1

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Vol. 2 No. 2 - December, 1982

Contents:

EIS Under Review ...........................................

3

Oil and Gas Production ...................................

4

The Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie Delta Region

Pipelines and the Mackenzie Valley ..................

15

Arctic Tankers Through the Northwest
Passage .......................................................

21

We would like your views and opinions on the
content of Beaufort magazine. Simply drop us a line
care of The Editor, Beaufort Magazine, Dome
Petroleum Limited, ..... .
The Editor
Beaufort
Box 200,
Calgary, Alberta T2P 2H8

The cover of the December Issue of
Beaufort is intended to depict the pieces of
development components, environmental
and social elements, all of which can be
combined together to form a completed
puzzle.

Beaufort is published by Dome Petroleum
Limited, Essa Resources Canada Limited and
Gulf Canada Resources Inc. to provide the
general public, and interested
parties,
background information on the long range
development and production of hydrocarbons from the Beaufort Sea and Mackenzie
Delta. In terms of engineer ing and technical
skills produ ction is attainable in this region by.
the mid-80s. Before approva l in principle is
obta ined from the federal government , a
detailed report on the possible effects and
impa cts of such production must be prepared
This report , known as the Environmental Impact Statement , was completed in the fall of
1982 . The E.I.S. addresses issues and con cerns raised by the production scenario .
BEAUFORT is continuing to report on the
progress of the E.I.S. activities and the
energy indu stry's evolving plan s.
Designed and Produced by
Corvus Publishing Group Ltd .
Calgary, Alberta

2

 beaufort

EIS Under Review
Those readers who have been
receiving the past editions of
Beaufort Magazine will know that
each of our issues has addressed
specific topic areas related to oil exploration and production. With this,
our 6th edition , we come full circle
back to the subjects addressed in the
first edition, that is, the issues and
concerns described in the Beaufort
Sea
Environmental
Impact
Statement.
The magazine was
created to explain to the general
public and interested parties the
story of Beaufort Sea exploration,
and the future prospects for oil
production and transportation by
the three major companies, or
proponents, in the region - Dome,
Esso and Gulf.
The 2,000 page, seven volume
Environmental lmp~ct Statement,
supported
with 37
additional
documents , was completed in October, 1982 and was sent out to the
public, special interest groups , appropriate government departments
and agencies. On November 10th,
Dr. John Tener, Chairman of the
Beaufort
Sea
Environmental
Assessment Panel, announced the
start of the formal 90-day period for
review of the Environmental Impact
Statement.
During this 90-day
period, the Panel will receive written
briefs and comments from all interested parties including communities in potentially affected
areas. The Panel will also receive
technical reviews from federal and
territorial government departments
with mandates affecting northern
development. At the end of the 90
days , the Panel will decide whether
or not to accept the EIS as a
satisfactory treatment of the major
environmental and socio-economic
impacts of possible Beaufort Sea
hydrocarbon
production . This
decision will be made in consideration of the advice provided to
the Panel by its technical staff and
by interested groups, organizations
and individuals during the formal

The Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie Delta Environmental Impact Statement is one of the
broadest and encompassing EIS submissions ever prepared by the oil industry. This
edition of the Beaufort Magazine examines some of the major issues and concerns addressed in the EIS. Photo by B . Ward.

review.
Assuming no major deficiencies
are identified , public hearings could
begin by early March , 1983, during
which interested parties including
northern communities, environmental organizations, and government
agencies will address the issues,
concerns and forecast planning of
Beaufort Sea and Mackenzie Delta
oil production . Following these
public meetings the Panel will
prepare its report to the federal
Minister of the Environment.
This edition of Beaufort Magazine
will provide our readers with an
abridged version of some of the
ma jor issues and concerns as
examined in the seven volume EIS.
Naturally, a 27 page magazine can
only barely touch upon some of the
topics. The articles written for this
edition provide a precis of only
some of the more important and
sensitive aspects of broad scale
development possibilities.

As in the EIS, we have broken
the topics down into regions: the
coastal and offshore regions of the
Beaufort Sea, where ongoing exploration and future production will
take place; the Mackenzie Valley,
proposed transportation corridor for
overland pipelines ; and the Northwest Passage, which is forecast as
the main traffic route for Arctic
icebreaking tankers. Specific ac tivities in these three geographic
regions have been addressed in
our previous editions and many of
our readers will remember our
articles on artificial islands, ice
research, Arctic icebreaking tankers,
pipelines and shorebase systems.
We now combine the various components of technology, the environment, and the people into
three articles which, in summary
format, tell about the future plans
and possible implications of oil
production in the Beaufort Sea Mackenzie Delta region.
3

 ,.

1

beaufort

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The Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie Delta region, shown here, has been the site of oil and gas exploration activities for
approximately 17 years.

/C>1LAND GAS
PRODUCTION

i

TheBeaufort
Sea-Mackenzie
DeltaRegion
For approximately 17 years now
oil and gas exploration activities
have been carried out in the
Beaufort
Sea-Mackenzie
Delta
region . During that time, roughly 9t
trillion cubic feet (TCF) of gas has
been confirmed and about a dozen
oil ·discoveries have been made onshore and offshore . The most
prom1smg oil-bearing
geological
structures found so far are located
4

offshore . Their locations are identified by Inuit names such as Tarsiut
(night hawk) , Kopanoar
(snow
bird), Issungnak (gull) and Koakoak
(raven) .
Based on the very encouraging
drilling results to date and the fact
that more than 90 potential
hydrocarbon bearing structures have
been identified in the offshore area
alone, industry and government

estimate that the region may contain
recoverable oil reserves ranging
from 6. 3 billion barrels (0.9 billion
cubic metres) to 32 billion barrels
(5.1 billion cubic metres). Even the
lower figure represents a substantial
amount of oil and would make a
major contribution
to fulfilling
Canada's future demands for oil
and its related products.
However, discovering oil or gas in

 ...

I
the Arctic is only the first step . After
being found, the hydrocarbon reser voirs must be delineated by further
drilling in order to prove that commercial reserves exist. This is one of
the activities that has been taking
place over the past few years at
drilling locations such as Tarsiut ,
Taglu , Parsons , Kopanoar and
Adgo. Estimated oil reserves at
several of these locations are
nearing the threshold quantities
needed to proceed with production .
For example,
even with the
somewhat disappointing
drilling
results of the 1982 step out well on
the Tarsiut structure, which found
only gas , industry estimates that this
reservoir contains approximately
350 million barrels of oil. With appropriate incentives, it could be
feasible to begin producing oil from
a single island located so that oil
wells drilled from this island could
reach out to tap a large portion of
the reservoir. No matter which field
is produced first, whether offshore
or onshore , oil production will begin
at a low rate. As experience is
gained with the production and
transportation systems being used,
and more oil reserves are proven,
the production rate will be increased.
The
Environmental
Impact
Statement
prepared
by the
proponents
of Beaufort
Sea
development
examines
the
technical, environmental and socioeconomic implications associated
with a range of production rates .
Only history will be able to accurately chart the actual production
rate which will be tracked by
development in this region. But the
rate itself will be influenced by a
number of factors including govern ment policies, industry's drilling
success rate, and social, economic
and environmental considerations .

Oil PRODUCTION RATES

,~uoo,---------------

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iuoo
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BEAUFORT SEA

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Oil production in the region will grow in
a stepwise fashion as individual islands are
completed and begin to produce. The EIS
examines the technical, environmental and
socio-economic implications of a range of
production
rates from
the
highest
technically achievable rate down to the
lowest economically feasible rate for a
single offshore field.

I••uo,K,.,•,u I
• OII.D .. COVI RIU

Several
promrsmg
oil
and
gas
discoveries have been made both onshore
and in the offshore area.

Basic Requirements
for Production
Producing oil from the Beaufort
Sea -Mackenzie Delta region on a
commercial basis will require a large
lead time because several important
activities . have to be undertaken .
They include:

The most promising oil discoveries found to date have been offshore at drillsites such
as Tarsiut, Jssungnak, Koakoak, and Kopanoar. Here a dril/ship is seen flaring hydrocarbons during a late season test program.

5

 beaufort

1.) One or more reservoirs must
be confirmed to contain sufficient oil
to be declared commercial - this
requires further drilling to delineate
present discoveries;
2.)0nce an oil field is deemed to
be commercial, development structures must be built, production wells
drilled and processing facilities installed;

3.) Pipeline gathering systems, to
collect well fluids (containing oil, gas
and water), both subsea and
onland, must be built to gather and
transport these fluids to central
processing facilities;
4.) A transportation system, using
Arctic tankers, overland pipelines,
or possibly both, must be in place to
trans.port oil and, at a later time, gas

The main components of future production systems used in the Beaufort SeaMackenzie Delta region will generally be similar to those employed successfully in other
parts of the world Including Cook Inlet, Alaska, where the offshore platforms are exposed
to first year winter ice and very strong currents.

6

to markets.
Research, design work, prototype
testing, field evaluation, and other
actions needed to develop the most
feasible combination of components
for future oil production in onshore,
nearshore, and offshore areas of the
Beaufort-Delta region are underway.
Since firm plans still have to be
formulated, conducting a thorough
environmental and socio-economic
review of the range of options under
consideration at this time provides
an opportunity for the public at
large to influence future developments in the region, to ensure that
the environment is protected, and
to maximize benefits
for all
Canadians.
The components
of future
production systems used here will
generally be similar to those employed and fully evaluated in other
parts of the world including Alberta,
the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico,
offshore California, and Alaska, to
name but a few. The major
challenge in this Arctic region is to
adapt this technology to the environment.
The redesign or adaption of
proven oil industry systems to suit
the Beaufort has focused mainly on
the ability of these systems to
operate in cold weather, to handle
the seasonal ice conditions, and to
function safely, with due consideration to environmental protection. This process of adaptation by
the oil companies is the result of
considerable Arctic operational experience, including the drilling of
135 onshore and offshore wells, the
design and operation of an Arctic
marine fleet, and the building of 21
artificial islands since 1972.
Impressive technological strides
have been made in all areas. For
example, the first offshore drilling
islands were built with gravel and
sand in very shallow water, ranging
in depth from 6 to 15 feet (2-5
metres). Most of the earlier islands
used weighted slope protection
materials
such
as
sandbags to protect their relatively
steep upper side slopes from wave
and current erosion. By 1976,

 sacrificial beach designs were introduced, eventually leading to the
construction of Issungnak island,
lornted in 60 feet (20m) of water.
At about this water depth, the costs
associated with these more conventional construction techniques began
to become prohibitive.
To overcome this and other
problems, caissons of concrete or
steel have been developed. Concrete caissons were first used in the
construction of the Tarsiut island
which was featured in the November 1981 issue of Beaufort. In
1982, the industry brought in two
more new caisson-type
island
designs, one involving a single steel
caisson , and the second, comprised
of eight steel caissons forming a
ring. The single steel caisson,
named the SSDC, is presently sitting on a subsea sand berm at a
drillsite, where
the
water
is
roughly 95 feet (31m) deep. Next
year, this same caisson will be
moved to another island site,
located in a water depth of 140 feet
(45 m). As islands ,l;ere being built
further and further offshore , they
were also exposed to greater and
different ice forces, ranging from the
minimal forces found
in the
stationary landfast ice zone, to
the much greater forces generated
by the moving seasonal and occasionally multi-year ice of the transition zone.
Extensive research and monitoring programs carried out throughout the period from 1972 to the
present on these islands leads
industry to be confident in its ability
to successfully build and operate
production islands in this region.
Similar successes have been experienced in other fields of endeavour, such as Arctic shipping
and pipelining, and were also
reviewed in earlier editions of the
Beaufort magazine.
The industry planned, built and
currently operates a support services
network along the Beaufort Sea
coastline. This includes a major
support base at Tuktoyaktuk, a winter resupply and moorage basin at
McKinley Bay, airfield facilities,
docks ·and wharves,
and
a

The first exploration Island In the offshore Beaufort Sea was built in 1972. Since then
21 artificial islands have been constructed. Most of the earlier islands used slope protec·
tion materials such as sandbags to protect their upper slopes from wave and current
erosion.

The Tarsiut island, located in 22 m of water, was the first island built with
caissons to penetrate the waterline and to resist first-year ice forces.

7

 beaufort

\

In 1982 a single steel caisson known as the SSDC was brought into the Beaufort and
was ballasted down onto a subsea berm located at the Uviluk drillsite in 31 m of water.

sophisticated communications network. Part of the support network is
a fleet of aircraft and marine vessels,
including icebreakers and specially
reinforced drillships.
In order to operate efficiently and
safely, the industry has conducted
extensive research on many aspects
of the Arctic, including its physical
and biological characteristics . In fact,
the design
of oil production
systems, as well as operational
procedures
to go with these
systems, has always placed a high
priority on industrial and environmental safety. Before addressing
those
specific
research
and
development aspects, a brief outline
of the geography and climate of the
region is appropriate.

tuates in location from year to year,
although it never totally melts, and
in cold years may remain within a
few kilometres of the coastline.
The bottom of the Beaufort Sea is
part of a continental shelf extending
about 150 kilometres
off the
Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula . When the
Industry first entered this region, it

was thought that temperatures
below the seabed would be above
freezing. In fact, much of the subqt>ttom in the drilling area contains
permafrost (frozen soil or rock) and
is dotted with numerous subsea
pingos (ice-cored hills). The subbottom has a typical temperature of
-0.5 to -2 deg. C, with permafrost
in a few locations measuring
700 metres thick. The pingos range
in diameter from 300 to 1,000
metres, and some rise to within 18
metres of the ocean surface, constituting a hazard to navigation for
deeper draft vessels.
The coastal
waters
of the
Beaufort Sea are fairly shallow,
rarely exceeding 100 metres in
depth . Since large floating ice floes
have deep keels, in some areas the
seabed is frequently scoured, particularly in water depths around
25 metres. Given this feature, industry
employs
techniques
to
prevent damage to subsea in stallations such as blowout preventer
stacks during the ongoing drillship
exploration program. Similar consideration will be given to the design
and construction of future installations.

Climate and Geography
The entire region is above the Arctic Circle, with summertime temperatures averaging only 6 degrees
Celsius, dropping to a cold average
of minus 30 Celsius during a nine
month winter which experiences
about a month and a half of virtually
total darkness. Offshore, ice is
present for most of the year,
generally melting away between
July and October near the coastline,
and in the transition zone between
the landfast ice and the permanent
polar pack. The polar pack fluc8

The Beaufort Sea area is characterized by three main types of ice. In the nearshore
area the ice becomes landfast and is therefore relatively stable. Far offshore is located
the permanent polar pack which is constantly moving in a generally clockwise direction. In between is the transition zone, where moving Ice constantly grinds against the
stationary landfast ice. During the summer months, the landfast ice melts away and
the transition zone clears, to permit drilling in this area.

 beaufort

although they are harvested by the
Inuit of Alaska both in the spring as
they enter the Beaufort Sea and in
the fall when they leave.
Other mammals inhabiting the offshore area include polar bears and
Arctic foxes. Approximately 1,800
polar bears are estimated to live in
the Canadian Beaufort, a number
which varies from year to year
depending upon the abundance
of ringed seals. Although they
spend most of their time roaming on
the sea ice in search of seals, they
den mainly onshore on Banks and
Victoria islands.
Approximately 1,800 polar bears are estimated to live in the Canadian Beaufort, a
number which seems to vary from year to year depending upon the abundance of ringed
seals. (Courtesy Northwest Territorial Wildlife Service).

Wildlife in The Region
The Beaufort Sea, and Arctic
waters generally, support fewer
species of fish and mammals than
do temperate oceans. On an annual
basis, there is less sunlight than in
more temper'ate zones, and below
the sea ice even Jess sunlight
penetrates, with much of it being
reflected back into space. There are
also wide variations in climate from
year to year, resulting in corresponding variations in ice conditions and
general wildlife populations.
Animal species in this region have
adapted
to change,
exhibiting
migration, feeding and breeding patterns that complement the seasonal
swings. The most significant marine
mammals inhabiting the Beaufort
Sea are ringed and bearded seals,
white whales and bowhead whales.
The seal species live in the region
throughout the year, with ringed
seals preferring the coastal landfast
ice areas during the winter months,
while bearded
seals generally
remain offshore in the transition
zone, where ice is constantly
moving.
Whales are only present in the
region during the few open water
months. Each spring by about May,
they enter the Beaufort Sea from
the west, generally following open
water leads in the pack ice. White
whales, numbering from 3,000 to
7,000, make their way to the

Mackenzie estuary where they are
believed to, amongst other things,
rear their young in the warm turbid
waters of the Mackenzie River. It is
also here that they are hunted every
year by th~ local Inuit who still prize
the muktuk. By the end of July, the
whales begin to disperse offshore,
eventually proceeding
westward
again as fall approaches . The much
larger and less common bowhead
whales, on the other hand, usually
stay well offshore, with total numbers of roughly 750 having been
estimated to occur in the large
area where the drillship fleet
operates.
Hunting of bowhead
whales is prohibited in Canada,

Arctic foxes are mainly terrestrial,
but hunt in the winter months on
the coastal ice for ringed seal pups.
They also scavenge on the remains
of polar bear kills, illustrating one of
the interrelationships among Arctic
biota.
On land, the largest and most
economically important mammals in
the coastal area are the three
sub-species of caribou, namely reindeer, barren-ground caribou, and
Woodland caribou. The well-known
Porcupine caribou herd, of barrenground caribou stock, frequents the
northern Yukon, where it would be
expected to interact to a limited ex tent with development facilities for
that area. The domesticated reindeer herd, on the other hand, occupies the reindeer grazing reserve
where several industrial activities in-

The Mackenzie Delta and coastal regions of the Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf are
the summer home of many species of birds including snow geese shown here.

9

 beaufort

significant environmental problems
have resulted from the exploratory
phase of oil industry operations in
the region. Nevertheless, several
major concerns remain, some of
which will be highlighted .

Oil Spills and
Countermeasures

Each summer beluga whales (white whales) come Into the Canadian Beaufort Sea,
where they make their way to the shallow, warm waters of the Mackenzie estuary.

eluding
exploratory
drilling
operations
have already taken
place. Other important terrestrial
mammals to the local harvesting
economy are muskrat, wolves, black
and grizzly bears, and moose.
The Mackenzie Delta and coastal
regions of the Beaufort Sea and
Amundsen Gulf are the summer
home of literally millions of seabirds .
Species such as the yellow-billed
loon, yellow wagtail and bluethroat
have their entire Canadian breeding
population in this area. Snow geese
have the largest concentrations of
nests in the region, with as many as
198,000 nesting individuals having
been observed in just one snow
goose colony on Banks Island.
Other important species include
brant, oldsquaws, eiders, phalaropes, jaegers and murres. These
migratory offshore species rely upon
open water patches during spring
break-up for resting and feeding
areas . Hundreds of thousands of
birds can be seen congregating in
such areas at this time and, in heavy
ice years when open water is rare,
thousands have been known to die
of starvation.
Although some 43 species of fish
inhabit the Beaufort Sea area , the
most commonly harvested types
such as Arctic and least cisco, Arctic
char, inconnu and herring occur
mainly in the nearshore waters. Bot-

to

tom dwelling invertebrates
include small marine worms, clams,
snails and crustacea such as amphipods and mysids . None of the
larger species common to more
temperate waters, such as Alaska
and Dungeness crabs, prawns,
shrimp, mussels, or oysters, are
found in this area.
Based on substantial environmental research
and
monitoring
programs undertaken to date by
both industry and government, few

One of the greatest concerns
related to hydrocarbon development
in the Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie Delta
region is the threat of a major oil
spill. To address this concern, industry had instituted measures intended to prevent the occurrence of
spills. This is seen in all phases of
operation ranging from the use of
blowout preventers during drilling
operations to the quick disconnect
systems employed by drillships, to
the sophisticated systems being used
to detect and forecast ice movements. Beyond the primary line of
defense industry recognizes that
both minor and possibly major oil
spills can occur and it has therefore
conducted considerable research in
the fields of oil spill behavior and
cleanup in Arctic environments.
New kinds of equipment, specially
tailored for use in Arctic conditions,
have been developed and added to
the more conventional counter-

The Beaufort .Sea area has direct access to the largest and most up to date arsenal of
oil spill countermeasures equipment In Canada, including a newly developed Arctic
skimmer.

 beaufort

•
measures available to deal with a
spill. The Beaufort area now has
direct access to one of the largest
and most up to date arsenals of oil
spill countermeasur~s equipment of
any site in Canada. Included are
conventional
and Arctic booms,
conventional and Arctic skimmers,
and a large pollution control and
cleanup barge equipped with burners to incinerate oil. Oil absorbant
materials and oil spill dispersants are
also kept on hand. In addition,
prototype work has been completed
on fireproof booms, heliportable incinerators,
and
air deployable
igniters - and a great deal of work
had been done to learn more about
how oil behaves in ice and how it
may be cleaned up under ice-bound
conditions.
To complement this equipment,
computer trajectory models have
been developed to assist in predicting where oil from an offshore spill
may move over time. Furthermore,
the physical and biological features
of the entire coastline
of the
Canadian Beaufort Sea region have
been mapped and the data are
available to the OnScene Commander in the form of resource sensitivity maps and colour video tapes.
Comprehensive
contingency
plans have been developed, based
on industry's ability to predict where

spilled oil may move due to winds
and ocean currents, its knowledge
of the biology and geography of the
region and the capabilities
of
available
countermeasures
equipment. These plans will continue to be modified and improved
in the future as new information
becomes
available,
and
as
operations
expand
to include
production activities .
The foregoing discussion is not intended to imply that major oil spills,

should they occur, would not cause
environmental damage - but we do
believe that industry has systems
and operational plans to minimize
the chances of such a spill occurring. Furthermore. the industry
has adopted a progressive attitude
towards oil spill research and the
development of technologies and
contingency plans to assist in cleanup, with the ultimate objective being
to minimize environmental impacts
to the greatest extent possible.

(lop and Above) Air deployable igniters have been developed which can be dropped
from aircraft such as helicopters onto oil spilled on the sea or in ice. The igniters will be
particularly effective in dealing with oil spills should they occur in remote areas.

11

 Environmental Effects of
Normal Activities
Notwithstanding the great concern over major oil spills. it should
be emphasized that they are the
least likely to occur. Other activities
related to exploration and develop ment are both ongoing and immediate: activities such as drilling,
dredging, construction both on and
offshore.
and
transportation
whether by trucks. marine vessels,
or aircraft.
As a consequence
ot offshore
drilling exploration,
and in the
future
production
operations,
discharges
of sewage,
heated
cooling water, drilling muds, and
produced waters will take place
daily. In accordance with government regulations. the industry employs oil-water separators, s~wage
treatment
systems,
and
other
technologies intended to reduce the
quantities
of
contaminants
discharged
to the environment.
Beyond this, industry and government studies on the effects of
waste
discharges
from
drilling
operations on the environment have
generally shown that effects, if they
occurred at all, were usually highly
localized and minimal. The use of
advanced treatment technologies in
the future, combined with com-

prehensive
pollution
monitoring
programs, will ensure the continued
well being of the northern environment.
Another regular activity to be
carried out in the region, both now
and in the future. will be dredging .
Dredges will be used to build islands.
to create harbours and navigation
channels for shipping, and to dig
trenches for submarine pipelines.
Dredging removes and relocates
seafloor sediments. This causes the
localized and short-term suspension
of sediments into the water • column.
Small organisms living in seafloor
areas subject to dredging or burial
by excavated
materials will be
destroyed. However, studies conducted in the Beaufort region have
shown that the damaged areas are
recolonized very quickly by bottom
dwelling species. The more mobile
animals.
such as amphipods,
isopods and bottom fish. have been
found to move in within days, if not
hours. Other animals such as clams
and worms return more slowly, but
overall. populations
appear
to
recover to levels resembling their
former abundance
and diversity
within about 3 years.
Monitoring of present dredging
activities, not only in the Beaufort
but in other river deltas around the

Dredges_ will continue t~ be used to build ill/ands, create harbours and navigation chann~ls for shipping and to dig trenches for submarine pipelines. Although dredging activities
disrupt sea bottom habitat, impacts will be localized and recovery of the benthic biota
will occur relatively quickly.

12

world. has revealed that relatively
few fish are captured in dredge
pipes: the majority of these are
bottom dwelling species. ln the
Beaufort region. the fraction of
seafloor which is or will be disturbed.
in relation to total habitat available
for fish and other organisms is. and
like!~•will remain, very confined.
Concerns have been expressed
regarding transportation related activities between ships and whales,
aircraft and birds, and truck/roads
and caribou. Each summer for a
decade now, the industry has been
monitoring the behavior of white
whales, and more recently bowhead
whales. in order to evaluate. and if
necessary,
employ measures
to
minimize possible impacts to these
species. Although whales have occasionally been frightened the impact has been temporary
and
localized. The aerial monitoring
programs have been very successful
in reducing possible interactions
thus ensuring that the whales con~
tinue to migrate into the region and
carry on with their normal activities.
Much of the lowland coastal
Beaufort region serves as staging
and nesting grounds for a variety of
seabirds
and
other
waterfowl
Several bird sanctuaries are located
in the region. There is concern that
helicopters and fixed wing aircraft
operating between shorebases and
offshore platforms may cause considerable disturbance to these and
other kinds of birds . However, industry aircraft are required to comply with recommended
aircraft
altitude and routing restrictions as
much as possible . In this way, impacts on birds have generally been
minimal to date, and similar results
would be expected in the future.
Few roads presently exist in the
Beaufort region and those that do
serve only local areas. Indeed most
vehicl!lar traffic involving trucks
from the south takes place during
the winter months. They travel
along the Dempster Highway to
lnuvik, where they transfer to ice
roads over the frozen Mackenzie
River and Beaufort Sea ice to places
such as Tuktoyaktuk and McKinley
Bay. Although not required by in -

 Research results of caribou responses to roads such as those near Prudhoe Bay and the Dempster Highway indicate that
direct impacts due to roads are generally minimal. However, roads do create access, which may result in overharvesting of
the resource unless sound resource management programs are employed.

dustry it is possible tl1at all-weather
roads may eventually be built to link
the Dempster highway with existing
or proposed shorebases. The construction and use of these roads
raises concerns for terrestrial mammals such as caribou. Research
results of caribou responses to the
Dempster Highway and experience
from developments in the Prudhoe
Bay area of Alaska indicate that
roads themselves do not appear to
cause much of a problem for
caribou. However, roads into new
areas will provide greater access this in turn raises the potential of increased
harvesting
perhaps
overharvesting. Assuming one or
more roads are built in the future,
government, industry and the public
will have to work together to
produce
a
sound
resource
management plan intended to ensure the continued wellbeing of
species such as caribou for the
benefit of all.
As one can appreciate.
the
foregoing discussion on environmental effects in the Beaufort SeaMackenzie Delta region has only
touched on some of the more important concerns. It is impossible to

cover all of them at this time . That
is the purpose of the Environmental
Impact Statement, which interested
readers are encouraged to review.

Development and the
People
The Beaufort Sea region is home

for roughly 7,000 people, more
than half of whom are Inuit, Dene
or Metis. Many of the native
residents continue to rely upon the
land and its wildlife for for subsistance ,
maintaining
a
fairly
traditional way of life which is
heavily based on the region's
natural resources. Resource har-

Many of the native residents continue to enjoy traditional pursuits such as hunting and
fishing which must be protected as the region develops in the future.

13

 beaufort

vesting, although supplemented by
wages for many, is still the backbone of the income and lifestyle for
communities like Arctic Red River,
Paulatuk, Aklavik. Sachs Harbour
and others.
Many native people have successfully combined aspects of both
traditional and modern lifestyles,
combining wage employment with
hunting, trapping and fishing. In
today's north, the wellbeing of the
traditional sector is not independent
of the industrial sector. Earnings

from industrial employment provide
the cash for equipment purchases to
sustain or increase productivity in
the more traditional pursuits. Industry has also played a role in
providing
alternative
work for
people on the land. It has helped
place the renewable resource sector
on a more commercial footing with
purchases of reindeer and Arctic
char from regional suppliers. Industry has thus grown to be an integral part of, and indeed an impor
tant foundation for, the ecomony of

Future hydrocarbon development will produce increased opportunities and options for
employment, skill upgrading and.financial security. (Courtesy J-f. Palmer).

14

the region.
future hydrocarbon development
will produce increased opportunities
and options for employment, skill
upgrading and financial security. On
the other hand, there are impacts of
industrial development which are a
cause for concern and which require
close liaison and understanding
between industry and community
groups. For example, centres such
as Inuvik, and to a lesser extent,
T uktoyaktuk are forecast to ex perience considerable population
growth between now and the year
2000. This could bring strains on
the quality and availability of local
services and stresses in personal,
family and community relationships.
The degree to which growth would
intensify problems at the community
level would depend, to some extent, on how carefully the social
,aspects of such growth were planned and conducted.
This will
require a continuing cooperative effort with participation by the public,
government and industry interests.
Over the years tnat it has
operated in the north, industry has
established a good rapport with the
local communities. The understandings that have developed must
continue to·be built upon. The industry has fostered business and
employment opportunities for those
who wished to participate, while at
the same time enacting programs to
protect
traditional
lifestyles for
workers wanting a mix of both wage
and
resource
based
earnings.
Training and upgrading programs
have been developed for those northern residents interested in advancement in the industry. These and
other programs will continue in the
future.
The industry has many years of
experience in the Beaufort and
would like to build upon its track
record in community liaison and
social action programs.
It has
worked closely with the residents,
government agencies and native
organizations to minimize impacts
and maximize the benefits of its
presence on the north. This rapport
will continue to be an important vital
ingredient in the future as development plans unfold.

 beaufort

Assuming a large diameter pipeline is built, in permafrost areas the pipeline will be mounted on
vertical support members to protect the frozen terrain.

~IPELINES
AND THE
MACKENZIE
VALLEY
In order to develop the Beaufort
Sea-Mackenzie Delta hydrocarbon
reserves, pipelines will play a very
important role. Small lines will be
used to collect and transport oil or
gas from individual wells or well
clusters
to central
processing
facilitie.s; some will be subsea, others
will be overland; and still other
larger pipelines are being considered
to transport oil and later on, gas, to
markets in southern Canada.
A range ot pipeline sizes are being
considered by industry for transporting oil from the region to the
marketplace. To assess the greatest
possible impacts a large diameter
pipeline 42" (1.2 metres) was
examined in the Environmental Impact Statement. However, to begin
transporting oil through a pipeline at
the earliest possible date, it may be
that a smaller pipeline could be built
first. For example, to deliver smaller
quantities of oil from onshore or
nearshore oil fields during the early
years . a 12 - 16" (30 - 40 cm)
buried pipeline could be built, to
connect to the now approved Norman Wells pipeline. As larger reserves are proven, the line could be
looped to further increase capacitv .
If sufficient reserves are found, a
larger diameter pipeline may eventually be built.
Because of settlement that could
occur in permafrost areas, a large
pipeline could be elevated over

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The pipeline connecting the Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie
would be approximately 2.250 kilometres in length.

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Delta to existing systems

15

 PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION

PIPELINE FROM OFFSHORE
PRODUCTION ISLAND

TANKER TRANSPORTATION
SUBSEA PIPE).INE
TO OFFSHORE TANKER
LOADING TERMINAL

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Whether oil is transported to southern markets by tankers or by pipelines, gathering
lines will be required to collect and transport oil and gas from individual wells or well
clusters to central processing facilities before being directed to the transportation system.

about one third of the total length of
2,250 kilometres from the Beaufort
Sea to Edmonton, Alberta. The
elevated sections would be supported by vertical support members and
the pipe would be insulated . Small
diameter lines could likely be buried
for their entire length.
16

The planning for a pipeline must
address the substantial build-up in
activity that peaks with construction,
followed by a similar decline in activities as the pipeline becomes
operational. It is estimated that a
pipeline up the Mackenzie Valley to
Edmonton would take about four

years to construct, with much of the
work being accomplished during
winter. Summer activities would include the building of north and
south terminals for the line, pumping stations and the completion of
river crossings. Temporary facilities
such as wharves, airstrips, work
camps and access roads must also
be prepared, and materials and
machinery would need to be stock piled along the pipeline right-ofway. It is estimated that at the peak
of activities, about 13,000 people
could be employed on pipeline construction. Once the line became
operational, the number of full-time
employed would drop to about
200, growing again to about 300
by the year 2000 as the number
of pump stations required increased .
In building a pipeline, the impact of
pipeline construction and operations
upon the residents of the Mackenzie
Valley region, the many forms of
wildlife, and the general environ ment are essential considerations.
The following parts of this article will
examine some of the more important factors .

Climate and Geography
The average annual temperature
of the Mackenzie Valley region is
well below freezing, and much of
the ground is frozen permafrost. In
the north, along the Beaufort Sea
coastline, the permafrost may be up
to 700 metres deep, while more
central and southern regions of the
2 ,250 km corridor have discontinuous permafrost.
The climate and terrain are important factors in the construction of
a pipeline to carry oil to southern
Canadian markets. The pipeline
corridor from the Beaufort Sea to
Edmonton, Alberta would generally
follow the "easiest", most gently
sloping terrain , although it would
cross areas of rolling hills and some
steeper slopes, particularly at river
crossings . The pipeline would have
to make three major river crossings.
From north to south they would be
located at the east channel of the
Mackenzie River in the Delta; the
Great Bear River near Fort Norman;

 beaufort

Prior to pipeline construction,

a p ipeline righ t-of-way must be established

and the vegetation cleared away.

and the Mackenzie River upstream
from Fort simpson.

Environmental Aspects
of Construction
Based upon experience gained
with other pipelines such as the
Trans-A laska Pipeline , most environmental
impacts related
to
pipeline construction are expected
to occur during the construction
phase .
Once
completed
and
operational the environmental impacts are predicted to be minimal.
Pipe line trenching, construction and
installation will be accomplished
mostly in the winter months when
the terrain is frozen, and damage to
soil cover and vegetation can be
minimized . To protect permafrost
terra in snow and ice work pads will
be used .
Prior to pipeline construction , a
right-of-way mus t be established . As
with .any pipeline, there will be
some local modifications to terrain
and soil, drainage conditions and
the physical appearance of the right-

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Buried pipelines in permafrost regions will be installed using snow roads for temporary access and snow work pads to minimize disturbance of the natural terrain.

17

 Experience with the Trans-Alaska Pipeline suggests that most impacts related to pipeline construction and operation will
be transient and generally minimal.

of-way . Impacts will be most
noticeable during the construction
phase . The effects of pipeline construction on the terrain will be
minimized by using drainage and
erosion control measures common
to the industry and proven successful under Arctic cond itions.
Water quality and stream flows
will be affected by pipeline construction at river crossings. These effects,
although
transient,
will
be
minimized by use of appropriate
measures. Disturbed areas will be
revegetated.

Wildlife and the Pipeline
Whenever and wherever possible,
pipeline routing and construction activities will avoid sensitive
or
preferred wildlife habitats that might
be damaged by short term, but in-

18

tense human activities. Disturbances
caused by blasting, aircraft overflights, vehicle traffic, and other
general construction activities will be
confined mainly to the immediate
vicinity of the right-of-way and for
only relatively short periods of time.
This may result in some temporary
disturbance to mammals such as
reindeer,
caribou
and moose.
However,
experiences
with the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline suggest that
these types of impacts will also be
transient and generally minimal.
The influence of construction activities on the domestic reindeer
herd in the Mackenzie
Valley
Grazing Reserve, the Bluenose
caribou herd located east of the
right -of-way , and Woodland caribou
to the west are forecast to be minor
and short-lived. Neither Bluenose
nor Woodland caribou are common
in the vicinity of the proposed right-

of-way. At the northern end of the
pipeline, the domestic reindeer
herd's movements can be readily
planned for, and accommodated,
especially since only a very short
portion of the line is involved .
Grizzly and black bears are
unlikely to be affected by much of
the construction activities, since they
hibernate in winter when the major
construction will occur. The main
concern is the tendency of bears to
be attracted to garbage, and to
human habitation along the right-ofway. In any case, black bears are
widely dispersed, and grizzly bears
are present primarily in the northern
sections of the Mackenzie Valley
region. The many other mammals
inhabiting the region, including marten, muskrats, beaver, lynx. wolves
and foxes are considered to be
rather insensitive to most habitat
disturbances which may be caused

 by pipeline construction, or are so
widely dispersed through the region
that only a very small percentage of
the total population could possibly
be in the vicinity of the pipeline at
any given time.
Many of the pipeline construction
activities will take place during the
winter months when most of the
170 species of birds recorded in this
region will not be present. The rightof-way for the line will be selected
as much as possible so as to avoid
river habitats favoured by swans,
geese and other waterfowl, and
nesting areas for raptors such as
eagles and hawks. Likewise aircraft
will comply with altitude and route
guidelines whenever possible to
minimize impacts on birds.
Prime fish habitat will be avoided
by minimizing the number of stream
and lake crossings, and by building
the pipeline across small streams
and rivers during winter months.

However. even with the most stringent application of avoidance and
other mitigative techniques, some
fish or fish habitat will be damaged
by pipeline construction. The condition
of some
habitat
will
deteriorate at least temporarily, but
in relation to total aquatic habitat
and the general distribution of fish
and other aquatic biota, impacts will
be minimal.

Safety Considerations
The safety record of pipelines as a
way of transporting oil has been excellent. Leak detection systems are
employed in all new pipelines and
serve to automatically shut down
the line before a significant quantity
of oil could spill. This is an essential
safety feature since a large oil spill
might damage
vegetation
and
wildlife habitat over a substantial
area.

...

-

Although oil spills are unlikely,
should the pipeline leak or rupture
on land during the summer, the
resultant , spill would most likely be
contained by trenching and berming. Following this, the oil would
be pumped into temporary storage
bladders for reinjection into the
pipeline and residues collected for
safe disposal. To keep terrestrial
wildlife from becoming oiled, spill
areas on land could be isolated by
fencing. If a spill were to occur in
winter, oil would be expected to
penetrate the snow but not the
frozen soil beneath. Such oil spills
could be burned off or removed
with mechanized equipment. An oil
spill into a major river such as the
Mackenzie would be rapidly diluted
due to the river's massive flow.
Evaporation ot some of the oil
and oil spill clean-up measures
would help to reduce the impact of
the spill. Containment booms and

'

,

..

,

The Mackenzie Valley is an important flyway for many species of birds including these snow geese. (Courtesy J. Kristensen
LGL Ltd.)

19

 beaufort

recovery
systems
would
be
deployed to capture and recover
oil spills in open water areas
wherever possible. If a spill were to
occur under river ice, the lost oil
could be concentrated by cutting
channels in the ice downstream of
the spill. Oil collected in these
channels could be burned off in the
established manner.

The People
Just over half of the population of
the Northwest Territories resides in
the Mackenzie Valley and Great
Slave Lake region. With the exception of the larger population centres
such as Yellowknife and Hay River ,
most of the residents are Dene or
Metis. The construction of an oil
pipeline would have an important

Pipeline construction
activities
will
provide employment for much of the
regional work force.

I he industry and people of the region have many years of experience in connection with
the development of the Norman Wells field. This shou ld facilitate the orderly development
of a pipeline system to the Beaufort Sea.

20

impact upon many communities in
the Valley region, particularly larger
centres such as Norman Wells,
Yellowknife, Fort Simpson and Hay
River.
Transportation requirements and
pipeline construction activities would
provide employment for much of
the regional work force, although
mainly on a seasonal basis, and
mostly during the three to four year
period that it would take to construct a pipeline. Once a given
pipeline was completed,
several
hundred
jobs
would
remain
available for ongoing work along the
line.
Most socio-economic
impacts
caused by pipeline construction are
expected to be short-term. Communities along the right-of -way will
experience
a growth in local
business activities and revenue,
coupled
with
increased
employment. This would understandably decline once the pipeline was
in operation. During the construction phase, as well, there would be
substantial increases in truck, barge
and aircraft movements along the
Mackenzie Valley.
The industry, in cooperation with
government and the people of the
region, will have to ensure that vital
supply services to the communities
will not be adversely affected by the
surge in its transportation requirements . Effective liaison between the
pipeline builders and the communities will be required to ensure
optimum regional and local participation in the employment and
business opportunities generated by
pipeline activities. Ongoing research
will address these, and other socioeconomic issues which bear directly
upon pipeline construction. The
many years of oil industry experience in the north, and the wellestablished·· communications
with
various social, community
and
government
organizations,
will
facilitate the orderly development of
a pipeline system. This will ensure
that adverse
aspects
will be
minimized while benefits maximized
for all Canadians, and particularly
for the local communities and
people of the Mackenzie Valley
region.

 beaufort

Future Arctic Class tankers will incorporate many design features such as enormous strength and double hulls for resisting
ice, twin and independent propulsion systems, an inert gas system, and advanced navigational aids, all of which will combine to make these vessels among the safest in the world.

~retie
Tankers
Through
the
Northwest
Passage
Besides pipelines , Arctic Class
icebreaking tankers are also being
proposed to transport hydrocarbons from the Beaufort Sea region
to the marketplace. Arctic tankers
are considered to be especially attractive in servicing prospective
deepwater oil fields of the offshore
Beaufort Sea. At these locations
initial development costs will be
much greater than for onshore
fields, and the initiation of early
cash flows will be crucial to their
development.
Although Arctic Class tankers do
not yet exist , the oil industry's six
years of progressive experience in
the Beaufort Sea with ice-reinforced
drillships, ice class supply vessels
and icebreakers
such as the
Kigoriak, have provided a wealth of

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The route an Arctic tanker will follow is illustrated in this map. Eastbound tankers will
generally travel through Prince of Wales Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, Barrow Strait,
and Lancaster Sound, following along the east coast of Canada around Newfound/and.

21

 beaufort

The Robert Lemeur, a Class 3 icebreaker was added to the Beaufort Sea fleet in 1982.
Shown here leading a drillshlp back to its winter anchorage, the icebreaker incorporates
several new features which are being considered for use in future icebreaking tankers.

valuable data which are being used
in the design of these ships of the
future.
The newest addition to the
Beaufort
fleet,
namely
the
icebreaker Robert Lemeur, incorporates several more novel items
under consideration for future Arctic
tankers, and indeed is serving as a
¼ scale test prototype for features
such as the oil storage compartments,
twin screw propulsion
system and others.
To test the Arctic tanker concept
further and to begin moving early oil
to market from offshore Beaufort
Sea fields, industry is proposing to
construct and operate a smaller Arctic Class ship of approximately
80,000 Deadweight Tonnes. This
ship would also undergo extensive
testing and evaluation and would
serve to demonstrate the feasibility
and safety of full-scale Arctic tanker
transportaUon
involving
larger
vessels in the 200,000
DWT
category.
These larger Arctic tankers will
still be modest in size by comparison
with the largest conventional oil
tankers sailing in temperate waters,
but will be more powerful than any
tanker or icebreaker ever built. They
would incorporate many unique
features to allow safe year-round
operation in the Arctic seas of the
Northwest Passage. Concerns have
been expressed about Arctic tankers
in regards to possible environmental
impacts in the Arctic region

22

generally and particularly in the
Northwest Passage where they
would travel. These concerns are
valid and need to be addressed, but
often overlooked is the fact that the
Arctic islands of Canada,
and
various channels and straits of the
Northwest Passage region already
have substantial marine traffic annually, albeit of a seasonal nature,
including ships carrying fuel and
supplies to small northern coastal
settlements.

History of Traffic
Although the Northwest Passage

has been travelled by vessels since
the early 19th century, and is
traditionally the route marked by a
western entrance at Amundsen Gulf
and an eastern entrance at Lancaster Sound, there are, in reality,
several northwest passages. The first
successful trip through the Canadian
Arctic islands was accomplished via
a southern routing, beginning at
Lancaster Sound, sailing close to
the Canadian mainland, and entering Amundsen Gulf via Dolphin
and Union Strait.
There is also another routing
which vessels have taken, bypassing
Lancaster Sound completely in
favour of a narrower entrance
called Fury and Hecla Strait. In addition, at the western end, vessels
travelling eastward may sail through
Prince of Wales Strait, east of Banks
Island or, if ice conditions allow,
through M'Clure Strait, north of
Banks Island.
The most common routing for the
Northwest Passage, however, is the
most direct route. From the west, it
starts at Amundsen
Gulf and
proceeds eastward through Prince
of Wales Strait, Viscount Melville
Sound, Barrow Strait, Lancaster
Sound and then to southern waters
via Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. This
is the primary route proposed for
future Arctic icebreaking tankers.

The S.S. Manhattan, shown here being accompanied by the John A
Macdonald
Coast Guard icebreaker was the first oil tanker to successfully transit the Northwest
Passage.

 beaufort

Labrador, Sea Dragon,
Manhattan, Kigoriak, and
Others
Many vessels have travelled the
Northwest Passage via one or more
of the various routes described
previously . Roald Amundsen , with
a 47 ton fishing vessel , took more
than two years to travel from east to
west. The RCMP boat , St . Roch,
also made passages in both directions in the 1940s. However , the
first large , modern vessel to make it
through was the Canadian Coast
Guard icebreaker, Labrador, in
1954 . Nuclear submarines have
navigated underneath Arctic ice since
the 1950s , and in 1969 the U.S .S.
Sea Dragon travelled westward
through Lancaster Sound sub merged , and exited via M'Clure
Strait , on a journey to the North
Pole .
That same year the first tanker,
the specially modified S.S . Manhattan, escorted by the John A.
Macdonald icebreaker, made a
record setting east to west and west
to east round trip through the
Passage . In 1970 the 106,000
DWT, 300 metre long oil tanker
repeated this feat , thereby demon strating the feasibility of deep
draft icebreaking traffic in the
Canadian Arctic. Since then other
records have been set in Arctic
navigation . The Russian ship
Arktika, the most powerful nuclear
icebreaker in the world. has sailed
right to the North Pole , and Dome 's
icebreaker, Kigoriak, has established
another first by operating year round in the Beaufort Sea region .
The summertime resupply of
small Arctic settlements in the
Canadian Archipelago is accom plished mainly by ships . However ,
none of those now carrying fuel and
oil are icebreaking vessels , and
therefore they must exercise extreme caution in their movements
and the timing of their arrivals and
departures in the Northwest Passage
region . Due to the variability of ice
conditions, and temperatures from
year to year, the resupply tankers
risk being frozen in, or being
damaged by ice floes, unless ap -

GREENLAND /'

/

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,/'

Water depths through most of the Northwest Passage are generally deep enough to accommodate year-round ship traffic. However in certain areas hydrographic surveys will
have to be carried out in order to provide a completely mapped shipping corridor .

propriate planning and caution are
exercised .
Nevertheless , the northern communities and industry operations
have generally been receiving their
winter supplies of fuel without incident or accident.
The most
notable exception to this has been
the Edgar Jourdain, a small coastal
tanker which went aground close to
the shores of Hall Beach in Sep tember , 1980 . Several thousand
gallons of diesel fuel leaked from
the ship over that winter and during
the following year . The burn -off of
the remaining quantity of the ship 's
fuels took place in June, 1981, un der government supervision, to ensure that no further oil spilled .

Bathymetry of the Passage
Many vessels routinely sail in
Canadian Arctic waters during the
brief summer period, but not all
channels have been thoroughly sur veyed . Some of the waterways ,
such as Barrow Strait and Lancaster
Sound, are well 'mapped ', and
others such as Davis Strait and Baffin Bay are known to be quite deep

and would not require much further
survey .
However , since an Arctic tanker
will require water depths of at least
20 metres and adequate channel
widths to allow use of the most
favourable ice conditions , surveys
and soundings of some portions of
the passage will be necessary . Some
survey data are already being
gathered by the Canadian Govern ment Hydrographic Service : for
example , at the present time , along
a corridor over the Beaufort Sea
shelf and through Prince of Wales
Strait.
Amundsen Gulf has been sur veyed to modern standards and is
well-mapped, but Prince of Wales
Strait and the nearshore areas along
the alternate entrance of M'Clure
Strait will require further soundings,
as will portions of Viscount Melville
Sound .

Ice in the Passage
Ice conditions in the Canadian
Arctic vary widely from year to
year. Generally speaking, ice con ditions in the Northwest Pas sage
region are most severe around the

23

 north end of Prince of Wales Strait,
throughout
M'Clure Strait, and
Viscount Melville Sound.
The
highest concentrations of multi-year
ice and minimum open water period
usually occur in these areas of the
passage.
In addition,
icebergs
calved from coastal glaciers are
common at the eastern end of the
passage, in the mouth of Lancaster
Sound and throughout Baffin Bay
and Davis Strait.
To cope with variations in ice
1
con ditions, including multi-year
floes and icebergs, and other
climatic conditions, such as 24 hour
darkness in winter and storms, the
Arctic Class tankers will be equipped with sophisticated navigation
and ice reconnaissance systems.
These systems will assist vessel
commanders in selecting the most
favourable routings, avoiding areas
of high ice density, whil~ complying
with traffic corridors and other
restrictions established under federal
government authority.

icebreaker Kigoriak. One of the
main purposes of the study was to
determine how quickly the ship
tracks refreeze , and can be crossed
by hunters on skidoos. The results
of the research program have been
very encouraging. Under all conditions tested between November
1981 and June 1982, the ship
tracks consolidated or refroze very
quickly, allowing safe passage on
foot usually within an hour and by
heavily laden komatik sleds within a
couple of hours. Based on research
like this, scientists are also predicting
that animals such as muskox and
Peary caribou, which have been

Icebreaker Tracks
One of the concerns of yearround Arctic tanker traffic is that
these ships will break ice and leave
a "wake" or ship track in the ice as
they travel. During 1981 and 1982,
a ship track research program was
conducted by industry in conjunction with hunters and trappers of
the Beaufort region, using the

This photo Illustrates what a ship 's captain sees on a typical CRT (cathode ray
tube) screen presently in use on a supply
vessel in the Beaufort. A similar system
would be employed on the Arctic tanker.
The left side shows the shoreline of
McKinley Bay in the Beaufort, with the
right, larger scale image showing the
position of the ship in relation to the
navigation corridor.

known to travel from island to island
across winter sea ice in the Eastern
Arctic, should likewise have little difficulty in crossing a tan_ker's track
through the ice, should they ever
approach one.
Another concern expressed about
tanker traffic in the Arctic relates to
the possibility that ships might cause
alterations to the landfast ice zone,
especially
in Barrow
Strait.
Significant changes here, should
they occur, have been hypothesized
to cause measurable changes in the
local climate and the distribution
and abundance of wildlife species in
that area. Specifically, the concern
is that tankers may interrupt or alter
the normal yearly formation of landfast ice across Lancaster Sound
and Barrow Strait, causing the
average location of the landfast ice
to be located further west than
"normal", perhaps leading to earlier
spring break-up. However, tests like
those conducted during the ship
track research
program would
suggest that effects on the ice
regime should be minimal. Furthermore, data examined on natural
ice formation and break-up in Parry
Channel over the last decade indicate that there is approximately a
400 kilometre variation from east to
west in the location of the landfast
ice edge border. Thus, it is felt that
any changes which may be caused
by tanker traffic would likely be very
small and,
certainly by any
measure, well within the wide range
of variation imposed by normal
climatic conditions .

Animal Life

The icebreaker Kigoriak sails out of the Arctic twilight during an experimental
icebreaker track research program conducted in the winter of 1981/82 in the Beaufort
Sea.

24

Marine mammals such as seals
and whales, because of their summer or year-round presence in
much of the Northwest Passage, are
most likely to be exposed to possible
impacts from the normal operation
of icebreaking tankers . The highest
concentrations of both groups of
mammals occur in the western and
eastern extremities of the passage;
Prince of Wales Strait, Amundsen
Gulf and the Beaufort Sea to the
west; and Lancaster Sound, Baffin
Bay and Davis Strait to the east.
The central area of the primary

 Narwhals, prized by Inuit for their tusks, are a species of whale that occurs along portions of the shipping corridor.

tanker route (Viscount Melville
Sound) appears to harbour few
animals or birds, and whales in particular are absent.
The movement of ships through
ice will disrupt some habitat for
animals such as ringed and bearded
seals, which live amongst the ice.
Ringed
seals are considered
especially vulnerable during the
months of March, April and May
when they occupy lairs in stable ice
and give birth to pups . The young
seals are quite vulnerable to Arctic
waters for the first month after. birth;
until they develop their fat layers for
insulation against the cold and wet.
Although tanker routes would be
selected to avoid known areas of
congregation wherever possible,
some destruction of seal lairs will be
inevitable . Fortunately, however, in
most areas , the greatest concentrations of birth lairs appear to occur
in the shallower nearshore reaches
of the coastlines , which large ships
such as tankers would not travel
through due to depth limitations.
The major concern for whales
such as bowheads , white whales
and narwhals relates to the underwater noise generated by ships'
propellers and the potential for this
noise to interfere with the whales'
communications
and navigation
abilities. White whales and narwhals ,
similar to dolphins and other
toothed
whales,
have highly
developed
and refined echolocation skills, which they use to

hunt and travel and , it is believed,
to communicate with each other .
Bowheads , wh.ich are members of
the baleen family of whales , do not
hunt, but rather graze mainly upon
plankton in the sea . Their reliance
on echo-location appears to be
much less important than it is for
other types of whales and dolphins .
Much of the concern over underwater noise arises from the perception that because the proposed
tankers of the future will be among
the most powerful ships ever built,
with total horsepower ranging to
perhaps 150 ,000 SHP, they will
generate more noise than other
ships. However , it is not the horsepower itself that causes underwater
noise
but
rather
a
phenomenon known as cavitation.

In simplest terms, cavitation is
caused when the blades of the
propeller
are moving rapidly
through the water , and in the
process creating vapour bubbles that
cause noise as they subsequently
collapse . The greater the cavitation,
the greater the amount of noise
created. Also, the greater the
cavitation, the lower the efficiency
of the propeller . Since the industry
is designing these future ships to be
as efficient as possible in delivering
thrust through the propellers into
the surrounding water, considerable
research and model testing has been
conducted to develop the most efficient propellers possible. Based on
field and laboratory measurements,
it now appears that these future
ships will generate no more underwater noise than that presently
being produced by many ships
plying the waters of the Beaufort
Sea, Eastern Arctic and along the
Greenland coast.
Furthermore, observations carried
out in the Beaufort Sea over many
years have shown that the whales
inhabiting this area during the summer months do not appear to have
been affected to any measurable
degree by present industry activities
such as vessel traffic, dredging and
island construction
operations.
Similar responses would be expected to occur in other areas of the
Arctic frequented by whales . Nevertheless , further research will be
needed to determine conclusively
the possible impacts of underwater
noise and physical presence of these

Walruses usuafly live in relatively shallow waters where they are able to dive to the bottom to obtain clams, shrimp and crabs. (Courtesy Northwest Territorial Wildlife Serui ce )

25

 beaufort

ships along the Northwest Passage
as they are introduced into the
region.

Tanker Accidents and
Oil Spills
Undoubtedly
the most con spicuous and often publicized issue
with respect to Arctic tankers ,
although the least likely to occur,
are accidents resulting in the spillage
of oil. Studies of past oil spills from
conventional tankers in more tem perate waters have shown that the
greatest percentage of tanker accidents around the world have involved ships not owned by oil com panies , and most were due to
human errors which could be linked
to poor training and supervision

and / or management policies. Only
a minority of oil spills from conven tional tankers were caused by ships
belonging to major oil companies .
The accident rate of oil company
vessels has been many times better
than the overall statistical rate . The
design of the Arctic tanker has
benefited from these previous experiences, having incorporated all
important design and safety features
identified by the studies to reduce
the chances of an accident. The
design also benefits from the
strength incorporated
i!1to the
hull to protect the ship from ice
and to allow it to operate as an
icebreaker . As a result, the chances
of an Arctic Class tanker spilling oil
following an accident will be at least
120 times less likely than even that

Several very large colonies of Kittiwakes occur in Lancaster Sound. This and other
seabird species would be particularly vulnerable to an oil spill in the unlikely event that
one would occur. (Courtesy M. Bradstreet, LGL Ltd .)

To assist in contingency planning, surveys are being carried out to map out key
coastline features along the shipping corridor . This photo shows the rugged nature of
South Baffin Island. (Courtesy G . Greene , ESL Limited.)

26

of new conventional
tankers
belonging to the larger oil com panies.
Nevertheless the companies plan ning to develop the hydrocarbon
reserves of the Beaufort Sea
recognize that the possibility of an
oil spill in the Arctic does exist and,
therefore, have contingency plans .
The factors which enter into predic ting or determining possible impacts
of an oil spill, such as timing,
location, amount of oil, duration,
weather conditions , presence or absence of animals, and so on, make
it impossible to state a rule which
will apply to all potential accidents
and all oil spills. However, based
upon previous oil spill incidents and
studies, birds have consistently been
shown to be the most severely impacted wildlife group when oil spills
have occurred . Since the bird
population in the Northwest Passage
region ranges from sparse to dense
depending upon factors such as
location and season, should a major
spill occur the long range effects
upon a particular species would
vary widely. The possible impacts of
a spill would likely be much more
severe in an area such as Lancaster
Sound during spring or summer, as
an example, than in Viscount
Melville Sound, because Lancaster
Sound is an important nesting and
migration area during the open
water period, whereas Viscount
Melville Sound supports few birds .
To minimize impacts of an oil
spill requires countermeasures and
planning . The industry is in the
process of determining the shoreline
and environmental conditions along
the entire route to assist in planning
for the location of countermeasures
equipment along the route. The
equipment
which
could
be
deployed, if needed , could include
containment barriers, skimmers,
portable incinerators, igniters and oil
dispersants.
Supplies could be
located at strategic spots along the
passage, where an oil spill might
have the greatest impact . In ad dition, consideration is being given
to installing
countermeasures
equipment on board tankers with
personnel trained in their use .

 The precautions that will be taken
to prevent tanker accidents, the
design features of the vessel, such
as its double hull and stress
monitoring
gauges,
and
the
sophistication of its reconnaissance
and navigation systems provide the
greatest insurance for protection
against oil spills. When coupled with
training and high safety standards,
the chances of an oil spill occurring
from an Arctic Class tanker are extremely low.

evaluate effects as ships begin to
travel through the region, and to
recommend
further
protective
measures if required. Other options
being
reviewed
include
the
possibility of supplying fuels for local
community use as well as providing
assistance with more general com-

munity resupply activities.
Through programs such as thesE-.
and others which may be identified,
it is felt that the people along the
shipping corridor can contribute to
the development prospects and will
benefit in very positive ways as the
future unfolds .

Tankers and People
The prospect
of icebreaking
tankers travelling through the icebound waters of the Northwest
Passage has raised many concerns
for the people of the region and for
Canadians generally . Some of the
concerns presently being expressed
about tankers and their possible impact on the people and wildlife of
the Arctic relate largely to fear of
the unknown . Not unlike the
situation with oil pipelines 10 years
ago, most of the big concerns over
pipelines have disappeared now that
a large oil pipeline has been built
and successfully operated in the Arctic and environmental impacts have
been found to be minimal. Based
on the range of issues examined in
the Environmental Impact Statement, the proponents are confident that oil can also be transported safely to market in icebreaking
tankers while protecting the environment and other important interests of the people.
However , beyond ensuring that
the environment is safeguarded, the
industry, in cooperation with the
local people, is now beginning to
look at ways through which the
people may be able to benefit from
Beaufort development and tanker
transportation of oil through their
region.
Some possibilities under consideration include employing people
on a rotational work basis at
Beaufort facilities and on ships using
the Northwest Passage. Still others
could be employed in conjunction
with environmental research and
monitoring programs set up to

Marine mammals are extremely important to the people of the Northwest Passage.
Ringed seals are the most common mammal harvested, although walruses are also taken
occasionally. (Courtesy Northwest Territorial Wildlife Seruice)

Pond Inlet, in northern Baffin Island. is one of the coastal communities located close
to the shipping corridor. Industry, in cooperation with the people of the region is considering ways to ensure that future development activities provide maximum positive
benefits to the region.

27