Office, Hudson's Bay Co", Jan. 1, 1887. 1 Surveyed cwÄ. the Assiniboine River. 1 888. by H.N" RutLan , 1888, I{innipeg Distríct, Young and Brownlee Publishers, R" Young DLS. PAM. 1 889, Plan of subdivision of the wesL hal f of thaL port ion of the Dominion Government Reserve situate on the north side of Broadway in the City of Winnipeg, according to Lhe Hudson Bay Company' s subdivision of LoL no" 1 in the Parish of St. John, Province of ManiLoba. Joseph Doupe, D.L"S" Dominion Lands Lithographic Office" PAM. 1890, McPhillips Bros. OuLline plan of the City of ï^Tinnipeg and vicinity, Manitoba. McPhiIlips Bros. P"L.S. Winnipeg, 16, August, 1870. PAM. 1894 , PIan showing the Parish Lot Surveys, Publ i shed by C, S. Lot t , l.f innipeg 1894, f.rom D. Sinclair River Lot Surveys 1874. PC. PAM. 1888, McPhillips Bros. outline map of the City of Winnipeg and part of the Town of St, Boniface, Manitoba, Winnipeg, Jan. 1, 1888" PÀM. - 888, Plan of 155 F" t: 1 1 895, 905, 1906, 1910, 1911, 1912 , Guide map of the Ci Ly of ?tinn ipeg prepared for SLovels' pocket 1914, Directory by R.C. McPhillips D. and P.L"S" PAM" McPhiIIips' map of the City of Winnipeg, Town of St. Boniface and vicinity, Manitoba. R,C. McPhillips. PAM. Pocket Plan of Winnipeg and Suburbs, H. Pat,erson, Dept . of AgriculLure. PAM. McPhillips' map of the City of Í.7innipeg, City of St. nonirf acè and vic inity. Compi led by R. C " McPhiIlips. PAM. Hathaway's guide and birds-eye map of Winnipeg. R.W. Hathaway aná J.K: Wright. PAM. Chataway's map of PAM. of of the City of Winnipeg, City Winnipeg Survey Department, Copyright Canada 1914. 1948, CwA. Contour Map of the City of i.Iinnipeg, Contours Plotted August, 1948, City Engineers Department. cwA. GreaLer ÞJinnipeg, Manitoba, Canada" Map prepared by the Metropolitan Planning Commission of Greater glinnipeg f or the Greater Winn ipeg Water District. Ch7A. 1959, Map of the City of Winnipeg Exclusive of Assiniboine park, Ki ldonan Park and Brook s i de Cemetery, City of Winnipeg Survey Department, J "M. Phi 11ips, M. L. S, , C i ty Surveyor " 1981, Wastewater, The City of. Winnip"g, Works and Operations Division, Waterworks, I{aste and Disposal 1 Greater Winnipeg including the City of Winnipég, City of St. Boniface and partè õf the municipalities of Assiniboia, Rosser, Kildonan and St. Vital. . . Compiled from official records and surveys by C"C. Chataway, Manitoba Land Surveyor " PubI i sher J. L Anderson. Map 950, Department. 1 98.1 , Land Drainage, The Ci ty of Winnip.g, wõrks and Operåtions Division, Waterworks, Waste and Disposal Department " " 156 Field Notebooks, Dominion Land Survey Book No. 22, Range 2 and 3 East, Township 11 and 12, Hernow Surveyed by R.w. P. L. S. , 1871 " PAM. Book No. 535, Dominion Land Survey Notebook No. 535, Surveyed by Duncan Sinclair, Deputy Surveyor, PAM. Book No. 538, Field Notebook of the Rear widths of the Parishes of '* "' €l ' ,,fi::l' Boniface and St" Charles, 5åi1:""ér. Duncan Surveyed by Sinclair, D.L.S" PAM. Book No. 543, Fie1d Notes of the Survey of the Parish of St. Boniface, Surveyed by G. McPhitIips, 1873-74. PÀM. Book No. 4532, Main StreeL, City of l^tri nn i peg , Surveyed by J . Doupe D.L.S", 1887" PAM. - 157 Dominion Land Survey Rolled Plans. Provincial- Archives of Manitoba Parish of St. Boniface Nos. 1160 14173 '1 1 1 60 1007 1228,997 Parish of St. John Nos. 1160 1114 Parish of St. James Nos. 1477 35728 l ooe Appendix 3 s53 -158- å.1 All experience thus far proves that.Lhe most satisfactory as well as economical mode of effecting such draining is by through carriage ProPerlY water constructed sewers; other methods of disposing of city refuse or sewage are pruãtiseã to a considerable extent in necessarily Ëutopuun and American cities all ' or at no sewers in those that have the cases in such for few, but very all garbage and of cesspools, contents other substances must be carried away, generatly at so great an expense that the work is ñot thoroughly done, causing many evils detrimentat to public healLh and comf ort . I have taken i t f-ot granted that you wish in the future to avoid the ñecessity of open cesspools, everywhere justly condemned, and to remove every ã*.usã for allowing substances of any kind to remain in the citY long enough to pur i f y. . The disposal of your se$tage must be in someplace where it cannot again become a FortunateLy you nuisance to the city. wide and deep have a river sufficiently becoming without receive, rapid to and a the sevlage that aII offensive, population twenty tímes as large as the present could pour into it. THE CHESBROUGIT REPORT dTT'NE 1882 request GENTLEMEN, --Having at your visited this city and examined i.nto the condition in regard to sewerage I have the honor to submit the fotlowing brief statement " Introduced to my work by His glorship the Mayor and the chairman of. the Board of words, I have in company with the City Engineer visited the different parts of thã city, studied its peculiarities, and received from him every assistance in his the o.Þject poçr to enable me to fulfill of my visit" order of Following the natural subjects, the first question is what do you propose to drain and to what extent? i uñAerstand that you wish to drain stables, water-closets, cellars, and manufacturing establishments, in City ordinarily everything állowable Sewers in such a manner that the sewerage may reach an outl-et bef ore decomposi t ion can take place; and that whatever system may be adopted shalt be caPable of extension as necessiLy may require to the present limits of the citY" - 159 T- Your sewers should be capable of recerving sLormwat,er, otherwise the st reet,s, which are pract ically on the level of the se!{er, would be f looded and impassable and occasionally cellars at such times would be liable to ftooding from the sidewalks. The di rect ion of the seh¡ers must be governed by the streeLs, the trunk lines being so placed as to admit of the greatest economy consistent wi th efficiency in Lhe const,ruction of the entire system. It will be necessary at first to construct outlets and other main -*sewers Iarger than immediate neeessities would require in order that they may be of sufficient capacity when the system is completed charged for waLer may be so adjusted as Lo encourage rather than repress a free use of it. The rates allowed by the waLer company's charLer for waLer for flushing the sewers will make Lhat operation very expensive, and seems to me to be very high. It would be a serious calamity if the rates should be maintained so high as to discourage the laboring classes from taking a sufficient supply or lead them to resort to use of impure wat,er. A study of the record of floods in the Red River in 1816 and since shows that they have overflowed the business portion of the city three times in'1856, in 1862 and in 1871. Of course, under such c i rcumstances no sewer coul-d prevent cellars from being flooded unless the grades of the streets or the basements of the buildings were raised. It is generally believed that such floods can never take place again. Ordinarily it is not safe to say that what has been will not be again, but in this case there are some well ascertained facts which may justify the popular belief. From information obtained from Hon" A.G.B. Banatyne and others, it is evident that the Red and Assiniboine Rivers are considerably wider in this vicinity novr " The total inclination that can be given to your sewers, beginning at the western limits as recently established is about seventeen feet, and is sufficient with judicious arrangement and an abundant supply of water to keep them clear. Without however, an abundant supply of water, such a system of se$¡ers as that briefly described, and receiving the substances ment i oned, wouJ-d become an intolerable nuisance. It is, therefore, greatly to be desired that the rates to be - 160 that Lhey srere f orty of f i f Ly years ago. explain why the f looding of Lhis spring, which was as great at Emerson and at points equally high up on the Assiniboine as ever known since the first settlement. of the country, was so much lower in the city Lhan Lhe floods of previous years. A map of the Red River between this cíty and Lake [^rinnipeg, together with a profile of the same showing the heights of the di f ferent floods, and at low water at different points, kindly sent me by Mr " Jas Rowan, indicate that in the flood of 1882 as much water passed down the river as there did in-êthe flood of 1826o ft wouTd be imprudent., in my judgement, to establish the grade of any streets as low as the flood Iine of 1882. Whatever the future may develop with regard to floods the city authorities could not wisely undertake to prevent cellars from being flooded and should therefore grant permits for their connection with the sewers only upon prot ec t condition that the ovrne r s themselves against flooding. There is no good reason why owners of property under such circumstances should not run atI risk with regard to the flooding of cellars, Thi s rdould lrì ii t tì tì Ii! r i,i ii * ì] g ti 1I ì:ì r* {i T $ :ì ìr ìÌì jì ! than those who have cellars near the sea coast wi th bottoms below high t ide. Precaut ions necessary to protecL cell-ars against floods, would also protect Lhem from the backwater caused by occasional excessive st,orms " I t may be asked how i s the drainage from kiLchens, laundries and water closets to be effected in time of floods when celler drains must be closed with valves? This is done under similar i ron c i rcumstances elsev¡here by mean or pipes, which have connections with the sewers, either independent of the cellar Tn the drains or beyond the valves. construction of such cellars, great pains must be taken to prevent water from entering them in considerable quantities through the i r bot toms or s ides , €rs a I lsuch water would have to be pumped out during floods. The whole arrangement and keeping of such cellars dry will require constant care and watchfulness to prevent the entrance of sewage, the bad odor of which is likely to remain for months. It would be impossible at present to make a satisfactory detailed plan of the se$¡erage f or the whole c i ty, because much of the ground is noL yet laid out into streets and lots, and most of Lhat which has been done is of such a fragmentary character as lo be unsui table for a - 161 :i: I I iìì lj il ,l¡ ì ù 'li: In reference to what is cal.led the judicious arrangement of the sewers. It i s greatly to be regretted that your streets could not have been Iaid out upon some well digested general plan, having reference far more to what would meet the than the future wants of the public, greatest present amount to be obtained in selling the Iand. With regard to what has already been done in the way of sewerage it is very desirable, oD account of economy and convenience, to make as much use of it as would be safe. It is understood that the wooden sewer on Main Street, together with i*ts outlet and branches !{ere put *in as a and considered temporary expedient, subject to such change or abandonment as might be found advisable. Certain other sevrers to be laid in Portland concrete, before it will be possible to put in the large main sevrers, can be íncorporated vrere i t not f or w i th the new system, but these necessities, some of them might be to I i tt Ie di f ferent 1y arranged a is thing to But it no uncommon advantage. make slight changes in the details of sevrerage plans to accommodate ímportant unanticipated improvements separate system of sev¡age, which has been I do spoken of as advisable to this city, not think it would be wise to recommend it here, because of the needless extra You must have expense it would entail. storm water seerers, and they can be made to carry away the sewage proper without the necessity of other sewers for this I espec iaIly wi th the abundant Besides, it is not universally, now generally, if admitted that the great evil of sewer gas pr oc eeds complained of in houses, principally from the private drains which can be made just as good under the combined system as under the separate. The present prices of materials and labor required for your sehters seem to me extravagantly high, and must tend to retard their construction, especially in view of the increased taxes consequent upon their extension. For this reason it will no doubt be found desirable to provide temporary large wood-covered ditches or flumes to carry off storm water that could not conveniently be received into the sewers for years to come, and which nevertheless must be kept from flowing over the streets. purpose supply of water spoken of. " - 162 independent outlet at the foot of that . One , i f not two, large branch mains would be ultimately required north of the C.P. Railway, but perhaps not for In the district several years yet. bounded by Portage Avenue, Notre Dame Street, and the western limits of the city, several secondary branch mains will eveñtually be needed some leading from Portage Ávenue about on the line of Dufferin Street to Sargent Street. In carrying ouL the views thus briefly expressed, it seems to me advisable to of Your begin with the Main outlet pritchard sewerage system at the foot of Street, tñence along that street to Main Street, thence along Main Street to Jarvis I would prefer continuing along Street. Main Street to Portage Àvenue but as a temporary wooden sewer is already laid on this street, and can, no doubt be made to serve a useful purpose for some years yet ' at least unt i I pr ices of work fal I considerably lower than they are now' it would be eipedient to construct the main sewer* along Jarvis Street to Prinçess StreeË; thènce along Princess StreeÉ to Donald Streeti thence along Donald Street to Portage Avenue; and thence along Portage Ãvenue eventually to the c i ty but probably not much beyond limits, I t wi tl Spence Street for some years. probably be found advisable to begin a branch main on Notre Dame Street at Princess Street, to be Iaid eventually to the M.S.W. Railwayi also another branch main on William Street at Princess Street' to be laid eventually to McPhi 11 ips Street; also another on Logan Street to be extended eventually to the M.S.W' Railway. It willr ño doubt, be found advisable to put a secondary main on Broadway I vtith an st reet The large sizes of the main and branch sewers necessary to carry off sLorm water will make them very expensive, it is therefore of great importance to convey storm water in the shortest practicable way to the nearest outlets or channels while the caþable of receiving it, orãinary or dry weather sewage be carried to the main outlet where it wi 1l be diluted so many times as to cease to be a nuisance. The sizes of these sewers cannot be safely determined wi thout further and careful invest igat ion .By ir will means of the storm water outlets, sewer main the make be practicable to expensive Iess and considerably smaller than would otherwise be necessary. The discharge from these outlets after the first dash is seldom offensive to the .163 smeIl, and of course when mixed with the current of a river ceases to displease even the eye" It is not likely that a storm outIeL discharge into the Assiniboine above the water works will be needed t.itl after the want,s of the city shall require its supply to be taken from some other point higher up the river, or from some obher sourceo A storm outlet on Bannatyne Street will probably be found advi sable, and possibty one on Logan Street, but there has noÈ been sufficiènt t ime yet to make the necessary calculations and comparison of estimates to determine this question" Eventually main or interceptery serárerxwi l1 no She doubt be continued northward along Main Street when its outlet on pritchard Street will be used for storm water, and thus permit the continuation of the interceptery sewer to be considerably smaller than would otherwise be necessary. Owing to circumstances already mentioned regarding sLreets, and excessive prices of materials and labor, no satisfactory estimates of the probable cost of construcLing Lhe entire system of sewerage can be made. IL is not likely you will need to carry out the whole of the system for many years. The probable - cost of the interceptery main from the foot of Pritchard Street and Lhe necessary storm outlet, ât ordinary prices, would be upwards of $1 50,000. A great deal of storm waLer flows within the city limits from without through Colony Creek, and this could be best diverted to the river by improving the existing ditch along or near the C.p. Railway. It would require an enormous expenditure to provide underground ser4rers for this water, and they cannot be needed for a long while. Fear has been expressed by several_ persons that the outlets of sewers into the river will freeze up and prevent any discharge from them. Similar fears were originally expressed wiLh regard to the Chicago servers, but have never been realized in a single instance. The wat.er of the sevrers has always been $rarm enough to keep their outlets open. I do not see why the result should be different here, provided there is a free but not necessarily extravagant use of water for domestic purposes in atI the houses" The frost penetrates here, seven feet below the surface, in Chicago, êt times, 164 six. WhaLever outleLs may be made to the r iver should have pipe extent ions to belor+ low waLer mark sufficienL to discharge all Lhe dry weaLher sewage thaL may reach them. The masonry aL the ends of the sewer outlets, and for several hundred feet back, should be frost proof. The best mater ial f or sevrers are hard burnL bricks, hydraulic cement mortar and vitrified clay pipes. where it is not conc rete may be subst i tut.ed, provided due care and skiII are exercised in their manufacture. The ordinary kinds of Àmerican cement are not suitable for such a purgose and should not be used. I thrink it would be good policy on the part of the city to encourage the manufacture of a superior quality of vitrified clay pipes in this vicinity. IL will be necessary to ventilate the sewers and this can best be done by means of perforated manhole covers. OÈher means when available may be beneficial auxiliaries, but without the manholes they are Iikely to prove inadequate, while those have generally been found sufficient of themselves, This will requíre a great many manholes but Lhey will be needed for examination, cleaning and flushing. In the examination of Lhe system projected by the City Engineer, I f ind his views are substantially in accord with those which have governed me in other Vlhere he has seemed Lo me at cities" first sight not Lo have adopted the best location of important sewers, he has given strong local reasons fot what he has proposed. OnIy a careful investigation of. the subject, including detailed estimaLes, a work reguiring timer ccrrì determine satisfactoraly what ought to be done in such cases. Respectfully submitted. E"S" Chesbrough. 16s :13 Appendix -166? B.'l DESIGN OF DRAINAGE areas. rn use until '1910, the majority of the trunk lines !.¡ere designed on this basis thus settíng the stage for laLer basement flooding when Iarger lateraÌ conduits based on the rational formula vlere i nt roduced upst ream. SySTEMS 1BBZ-1 91 0 The Adams Modification of f'oimula : the Hawkslev This v¡as the design basis of. the original combined sester system based on the report presented to City CounciI, June Chesbrougho the first B, 1882 by E.S. city engineer of Chicago. Log D = 2 Loq A + Loq N - 3.79 6 D = diameter of the sev¡er in feet À = number of acres tributary to sevter N = the length in which the sewer falls foot 1 This formula was used from 1BB2 to 1910 (three years before the combined system in The existence today was completed). formuLa is said to be based on a 50% of 1" per hour ru¡rof f f rom a rainf all (Alvord, Burdick and Howson, 1943). This formula did not account for of perviousness in the characteristics therefore, drainage area and was, inadequate for highly impervious urban - 167 The RaLional Formula 1912-1965 for the runoff to reach an inlet feeding into a sewer was taken as 1 5 minutes. This intensity curve vras calculated to provide p,rotection from approximately a two year event (À1vord, Burdick and Howson , 1943) The percent runoff. trom pervious areas varied from 40% to 100%, depending upon the type of surface improvement, and from 10e" to 20e, from unimproved surfaces and grass pJ-ots ( see f igures ) . In 1 939 the formula expressing the' intensity of rainfall to be used in the rational formula for the design of the combined sewers was changed to i = 100 t + 18 This v¡as estimated to provide protection from a two and one half year event and was considered to inadequate (elvord, Burdick The ra t i ona lmethod was firsL introduced in .1889 in the United States and is still widely used for design of storm ser{er systems in the Un i ted States and Canada. In 1912 Mr. Aldridge and Co]. Ruttan introduced the rational formula to Winnipeg one year before the system v¡as " complete. a-crA Q = peak run-off in cubic feet per second C = run-off coefficient depending on the "* characteristics of the drainag-r¿t.. i = average rainfall intensity in inches per hour A = drainage area in acres The rainfall intensity curves used by the City of gtinnipeg between 1912 and 1939 Ìrere expressed by the formula i= 60 t + 10 in which = time of concentration required for atl portions of a tributary area to contribute runoff aL a given point . I n the use of thi s rat ional formula the inlet timer oF time required - and Howson). LIMITATIONS OF RATIONAL FORMULA As deveLopment increases upstream of a area the system becomes increasingly surcharged with new waters due to increased rates of runoff. ïn developed .t68 face slope face roughness antecedent rainfall as rainfall intensities are addition ' updated and designs .altered accordingly to basement increasing vulnerability downstream' occurs up back flooding by sur sur intensity surfaces) soil compact rains infiltration caPacitY storage depression t'Ctr f Coef f ic ient: ,Crt is the most uncertain of Lhe variables since several physical aspects The runoff must be clumped together. coefficient ci't.ta.terizes the following Runof va r and According Lo Watkins 1962, following McPherson , ig6g among others the to the rational method" Iimitations apply -most serious limitations 1. one of thã is the fact that the rationaf method does not take into account the real storm pattern. Thi s i s part icularly true of llinnipeg where the showery nature of the PreciPitation can account for extreme di f ferences in recording records from different of variation time the Both stations. variation the and rainfall of rate the of area and velocity conLributing to the flow are therefòre nor accounted for. 2, Underlying physical factors affecting runoft arã iuñped together in a runoff coefficient, "C", and therefore cannot be analyzed or individually modified" as For example storage factors suchplay losses depressioñs and detention iables ; antecedent PreciPitation so i-$ mo i sture infiltration ground sloPe ground cover ãurface and dePression storage shape of the drainage area oveiland flow velocitY I nlet Tíme tr t 'r The inlet time is the overland flow time for runoff to reach the drainage and channel. Due to continual development I't't is, åhrng." in degree of perviousness rrL" varies on.t time, ,tãry changeable. with the length of flow Path - (hard 169 a subjecLive roLe in selecting the correct runoff coefficient. 3. The runoff coefficient is not constant with Lime as is usually assumed for application of the rational formula. This is due to antecedent moisture, rainfall and temperature which cannot be accounLed for without some knowledge of the storm pattern. 4" A similar problem is aLso encountered where "C' tends to increase with the design frequency selected, since larger storms generally have '* . antecedent rainfall. '{ I nt,ens i ty : 1. Wlth respect to the deLermination of rainfall intensity, estimates of the inlet time (time between precipitation reaching the intercepLing surface and runoff reaching a catch basin) are difficult especially for flat areas. None of the factors influencing the inlet time (perviousness, etc.) can be accurately computed and assumptions of f ul1 flowing pipes tends to overest,imate the travel time in se$rers, leading to an incorrect time of concentraLion which erroneous design. results in 2. Since the time of concentration varies in each portion of the drainage basin, each part of the pipe network i s actually designed by pieces of di fferent storms, from which the rainfall-intensity-f requency curve \.¡as derived. This means that the larger the subcatchment, area, the more unlikely the concurrent occurrence of design rainfalls for al1 catchment components. Therefore, only a portion of a ¡retwork would be at design capacity for a given storm. 3. While the raLional method can account for lag effects due to travel time, it does not allow for retardat ion by storage and momentum of flow in channels. This is particutarly significant on the prairies which are characterized by flat topography with poorly def ined drainage vrays " On such areas the rational method will only provide, at best, approximate estimates of peak f l_ows (Cray, 1970) All the above menLioned limiting factors result in the fact that the - 170 - " rat ional- f ormul-a upon which the combined and separate systems of Winnipeg were based óan only be accurately used for design of pipã networks up to JB" in diamãter foi relatively small basins of beLween 2 and 5 acres oF¡ at best' one or two average city blocks. THE COMPUTERI ZED HYDROGRAPH METHOD Current Practice in Winnipeg land drainage planning employs computer hydrogiaphic models " These models are superior to the rational method to simulate runoff from urban areas because of Breir ability to synthesize physTcal processes sequentially in time and can, closely follow the natural therefore I Computer phenomena ín a design storm" hydrograph methods give, in contrast to the rãtiónaI method' accurate simulation of runoff from areas larger than 5 acres" comPuter distributed Generally, hydrograþhy models characLerize the diainãge- bãsin by dividing it into several sub-ca[chments and specifying the runoff slopes' parameters including infiltration, precipitation ioughness, antecedent .and depiession sLorage depth for both pervious anã impervious areas. Such models also considèr routing of both overland and The 197 4) " conduit flow (MacLaren, by ízed real are thaL signi f icant savings and temporary both facilities, reÈention permanent, have ted Lo the widespread ácceptance of the computer hydrograph methods in Iarge North American centers that have been susceptible to floodings attributed to the undersizing of conduit systems designed according to the rationaf The Environmental Protection mãttrod. Àgencies Storm Water Management ModeÌ (epa-SwMM), one of the most comprehensive urban runoff models available (MacLaren, 1974) was adopted by the City of Winnipeg ín the late 1 970' s and i s an integral component of the RegionaL Planning of Land Drainage in both major and minor systems. The model combines sophisticated computer sub-routines to describe runoff quantity ef fect on the and its and quality bY means of water body receiving hydrographs and poJ-lutograPhs.