n EXXON e a e RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING LEAD IN GASOLINE Questions regarding lead in gasoline and its possible contribution to adverse health effects in humans have been raised in many countries where Exxon markets gasoline. This art icle discusses what is and what is not known about environmental contribu tions to body burd ens of lead from various sources and the health implications of these burdens. Lead is a useful meta l, an integral part of the economy of both industrialized and developing countries. Many of its uses, however, may result in lead release and environmental contamination. This is most evident in urban areas, but even some remo te areas show lead levels above the natu ral background. Thus , all members of the general population are exposed to a greater or lesser extent to lead. The major source for most people is food. This in turn comes from several sources. Food cans sometimes are manufactured with soldered joi nts which contain lead, some of which may be leached out into the contents. Food processing equipment may also contribute to lead levels. In add it ion, even fresh foods may have taken up lead from the soil, or been dusted with leadcontaining particulate in th e atmosphere . Finall y, drinking water supplied through lead pipes wi ll also contain some leached metal. CO. s • ENVIRONMENTAL Other lead sources includ e, for chi ldren, the ingestion of leaded paint from walls and furniture. Th is is a major cause of overt lead poisoning. Children may also take in lead-containing soil and dust. Some adults may receive additiona l lead exposure in the workplace, and/ or via tobac co smoke. Finally, everyone inh ales f inelydivided lead-containing airborne particulates. The primary exposure route for lead in gasoline is from the atmosphere following fuel combustion. Finely divided particu lates can remain suspended for long periods of time, and contribute to the inhalation burden j ust mentione d. Most of th e emitted lead, however, is in the form of larg e r particulates that fall to the surface near roadways. It is this material that can co ntribute to body burdens from soil ingestion by chi ldren or by eating food from crops grown near roadways. Th e effec ts of lead on the human body are readily detected at the high levels associated with acute intoxica ti on . The causes, su.ch as workplace exposure or chi ldhood ingestion of paint, are also fairly easily defined, and not associated with lead in gasoline. It is t he ch ron ic, low-level exposures to lead, leading to rel atively small increases in body burdens, which present the more puzzling diagnostic probl em. The curre ntly accepted medi cal PROPR IETA RY INF ORMA TI ON For Company Use Only January-April, AFFAIRS 1980 PROGRAMS criteria for undue lead absorption in children inc lude a blood lead concentration of 30 ug./ dl. or more , coupled with biochemical indications of changes in red blood cell formation . It is believed that these findings const itute an early state of a cont inuous processthat co uld culminate in a diseased condit ion. However, some researchers are now claiming harmful physical effects at levels even below 30 ug./dl. In addi tion, some studies have recentl y suggested adverse behavioral and cognitive consequences of childhood exposure to lead. Current research emphasis is aimed at clarifying these mental and low exposure physical effects in children. Blood cell format ion can also be affected in adults, at approximately the same levels as in children. Some studies have also been carried out indicat ing the possibility of adverse chromosomal and reproductive effects at blood levels below 50 ug./ dl. Because of the num erous sources of lead ex posure, and the uncertainties regard ing adv erse health effects from low-level exposure, it is not possible to der ive a risk/ benefit relati onsh ip for th e continued use of leaded gasoline. Although we know such use does add increm entally to lead uptake from inhal ed particul ates and ingested food and soil, it does not appear to be a major facto r over- (Con tinued on Page 4) INCREASED GOVERNMENTAL AND INSTITU TIONAL PARTICIPATION BEING CONSIDERED FOR EXXON'S ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH The newly established Contract Research Office (CRO) in Exxor Research and Engineering Company has developed a plan for 1980 and beyond. One of the key subject areas included in the CRO Plan is tha t of enviro nmental assessment, toxics and safety. This art icle, based largely on the plan, describes CRO's overv iew of U.S. government and trade association activity in this area and some ER& E projects chosen for fu rther implementation in 1980 into possible research pro posals. In the U.S. some sixteen federal agencies conduct environ menta l research and developme nt, in-house or through contractors. In f iscal year 1980 they request ed about $2.4 bi llion for th is work. Most of t he programs of interest to Exxon are conducted in the Environmenta l Prot ect ion Agency, and the Departments of Energy and the Interior. The EPA R& D budget for 1980 totals approx imately 340M$, with energy, air and water the largest areas. Toxic substances is the fastest growing budget segment, however. The Energy Department environme ntal budget contai ns about 75M$ in areas of direct Exxon interes t. It emphasizes the generat ion of information aimed at assuring minimal environmental impact from the development of energy technologies. The DOE is also working on a liquif ied fuels safety assessmentcovering LNG , LPG, H 2, NH3 and alcohols, as well as compa r ing the relative merits of using chemical d ispersants in fresh water environments for oil spill cont rol. T he Interior Department's Office of Water Research and Techno logy budget contains about 11 M$ for water R& D, including saline water technology development. Among U.S. trade associations, the Electric Power Research I nstitute , t he American Pet ro leum Institute, and the Coordinating Research Council, through its Air Pollution Research Adv isory Comm ittee (A PRAC ), are most relevant to Exxon 's interests. EPRI 's environmenta l budget for 1979 was about 15M$ . It con sisted of three basic areas: physical and ecologica l fac t ors in coal combustion, and assessmentsof emerging technolog ies. The 1980 budget has not been finalized as of th is writi ng. The AP I environmental bu dget for 1980 is some 5.8M$, abou t equally divided between Environmental Affa irs and Medical and Bio logical Sciences. (A description of the API 's Environmental Affairs Department programs appeared in our last issue. A description of MBS Department programs appears in this issue.) T he API, in addition, contr ibutes l .8M$ to t he CRC A PRAC effort . The latter work encompasses contract project s dealing with engineering, atmospheric and medical aspects of air pollution. The other half of CRCAPRAC's 3.6M $ 1980 budget is supplied by the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association. Based on t his overview of outside needs and inte rests, and on an interna l survey of Exxo n's needs, interests and capabi lities , a number of specific enviro nmentally-related projects were identif ied fo r further development into possible contract proposals. T hese areas, l isted and briefl y summar - ized below, run th e gamut from well -defined programs w ith considerable R& D background in ER&E to speculative ideas w hich may well be eliminated upo n further cons ideration . • Programmed Combustion A laboratory-demonstrated concept of sequential combustion capable of cont rolling emissions from fue l-bound sulfur and nitro gen. This project is aimed at demonst rating feasibi lity in a retrofitted industrial furnace. • Thermal DeNOx Coal-Fired Boiler Test The Thermal DeNOx process for control of NOx em issions from oil -fired boilers has already been demonstrated . I t is ex pected that demonst rating this tec hnology on coalfired boilers wi ll be conducted under proprietary auspices. Should this not be possible, however, a government-spon sored project will be sought. • Developmen t of Analytical Methods fo r Heterocyc lic PNA Compounds Work has already been initiated under Exxon support, to develop analyt ical techniques for these classes, which are present in petroleum products and may include carcinogenic members. T he API has expressed in terest in supporting this type of work and a contract will be sought in 1980. • CO 2 Greenhouse Effe ct Exxon -supported work is already underway to help define the serio usnessof this prob lem . Such i nformation is needed to assessthe implications for future fossil fuel use. Govern ment funding will be sought to expand the use of Exxon tankers in determining the capacity of the ocean to store CO 2 . • Development of Short -T erm Bio-Assay Methodology Present test methods for carcinogen screening are expensive and time-consuming. At the same t ime, it is recognized that short -term tests are not reliable. If sufficient Exxon resources and incentives are identified for conducting a government supported method development program, outside funding will be sought. • Evaluation of the Physical Behavior of Spilled Oil In view of the wo rld-wide concern over oil spill impacts, a broadl y supported fundamen tal study of the physica l behavio r of these spills wou ld be useful. Var ious U.S. government agencies wi ll be contacted regarding their interest in supporting a study of experimen t al systems capable of determining the emulsion-forming and sedimentation behavior of spilled oils. • Model Validat ion for Vapor T ravel From Cryogenic Liquid Spills Exxon has an on-going program to develop estimat ion methods for storage tank spills. Because of the general interest in this problem, government and/ or industry support will be sought to leverage Exxon f unds and to broaden .the scope of exist ing marine transport studies underway elsewhere. • Control of Diesel Particulates Several techniques have been suggested for controlling diesel particulate emissions. Exxon has an interest in the progress of these methods because of the potential impact on fuel quality requireme nts. In view of the lack of incentive for proprietary device development, however, government support wi ll be sought . • Adaptation of FCCU Scrubbing Technology to Coal Fired Boilers Exxon has developed extensive know-how in jet ejector venturi scrubb ing technology. This work would be a natural extension of that knowledge to help solve another environmental problem. If government interest is fou nd, support would be sought for a pilot plant and system design/cost compar ison study. THE MEDICINE AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE- a review The previous issue of this Newsletter described the organization of the API 's environmental health and conservation activities, under the aegis of its Health and Environmental SciencesCom m it tee. These activities are divided into the Environmental Affairs (DEA) and th e Medicine and Biological Sciences (DM BS} Departments. The previous issue also outlined the activities of the DEA and the level of Exxon participation. The current article will complete this subject by outlining the work of the DM BS. The DMBS effort is headed by a General Committee. There are also six technical comm ittees. Exxon plays a major role in the work of these groups, with representatives from Exxon Corpora- tion , Exxon Company, U.S.A ., ER&E and Imperial Oi l. Thus, Exxon has three members on the General Committee and is also well represented on the technical committees. The number of Exxon people o n each committee are shown in parentheses below. Each technical committee is responsible for the planning and implementation of a variety of individual research projects. The total 1980 budget for such research and special projects is 3.4M$, anticipated to increase to over 5M$ in 1981. • Occupational Health and Safety Committee (1) Two projects are currently underway in this area; epidemiology studies of crude oil worke rs and of other petroleum industry workers. Although the initi ·al foc us of both investigations will be on cancer incidence, other diseases will also be assessed.Proposals for future expansion of this epidemiology approach include studies of benzene and marine transport workers, a general population group residing near a petroleum refinery, and the occurrence of birth defects among industr y wo rker offspring. • Industrial Hygiene Comm ittee (4 ) Current projects under the I H Committee include work aimed at characterizing the physical (Continued on Page 4) (Continued from Page3) and chemical agents that are associated with common refin ery maintenance procedures. This will add to the body of knowledge already accumu lated on the industrial hygiene of normal operations. Another project is evaluating sampling and analytical procedures which may be needed in the eventua l development of control measures fo r workers invo lved in petroleum coking operat ions. A third program is determining worker exposures during sampli ng and gauging operations. Proposals for new work include the evaluation of possible worker hazards associated with refinery waste d isposal, emissions during transfer and loading operations, and handling and disposal of catalysts. • Toxicology Comm ittee (3) This area represents the single largest effort with in t he DM BSI accounti ng for some 2.3M$ in 1980. The study of generic refinery streams and products accounts for the major share of these expenditures. lnvesti-, gations are underway on effects such as carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, polyneuropathy,reproductive problems, and various other acute I sub-chronic and chron ic toxic manifestations. Among the streams and products being studied are such pure compounds as hexane, cyclohexane and benzene; petroleum coke; crude oil fractions ; and various fuel, solvent and lube basestocks and products as wel l as refinery catalysts. Not all effects are being studied on al I materials of course, alth ough one program is aimed at applying a full spectrum of toxico- logical tests to some 20 generic refinery streams. The single largest program is devoted to a sub-chronic and chronic study of benzene toxic ity, aimed at developing guide lin es for permissable worker exposure and work practices, and medical monitoring ·procedures. Some proposed areasfor future study include the effect of petro leum hydrocarbons on behavior, as a function of developmental and life cycle stages; the determination of needed toxicological data i;1 connection with fo rthcoming EPA regulations governing motor fuels, lubes and their emissions; the metabolism of hydrocarbons, including benzene; development of in-vitro bioassay test meth ods, part icularly for carcinogenicity; and the immunologic effects of hydrocarbons. • Regulatory Affa irs Committee (1 ) This group is charged with reviewing health-related legislation and regulations, coord inating the utilization of research findings and the development of responses, recommendations and research plans with other DMBS comm ittees . • Analytica l Committee (1) Currently sponsored efforts include the developm<:;nt of methods for heteroc yclic compound measurement in petrol eum, and the analysis of oil shales and retort oi l for polycycl ic aromatic hydrocarbons. • Environmental Biology and Community Healt h (2) Work underway includes a study of the meta lli c and o rganic composition of urban suspended particulate, and its fate in the human lung; development of realistic bioassay methods for the toxicologic evaluat ion of petroleum industry solid waste leachate; preparat ion of monographs dealing with water and air quality, based on the collected literature; and the retention of expert consu lt ants as needed to review and cr it ique healthrelated governmental documents and proposed regulat ions whic h may adversely impact the petroleum ind ustry. The Committee also hopes to generate a new project aimed at the assessmentof present techniques used for the sampli ng, storage and mutagenicity testing of aqueous industrial effluents. If needed, improved methods will be sought. (Continued from Page J) all. Removal of lead from gasoline wou ld of course eliminate even the possibility that this incremental lead could aggravate adverse health effects. However, from a practical standpoint, given the benefits der ived from lead 's anti -knock propert ies, attention should first be devoted to minimizing exposure from the more significant and probably less useful sources. V. A. Newill, M.D. Research and Environmental Health Division Exxo n Corporation •:::· •!••!•(• •!•.:-..:••Z.•!•.:•(• ,.. <•(••!• (• •!••!•<·•)•:• <·•!••:• •!••). 6 V ~: EAP is interested in pr inting perti · :l:nent articles submitted by others. ·:· ltemsofabout100-1000wordsare V :t requested, and the autho r will be identified. Articles ' as well as comy f• ments and format, should be sent t• to E. L. Holt or R. V. Trense of EAP, Florham Park. ;: ·;, :~ • t t <:. • • •· • • ' vOvvv+vvOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO• ·!· :~ A ·=· 6 .; 6 <· .::