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How will a no-deal Brexit impact the UK?
Research: Jack Winslade and Kevin Flynn
Publish date: 02/09/2019
Last updated: 02/09/2019

Objective
This report sets out to investigate the challenges the UK is predicted to face as a result of a nodeal Brexit.

Contents
Foreword..................................................................................................................................................... 2
Key findings ................................................................................................................................................ 2
How will no-deal impact the economy in the short-term? .................................................................. 3
How will no-deal impact the economy in the long-term? .................................................................... 4
How will the NHS be affected and vital medical supplies? .................................................................. 5
How will no-deal change immigration policy? ....................................................................................... 7
How will no-deal impact British farms and food supply? .................................................................... 8
How will no-deal impact the UK fishing industry? ................................................................................ 9
Will no-deal effect travel between the UK and EU? ............................................................................ 10
Will no-deal impact the status of Northern Ireland and the border with the Republic of Ireland?
.................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Summary................................................................................................................................................... 13
Bibliography: ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Appendix 1: Types of EU trade agreement .......................................................................................... 18
Appendix 2: Countries or territories with which the EU has a trade agreement ........................... 19
Appendix 3: Countries or territories with an EU trade agreement partly in place ........................ 21
Appendix 4: Countries or territories with which the EU has agreements pending ...................... 24
Appendix 5: Countries or territories with which the EU is negoatiating trade agreements ........ 26
Appendix 6: UK negotiated trade deals................................................................................................ 28

1

 Foreword
This report has been prepared by the Office of Antony Hook MEP to investigate challenges
which the UK is predicted to face as a result of leaving the European Union without a
withdrawal agreement, a move commonly referred to as a no-deal Brexit.
EU membership has provided economic opportunity and social protection for people in the
South East of England and the wider UK. A no-deal Brexit has consequences for economic and
social foundations that the South East and rest of UK has benefitted from for decades. Using
the most recently available literature and data, this report provides a focal point to help with
the understanding of some of the challenges of no-deal.
This report will look at the impact of no-deal on the economy, the NHS, immigration,
agriculture, fisheries, travel and on Northern Ireland before reaching a final summary.

Key findings
-

The Office of Budget Responsibility (OBR) has said that a no-deal Brexit will likely plunge
the UK economy into recession and will double public borrowing to £60bn1.

-

To date the UK has only negotiated 14 trade deals with other countries since March
2017 when Article 50 was activated. The EU has, in contrast, trade deal fully or partly in
place with 83 countries/territories and additional deals in progress. These include
important trading partners such as Japan, Canada and Singapore. A no-deal Brexit
means the UK will no longer enjoy tariff free trade with the EU or these other countries
and territories.

-

According to the Government’s own data, GDP per person is set to decrease by 8.1%
over 15 years as a result of no-deal2. By way of illustration of what this would mean, an
8.1% reduction last year in GDP per person by would have been a reduction of
£2,848.94 to £32,323.16. This is significantly poorer than other European countries.
Germany’s GDP per person in 2018 was £40,292.80 and France was £33,960.043

-

As a result of tariffs placed on agricultural products, meat prices are set to rise by 7.3%
and all other food by 3.7%4.

Office for Budget Responsibility. “Fiscal risks report”, July 2019.
https://obr.uk/docs/dlm_uploads/Fiscalrisksreport2019.pdf
2
HM Government. “EU Exit: Long-term economic analysis”, November 2018.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/760484/28_November
_EU_Exit_-_Long-term_economic_analysis__1_.pdf
3
The World Bank. “GDP per capita (current US$)”. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.pcap.cd
4
Catherine Barnard et al., “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/
1

2

 -

The NHS will be put under greater pressure as the immigration status of 5.2% of NHS
staff will be uncertain5 as well as access to medical supplies from the EU.

1.
How will no-deal impact the economy in the short-term?
1.1. A no-deal Brexit on 31st October will undoubtedly destabilise the UK economy and
no-deal Brexit increases the risk of the UK entering an immediate recession.
According to the Office of Budget Responsibility (OBR), no-deal will bring a £30
billion hole in public finances (more than doubling the need for public borrowing
compared to Brexit with a deal). Public borrowing will reach around £60 billion if the
UK leaves without a deal6.
1.2. This cost will be transferred to ordinary families with rising levels of inflation and
borrowing and little prospect of pay increases. Certain employers will face a shortterm staffing shortage with an to end of free movement. This means a significant
shortage of staff in vital sectors such as healthcare and agriculture.
1.3. Further weakness in economic growth will in part be caused by no-deal planning
and build-up of stock before Brexit. This build up, which would not be needed if a
no-deal Brexit was ruled out, will mean that cash is not available to fund investment
and growth. Building up stock in anticipating of shortages carries a real cost. Senior
European economist Azad Zangana told the Financial Times: “whether the UK enjoys
an orderly Brexit with a deal or not, the inventory build-up will eventually need to
be run down, which suggests further weakness in economic growth”7.
1.4. A no-deal will also significantly reduce business confidence and consumer spending
in the UK. Businesses would be hit by rising prices resulting from a further fall in the

Catherine Barnard et al., (2018). “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/
6
Office for Budget Responsibility. “Fiscal risks report”, July 2019.
https://obr.uk/docs/dlm_uploads/Fiscalrisksreport2019.pdf
7
Chris Giles & Valentina Romei. “Is the UK on the brink of recession?” Financial Times, 10th July 2019.
https://www.ft.com/content/4bb4e658-a2f6-11e9-a282-2df48f366f7d
5

3

 pound’s value and imports from the EU would be more expensive8.

2.
How will no-deal impact the economy in the long-term?
2.1. Various government departments and reputable external organisations have
conducted exercises on the longer-term impacts of a no-deal Brexit. Under a nodeal Brexit, the UK will trade with the EU under WTO terms as a third country
outside the single market.
2.2. Brexiteers have argued that the loss in free trade from the EU can be mitigated with
free trade deals with third-countries such as the USA. A UK-US trade deal is yet to be
negotiated and given the normal timescales on forming trade deals it looks unlikely
anything will be in place for the 31st October Brexit deadline. A UK-US trade deal
would have to be ratified by the US Congress, not simply signed by President Trump
and statements by members of Congress have underlined that this would not be
quick nor guaranteed to happen at all. The length of time that Congress has taken
to approve other US trade deals is usually a period of years not months.
2.3. As of August 2019, the UK had only managed to negotiate 14 free trade deals with
other countries9. These require ratification in accordance with the constitutional

Thomas Sampson, “Higher inflation, lower wages and decreasing output: Brexit is starting to negatively affect the UK
economy”, LSE Brexit Blog, 10th July 2018. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/07/10/higher-inflation-lower-wages-anddecreasing-output-brexit-is-starting-to-negatively-affect-the-uk-economy/
9
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Liam Fox MP. “UK and Chile sign continuity agreement”, 30 th
January 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-chile-sign-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs Eastern and Southern Africa trade continuity
agreement”, 31st January 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-eastern-and-southern-africa-tradecontinuity-agreement
Department for International Trade, George Hollingbery & George Eustice MP. “UK and Faroe Islands sign trade
continuity agreement”, 1st February 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-faroe-islands-sign-tradecontinuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Liam Fox MP. “UK and Switzerland sign trade continuity agreement”,
11th February 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-switzerland-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade. “UK and Palestinian Authority sign trade continuity agreement”, 18 th February 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-palestinian-authority-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Liam Fox MP. “UK and Israel sign trade continuity agreement”, 18th
February 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-israel-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade. “UK-Switzerland-Liechtenstein Trade Agreement”, 28th February 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-switzerland-liechtenstein-trade-agreement
Department for International Trade. “UK and Pacific Islands sign trade continuity agreement”. 14 th March 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-pacific-islands-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs trade continuity agreement with Caribbean
countries”, 22nd March 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-trade-continuity-agreement-withcaribbean-countries
8

4

 procedures of the signatory countries, which as with the USA, may be complex.
None of these 14 were with the UK’s top trading partners including the EU, USA or
China. In comparison, the EU has trade deals with 83 countries/territories around
the globe (see Appendices 2 and 3) and ongoing negotiations with other countries.
2.4. According to the Government’s own analysis from HM Treasury, GDP per person
(the average amount earned by an individual) will fall by 8.1% over 15 years10. This 8.1% projection considered both the positive and negative impacts of Brexit and
concluded that overall a no-deal exit would be negative for the UK economy. Data
from the World Bank shows the UK’s GDP per person was US$42,491.4 (£35,491.4)11
By way of illustration In 2018 an 8.1% reduction would have reduced GDP per
person to £32,323.16, representing a significant drop in standard of living. This is
lower than in other European states with a similar population size and economy to
the UK. Germany’s GDP per person in 2018 £40,292.80 and France was
£33,960.0412.

3.
How will the NHS be affected and vital medical supplies?
3.1. No-deal will cause the delay of access to medical supplies used in treatment. This is
due to the extended delays that are expected at the UK’s major ports. The EU is an
important source of certain medical supplies as the UK imports 37 million packs of
medicine every month from the EU13. For example, some vital medical supplies such
as human insulin are not produced in the UK and are imported from the EU14. The
falling value of the pound of course makes imported supplies more expensive.

Department for International Trade. “UK, Norway and Iceland sign trade continuity agreement”, 2 nd April 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-norway-and-iceland-signtrade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs trade continuity agreement with Colombia,
Ecuador and Peru”, 15th May 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-trade-continuity-agreement-withcolombia-ecuador-and-peru
Foreign & Commonwealth Office. “UK and Central America sign continuity agreement”, 18th July 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-central-america-sign-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Elizabeth Truss MP. “UK and Korea to sign trade continuity deal to
ensure businesses are ready to trade post-Brexit”, 21st August 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-koreato-sign-trade-continuity-deal-to-ensure-businesses-are-ready-to-trade-post-brexit
10
HM Government. “EU Exit: Long-term economic analysis”, November 2018.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/760484/28_November
_EU_Exit_-_Long-term_economic_analysis__1_.pdf
11
The World Bank. “GDP per capita (current US$)”. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.pcap.cd
12
The World Bank. “GDP per capita (current US$)”. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.pcap.cd
13
Francesco Guarascio, “No-deal Brexit could deepen Europe’s shortage of medicines”, Reuters, August 12 2019.
https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-medicines/no-deal-brexit-could-deepen-europes-shortage-of-medicinesexperts-idUKKCN1V20FQ
14
Catherine Barnard, et al. “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/

5

 3.2. Medicine shortages are likes to be a real issue. On 29 August, twelve organisations
representing health professionals including the BMA and RCN signed a joint
statement warning that a no-deal Brexit could “devastate the NHS”.15 Their
statement notes that “many medicines including life-saving agents for cancer
diagnosis and therapy, cannot be stockpiled and for those that can, stockpiles could
run out.”
3.3. A departure from the EU with no-deal will mean the UK will need to authorise
hundreds of medicines currently authorised under EU legislation and licensing. This
will be a lengthy process and may mean that some medicines may not be available
until they have been approved by UK authorities. The European Medicines Agency
(EMA) which enables drugs to be given market access across the EU, supervises and
conducts clinical-trials on medicines. This ensures that strict health and safety
standards are implemented for pharmaceutical products. A no-deal Brexit means
that the UK will lose access to the EMA for future supervisory and clinical-trial tests.
This could lead to tighter supplies and higher costs and medicines.16 An inability to
import medicines from the EU may mean the NHS cannot obtain cheaper generic
medicines and will need to fall back on more expensive branded versions.
3.4. Medicines quality controlled in an EU member state can be sold and distributed
throughout the EU. It is likely that for easily understandable reasons that
manufacturers will move some operations from the UK to maintain their access to
the EU market.
3.5. In July 2019 the Brexit Select Committee heard evidence from Martin Sawer,
executive director of the Healthcare Distribution Association who said that in a nodeal scenario, “we would expect medicine shortages and a lot of price rises for the
NHS pretty quickly and some shortages in some constituencies for sure.” Mr Sawer
also warned that the UK would be at greater risk from counterfeit medicines as we
would be unplugged from sophisticated EU systems that detect and eliminate
fakes.17
3.6. The NHS relies heavily on a foreign workforce in hospitals, GP surgeries and other
frontline provision of healthcare. 5.6% of the NHS workforce in England are EU

TUC, “No-deal Brexit could ‘devastate the NHS’, health union leaders warn”, August 29 2019.
https://www.tuc.org.uk/news/no-deal-brexit-could-devastate-nhs-health-union-leaders-warn
16
Francesco Guarascio, “No-deal Brexit could deepen Europe’s shortage of medicines”, Reuters, August 12 2019.
17
Lisa O’Carroll, “Vital medicine supplies at risk if UK crashes out of EU, MPs warned”, The Guardian, 19th June 2019.
https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jun/19/vital-medicine-supplies-risk-no-deal-brexit-mps-warnedpharmaceutical-industry
15

6

 nationals18. Between October 2016 and September 2017, 4067 EU nurses and
midwives left the Nursing and Midwifery Council register19. There are other
evidence in numerous articles of EU staff leaving the NHS since the 2016
referendum in anticipation of Brexit and changes to their immigration status.

4.
How will no-deal change immigration policy?
4.1. No-deal Brexit will stop freedom of movement between the UK and EU. This means
UK citizens will automatically lose the right to live, work and study in the EU. In
August 2019, newly appointed Home Secretary Priti Patel announced that the
government would abolish free movement after the 31st October 201920, albeit the
legality of doing so immediately has been doubted.
4.2. Data from the House of Commons library shows that 3.6 million EU nationals live in
the UK21. Many of these people work in vital sectors such as the NHS, schools, social
care, construction and agriculture. Their status would be insecure after a no-deal
and many would face, or expect to face, the prospect of having to leave the UK. The
fall in the pound’s value also makes working in the UK less attractive to EU citizens.
4.3. According to 2017 estimates from the United Nations (UN), around 1.3 million
people born in the UK live in EU22. The last UK-wide census conducted in 2011, the
Office of National Statistics (ONS) found that 900,000 UK citizens were permanent
residents in the EU23. EU law provides that any EU citizen can apply for permanent
residence after living in another member state for five years24. The data from ONS
also shows the top destinations for British migrants in the EU. Spain hosts the
largest group of UK citizens living in the EU with 309,000. France is ranked second

Catherine Barnard et al. “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/
19
Nursing and Midwifery Council, “The NMC register”, 30th September 2017.
https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/other-publications/the-nmc-register-30-september-2017.pdf
20
Nick Duffy, “Priti Patel planning to ‘end freedom of movement rights’ on 31 October”, iNews, 18th August 2019.
https://inews.co.uk/news/brexit/priti-patel-planning-to-end-freedom-of-movement-rights-on-31-october/
21
Georgina Sturge. “Briefing Paper: Number CBP06077”, House of Commons Library, 3rd June 2019.
22
United Nations, “International migrant stock: The 2017 revision”, 2017.
https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates17.asp
23
Office for National Statistics, “What information is there on British migrants living in Europe?”, 27 th January 2017.
https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/articles/whatinf
ormationisthereonbritishmigrantslivingineurope/jan2017#number-of-british-citizens-living-in-europe-in-2011-by-age
24
“Permanent residence (>5 years) for EU nationals”, European Union, last modified 24th January 2019.
https://europa.eu/youreurope/citizens/residence/documents-formalities/eu-nationals-permanent-residence/index_en.htm
18

7

 with 157,000 and Ireland third with 112,00025.
4.4. Under EU law, it is the responsibility of national governments on how they
implement the legal status of non-EU citizens into domestic law. At present,
member states have made little progress on determining the legal status of UK
nationals in the EU in the event of no-deal.
4.5. The top three destinations for UK citizens in the EU are Spain, France and Ireland. At
present, none of these have enacted any legislation about the rights of UK nationals
after no-deal. Ireland will remain the only EU member to be able to guarantee the
rights because of special bilateral arrangements with the UK26.
4.6. In the event of no-deal, UK nationals will no longer be EU citizens and will become
third-country nationals. The principle of free movement would no longer apply to
British citizens. UK nationals living in the EU would need to apply for residence
status and this process varies between member states27. A significant number may
decide to return to the UK and because of their age-group would present an
additional pull on NHS and other public service resources.

5.
How will no-deal impact British farms and food supply?
5.1. Under World Trade Organisation (WTO) a no-deal Brexit will mean tariffs will be
imposed on UK farming exports to the EU. The UK beef industry for example could
face collapse with an 84% tariff imposed on any British beef export. Additional
tariffs include: 48% on lamb, 37% on poultry, 30% on pork and 53% on wheat28.
5.2. With the reintroduction of customs checks at the UK-EU border, the import and
export of agricultural products will slowdown and disrupt the supply chain.
Disruption will directly affect the consumer with availability of food supplies
reduced and prices increased. It is expected that a no-deal Brexit will cause meat

Office for National Statistics, “What information is there on British migrants living in Europe?”, 27 th January 2017.
https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/articles/whatinf
ormationisthereonbritishmigrantslivingineurope/jan2017#number-of-british-citizens-living-in-europe-in-2011-by-age
26
Georgina Wright, “British citizens in Europe after Brexit”, Institute for Government, 10th July 2019.
https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/british-citizens-europe-after-brexit
27
European Commission, “The rights of UK nationals living in the EU in the event of no deal”, March 2019.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/factsheet_2_uk_citizens_en_final_0.pdf
28
World Trade Organisation. “World Tariff Profiles 2018”,
https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/tariff_profiles18_e.pdf
25

8

 prices in the UK to rise by 7.3% and other foodstuff by 3.7%29, on top of inflation
caused by other economic factors.
5.3. Some Brexiteers have argued that the UK shouldn’t place tariffs on any agricultural
imports. Doing this will be hugely damaging to domestic producers who will find it
hard to compete with cheaper imports from non-EU countries with lower
production costs while out exports to the EU do suffer tariffs
5.4. No-deal will also see the UK cut off from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).
EFSA ensures that any EU food health concerns can be quickly managed and
notified. EFSA examines emerging issues in food safety across the EU30
5.5. A no-deal Brexit also mean the UK leaves the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). CAP
supports farmers across the EU by providing funding support for their work and
protecting them from external competition. In 2018, British farmers received a total
of £3.5bn from the EU via the CAP31. With a no-deal Brexit, this funding would be
stopped. It is difficult to see how the UK government could replace the CAP funding
in the light of economic damage that will be caused by a no-deal exit. Combined
with extreme tariffs, some British farmers will be driven out of business.

6.
How will no-deal impact the UK fishing industry?
6.1. A no-deal Brexit means the UK will automatically leave the Common Fisheries Policy
(CFP). Brexiteers argue that this will be an opportunity for British fisherman to have
complete control of UK waters by leaving the CFP. A no-deal Brexit, however, would
be hugely damaging for the UK fishing industry.
6.2. No-deal will mean the imposition of tariffs on UK seafood exports to the EU. The
UK’s biggest export market for seafood is France with 96,501 tonnes exported in
201632. The UK shellfish sector, which relies heavily on the European market, is
expected to become particularly vulnerable as a result on no-deal. The shellfish
industry is dependent on live exports and customs checks at the UK-EU border,
which are mandated by EU law and not a matter of discretion, will inevitably impact
quality and the attractiveness of the product in European markets.
Catherine Barnard et al., “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/
30
“How we work”, European Food Safety Authority. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/about/howwework
31
Catherine Barnard et al., “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/
32
Catherine Barnard et al., “Cost of No Deal Revisited”, The UK in a Changing Europe, 3rd September 2018.
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/research-papers/cost-of-no-deal-revisited/
29

9

 6.3. The notion that the UK outside the EU could radically lift restrictions on catch sizes
is fanciful. To do so would be to ignore the weight of scientific opinion about the
catch restrictions that are needed in the long-term to maintain a sustainable fish
stock.

7.
Will no-deal effect travel between the UK and EU?
7.1. Travel between the UK and EU will be harder and more restrictive because of nodeal Brexit. At EU borders, UK nationals will no longer entitled to use the fast
EU/EEA/CH passport lanes. Additionally, UK nationals will face additional checks as
border agents will be expected to ask questions about money, travel plans and
insurance. This will mean it will take longer than now for UK nationals to cross EU
borders
7.2. The European Commission has proposed that UK nationals will be allowed visa-free
travel for 90 days in a 180-day period in a no deal scenario. The Commission’s
proposal has been approved by the Council and European Parliament33 but is
contingent on the UK government reciprocating for EU citizens. UK nationals
currently enjoy no restrictions to travel within the EU.
7.3. The EU covers healthcare of EU citizens away from their home state via the
European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) which allows citizens to access state-funded
healthcare in the EU. A no-deal means that UK nationals will be no longer eligible to
access state-funded healthcare in EU member states.
7.4. There is also a possibility that UK drivers may need an international driving permit
in some EU member states. The European Commission has stated that UK drivers
will need to check with the authorities of the EU member in which they intend to
travel regarding the rules for third-country drivers34.
7.5. EU rules provide that mobile phone companies cannot charge roaming fees in the
EU. This means that an EU citizen will not be charged more for using their mobile
phone in another member state. However, being outside the EU, UK mobile phone
European Council, “Visa free travel after Brexit: Council and European Parliament reach agreement”, 3rd April 2019.
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/04/03/visa-free-travel-after-brexit-council-presidencyand-european-parliament-reach-provisional-agreement/
34
European Commission, “Travelling between the UK and the EU in the event of no deal”, March 2019.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/factsheet_1_travel_en_final.pdf
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10

 companies will not be bound to EU roaming rules. This means that companies may
reapply expensive surcharges to UK customers using roaming services for calls and
data access on their mobile phone in the EU35.

8.
Will no-deal impact the status of Northern Ireland and the
border with the Republic of Ireland?
8.1. A no-deal is a real risk to peace and security in Northern Ireland.
8.2. No-deal will harden the Irish border with the installation of cameras, for example,
as a part of customs infrastructure. As a result of the re-emergence of a hardborder in Ireland, there is concern that this may prompt activity by organised crime
and attacks on the border or state institutions from dissident paramilitaries and a
return to the period known as ‘the Troubles’ in Northern Ireland.
8.3. The troubles in Northern Ireland caused unprecedented violence around the UK
throughout the 1970s-1990s. In July 1982 two IRA bombs killed 11 and wounded 50
in London’s royal parks. In 1984 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher narrowly
escaped a bomb at the Grand Hotel in Brighton which killed 11 and in 1989 11 were
killed and 22 wounded after a bomb at the Royal Marines Music School in Deal,
Kent.36 There were many more acts of violence than can be listed here.
8.4. The Belfast Agreement, commonly known as the ‘Good Friday Agreement’ of 1998
secured peace in Northern Ireland after decades of violence. Parts of the agreement
were signed in the context of shared EU membership between the UK and Republic
of Ireland37. In the event of a no-deal, certain terms of the Good Friday Agreement
will no longer work because of the commitment of both states to work in an EU
context.
8.5. The Belfast Agreement was intended to allow people in Northern Ireland to live
easy cross-border lives. Many people live on one side of the Irish border and work
on the other. SMEs have cross-border customers. Friends and family networks
cross-borders. These cross-border relationships have been built on the UK and
European Commission, “Travelling between the UK and the EU in the event of no deal”, March 2019.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/factsheet_1_travel_en_final.pdf
36
“Timeline – Worst IRA bomb attacks on mainland Britain”, Reuters, 16th May 2011. https://uk.reuters.com/article/ukbritain-security-bombings/timeline-worst-ira-bomb-attacks-on-mainland-britainidUKTRE74F31Q20110516#targetText=February%201974%20%2D%20Coach%20carrying%20soldiers,and%20wound
s%20more%20than%20200.
37
Northern Ireland Office. “The Belfast Agreement”, 10th April 1998. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/thebelfast-agreement
35

11

 Ireland both being in the EU single market and customs union and therefore not
requiring a hard border. Leaving the single market and customs union obviously
undermines that.
8.6. As a part of the UK that voted Remain in the 2016 referendum, there is little
appetite in Northern Ireland for no-deal and this is strengthening calls to break up
the United Kingdom and reunite Ireland. Only 15% of people in Northern Ireland
support no-deal. This is combined with an increasing number of calls for a united
Ireland. In a poll conducted for the BBC and YouGov by LucidTalk (LT), 42.1% said
they would like a united Ireland38.
8.7. A no-deal also risks energy and healthcare provisions in Northern Ireland. In terms
of energy, Northern Ireland relies heavily on energy contracts with the Republic of
Ireland. Having an open border is vital for healthcare in Northern Ireland. In the
border towns, ambulances from both jurisdictions respond to emergency calls and
any delays at the border could potentially costs lives.

LucidTalk. “May 2018- Northern Ireland Tracker Poll LucidTalk Tracker Poll (Northern Ireland – NI) Results
Report”, 6th June 2018. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/080618_bbcfullreport.pdf
38

12

 Summary
This research report on the challenges of a no-deal Brexit has aimed to consolidate key
findings into one accessible document.
Leading experts agree that a no-deal will damage the UK in many ways. It is likely, that no-deal
will cause an economic recession in the UK with higher inflation and higher public borrowing.
The immigration status of UK nationals in the EU will immediately change in the event of nodeal. Many would lose the right to live, work or study in the EU and would face either being
forced to return to the UK or apply for third-country national status with fewer rights than
previously enjoyed.
Food supply is also likely to be delayed leading to increased prices and empty supermarket
shelves. The tariffs on British agricultural exports will undoubtedly put some farmers out of
business. This will be shared by the UK fishing industry, who will see their catches being
damaged by delays at the border as well as costly WTO tariffs.
UK nationals who travel to the EU face restrictions. Not only will a UK national be only
permitted to visit the EU for a 90-day period, UK passport holders will face longer queues at EU
border points. When in the EU, UK nationals will no longer be entitled to access statehealthcare, may face red-tape with driving licences and may not benefit from EU call and data
roaming rules.
There is a real risk that no-deal will cause political turmoil in Northern Ireland. With the reintroduction of a harder border, this could easily motivate dissident paramilitaries to return to
arms. Only 15% of people in Northern Ireland support no-deal as it will impact trade, relations
and free movement with the Republic of Ireland.
The NHS will face impacts such as delayed vital medical supplies and restrictions on free
movement that will see vital staff members’ immigration status changing. The NHS relies
heavily on the EU institutions such as the EMA to ensure access to the latest developments in
vital medicines that ultimately save lives.

13

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14

 https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-trade-continuity-agreement-with-caribbeancountries
Department for International Trade. “UK, Norway and Iceland sign trade continuity agreement”,
2nd April 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-norway-and-iceland-signtradecontinuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs trade continuity
agreement with Colombia, Ecuador and Peru”, 15th May 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-trade-continuity-agreement-with-colombiaecuador-and-peru
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Elizabeth Truss MP. “UK and Korea to sign
trade continuity deal to ensure businesses are ready to trade post-Brexit”, 21st August 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-korea-to-sign-trade-continuity-deal-to-ensurebusinesses-are-ready-to-trade-post-brexit
Duffy, Nick “Priti Patel planning to ‘end freedom of movement rights’ on 31 October”, iNews,
18th August 2019. https://inews.co.uk/news/brexit/priti-patel-planning-to-end-freedom-ofmovement-rights-on-31-october/
European Commission. “EU-Australia Trade Agreement”, 18th June 2018.
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-australia-trade-agreement/
European Commission . “EU-New Zealand Trade Agreement”, 21st June 2018.
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-new-zealand-trade-agreement/
European Commission. “EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement”, 1st February 2019.
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-japan-economic-partnership-agreement/
European Commission. “EU-Singapore: Free Trade Agreement Investment Protection
Agreement”, 25th February 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-singaporeagreement/
European Commission. “EU-Canada: Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA)”,
12th April 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/ceta/
European Commission. “EU-Vietnam: Trade Agreement Investment Protection Agreement”, 9th
July 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-vietnam-agreement/
European Commission. “EU-Mercosur Trade Agreement”, 16th July 2019.
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-mercosur-association-agreement/
European Commission. “EU-Mexico Trade Agreement”, 16th July 2019.
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/eu-mexico-trade-agreement/
European Commission, “The rights of UK nationals living in the EU in the event of no deal”,
March 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/factsheet_2_uk_citizens_en_final_0.pdf

15

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2019. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/factsheet_1_travel_en_final.pdf
European Council, “Visa free travel after Brexit: Council and European Parliament reach
agreement”, 3rd April 2019. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/pressreleases/2019/04/03/visa-free-travel-after-brexit-council-presidency-and-european-parliamentreach-provisional-agreement/
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Giles, Chris & Romei, Valentina. “Is the UK on the brink of recession?” Financial Times, 10th July
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Guarascio, Francesco. “No-deal Brexit could deepen Europe’s shortage of medicines”, Reuters,
August 12 2019. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-medicines/no-deal-brexit-coulddeepen-europes-shortage-of-medicines-experts-idUKKCN1V20FQ
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2019. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/british-citizens-europe-afterbrexit

17

 Appendix 1:
Types of EU trade agreement.
There are three main types of agreement39:
1. Customs Union
- Eliminate customs duties in bilateral trade
- Establish a joint customs tariff for foreign importers.
2. Association Agreements, Stabilisation Agreements, (Deep and Comprehensive) Free
Trade Agreements and Economic Partnership Agreements
- Remove or reduce customs tariffs in bilateral trade.
3. Partnership and Cooperation Agreements
- Provide a general framework for bilateral economic relations
- Leave customs tariffs as they are.

“Negotiations and agreements”, European Commission, last modified July 25 2019,
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/negotiations-and-agreements/#_being-negotiated
39

18

 Appendix 2:
Countries or territories that the EU has trade agreements in place40:
Country (Region)
Albania (Western Balkans)
Algeria
Andorra
Armenia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
(Western Balkans)
Botswana (SADC)
Chile
Egypt
Eswatini (SADC)
Faroe Islands
Georgia
Iceland
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kosovo
Lebanon
Liechtenstein
Lesotho (SADC)
Mexico
Moldova
Montenegro (Western
Balkans)
Morocco
Mozambique (SADC)
Namibia (SADC)

Agreement
Stabilisation and Association
Agreement
Association Agreement
Customs Union
Partnership and Cooperation
Agreement
Stabilisation and Association
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Association Agreement and
Additional Protocol
Association Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Agreement
Association Agreement
Economic Area Agreement
Association Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Association Agreement
Stabilisation and Association
Agreement
Association Agreement
Economic Area Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Global Agreement
Association Agreement
Stabilisation and Association
Agreement
Association Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement

Status
In force since 2009
In force since 01/09/2005
In force since 01/01/1991
In force since 09/09/1999
In force since 01/06/2015
In force since 05/02/2018
In force since 01/03/2005
In force since 01/06/2004
In force since 05/02/2018
In force 01/01/1997
In force 01/07/2016
In force since 1994
In force since 01/06/2000
In force since 01/02/2019
In force since 01/05/2002
In force since 01/04/2016
In force since 01/04/2006
In force since 1995
In force since 05/02/2018
In force since 01/10/2000
In force since 01/07/2016
In force since 01/05/2010
In force since 01/03/2000
In force since 05/02/2018
In force since 05/02/2018

Negotiations and agreements”, European Commission, last modified July 25 2019,
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/negotiations-and-agreements/#_being-negotiated
40

19

 North Macedonia (Western
Balkans)
Norway
Pakistan
Palestinian Authority
San Marino
Serbia (Western Balkans)
South Africa
South Korea
Sri-Lanka
Switzerland
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey

Stabilisation and Association
Agreement
Economic Area Agreement
Co-operation agreement
Interim Association
Agreement
Customs Union
Stabilisation and Association
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Free Trade Agreement
Co-operation and
Partnership Agreement
Agreement
Co-operation Agreement
Association Agreement
Customs Union

In force since 01/04/2004
In force since 1994
In force since 29/04/2004
In force since 01/07/1997
In force since 01/04/2002
In force since 01/09/2013
In force since 05/02/2018
In force since 01/07/2016
In force since 01/04/1995
In force since 01/01/1973
In force since 01/07/1977
In force since 01/03/1998
In force since 31/12/1995

20

 Appendix 3:
Countries or territories that the EU has trade agreements partly in place41:
These countries and regions that have part (but not all) or their agreements in place with the
EU. The agreement is fully applied when all parties have ratified the agreement.
Country (Region)
Antigua and Barbuda
(CARIFORUM)
Armenia
Bahamas (CARIFORUM)
Barbados (CARIFORUM)
Belize
Botswana
Cameroon (Central Africa)
Canada

Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Updated Partnership and
Cooperation Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Interim Economic
Partnership Agreement
Comprehensive Economic
and Trade Agreement (CETA)

Colombia (with Ecuador and
Peru)

Trade Agreement

Côte d’Ivoire (West Africa)

Stepping stone Economic
Partnership Agreement

Comoros (ESA)

Interim Economic
Partnership Agreement

Costa Rica (Central America)

Association Agreement with
a strong trade component

Cuba

Political Dialogue and
Cooperation Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement

Dominica (CARIFORUM)
Dominican Republic
(CARIFORUM)

Status
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
06/2018
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
10/10/2016
Provisionally applied since
2014
Signed 30 October 2016,
provisionally applied since
21/09/2017
Signed 26/07/2012,
provisionally applied since
August 2013
Signed EPA, stepping stone
provisionally applied since
03/09/2016
Signed 08/2009, provisionally
applied since 7 February
2019
Signed 29/06/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Provisionally applied since
1/11/2017
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008

Negotiations and agreements”, European Commission, last modified July 25 2019,
https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/negotiations-and-agreements/#_being-negotiated
41

21

 Ecuador (with Colombia and
Peru)

Trade Agreement

El Salvador (Central America)

Association Agreement with
a strong trade component

Ethiopia

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Interim Partnership
Agreement
Stepping stone Economic
Partnership Agreement

Fiji (with Papua New Guinea)
Ghana (West Africa)

Grenada (CARIFORUM)
Guatemala (Central America)

Guyana (CARIFORUM)
Honduras (Central America)

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Association Agreement with
a strong trade component
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Association Agreement with
a strong trade component

Iraq

Partnership and Cooperation
Agreement

Jamaica (CARIFORUM)

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Enhanced Partnership and
Cooperation Agreement
Interim Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Association Agreement with
a strong trade component

Kazakhstan
Papua New Guinea (with Fiji)
Namibia (SADC)
Nicaragua (Central America)

Panama (Central America)

Association Agreement with
a strong trade component

Madagascar (ESA)

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement

Mauritius (ESA)

Signed 26/07/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Signed 29/06/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Signed 08/2009, not yet
provisionally applied
Ratified by Papua New
Guinea in May 2011
Signed EPA, stepping stone
provisionally applied since
03/09/2016
Provisionally applied since
2008
Signed 29/06/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Provisionally applied since
2008
Signed 29/06/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Signed May 2012,
provisionally applied since
August 2012
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
01/05/2016
Ratified by Papua New
Guinea in May 2011
Provisionally applied since
10/10/2016
Signed 29/06/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Signed 29/06/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Signed 08/2009, provisionally
applied since May 2012
Signed 08/2009, provisionally
applied since May 2012

22

 Peru (with Colombia and
Ecuador)

Trade Agreement

Samoa (Pacific)

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Deep and Comprehensive
Free Trade Agreement &
Association Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement

Seychelles (ESA)
South Africa
St Kitts and Nevis
(CARIFORUM)
St Lucia (CARIFORUM)
St Vincent and the
Grenadines (CARIFORUM)
Suriname (CARIFORUM)
Trinidad and Tobago
(CARIFORUM)
Ukraine

Zambia (ESA)
Zimbabwe (ESA)

Signed 26/07/2012,
provisionally applied since
2013
Provisionally applied since
December 2018
Signed 08/2009, provisionally
applied since May 2012
Provisionally applied since
10/10/2016
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008
Provisionally applied since
2008
Signed 29/05/2014,
provisionally applied since
01/01/2016
Signed 08/2009, not
provisionally applied yet
Signed 08/2009, provisionally
applied since 2012

23

 Appendix 4:
Countries or territories that the EU has agreements pending:
In some circumstances trade negotiations with a trade partner have been concluded but have
not either been signed or ratified yet. This means that although the negotiations have finished,
no part of the agreement is in place yet42.
Country (Region)
Benin (West Africa)
Burkina Faso (West Africa)
Burundi (EAC)
Cabo Verde (West Africa)
Djibouti (ESA)
Eritrea (ESA)
Ethiopia (ESA)
Gambia (West Africa)
Guinea (West Africa)
Guinea-Bisseau (West Africa)
Haiti (CARIFORUM)
Kenya (EAC)

Liberia (West Africa)
Mali (West Africa)
Niger (West Africa)
Nigeria (West Africa)

Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement

Status
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Has not signed or ratified
agreement
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed 08/2009, not yet
provisionally applied
Signed 08/2009, not yet
provisionally applied
Signed 08/2009, not yet
provisionally applied
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Haitian ratification pending
Signed and ratified,
provisional application when
all EAC countries sign and
ratify
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties

Negotiations and agreements”, European Commission, last modified July 25 2019,
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42

24

 Rwanda (EAC)

Economic Partnership
Agreement

Senegal (West Africa)

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Free Trade Agreement

Sierra Leone (West Africa)
Singapore
Tanzania (EAC)
Togo (West Africa)
Mauritania (West Africa)
Uganda (EAC)
Vietnam

Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Economic Partnership
Agreement
Free Trade Agreement

Signed and ratified,
provisional application when
all EAC countries sign and
ratify
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Subject to CJEU opinion 2/15,
awaiting signature
Has not signed or ratified
agreement
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Signed, awaiting signature
from all parties
Has not signed or ratified
agreement
Final text agreed July 2018,
awaiting signature and
conclusion

25

 Appendix 5:
Countries or territories that the EU is negotiating trade agreements43:
Country (Region)
Argentina (Mercosur)
Australia

Agreement
Mercosur Association
Agreement
Australia Agreement

Bahrain (GCC)

Free Trade Agreement

Brazil (Mercosur)

India

Mercosur Association
Agreement
EU-China investment
agreement
Free Trade Agreement

Indonesia

Free Trade Agreement

Kuwait (GCC)

Free Trade Agreement

Malaysia

Free Trade Agreement

Myanmar
New Zealand

Investment protection
agreement
New Zealand Agreement

Oman (GCC)

Free Trade Agreement

Paraguay (Mercosur)
Philippines

Mercosur Association
Agreement
Free Trade Agreement

Qatar (GCC)

Free Trade Agreement

Saudi Arabia (GCC)

Free Trade Agreement

Thailand

Free Trade Agreement

China

Status
Negotiations resumed May
2010
Negotiations launched in
June 2018
Negotiations started 1990,
suspended since 2008
Negotiations resumed May
2010
Negotiations started
21/11/2013
Negotiations started 2007,
last round in 2013
Negotiations started
01/09/2016
Negotiations started in 1990,
suspended since 2008
Negotiations started October
2010, paused since April
2012
Negotiations started 2015
Negotiations launched in
June 2018
Negotiations started 1990,
suspended since 2008
Negotiations resumed May
2010
Negotiations started
01/12/2015
Negotiations started 1990,
suspended since 2008
Negotiations started 1990,
suspended since 2008
Negotiations started
01/03/2013, no negotiations
scheduled since 2014

Negotiations and agreements”, European Commission, last modified July 25 2019,
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43

26

 United Arab Emirates (GCC)

Free Trade Agreement

United States

Transatlantic Trade and
Investment Partnership

Uruguay (Mercosur)

Mercosur Association
Agreement
Mercosur Association
Agreement

Venezuela

Negotiations started 1990,
suspended since 2008
Negotiations started 2013,
paused until further notice
2016
Negotiations resumed May
2010
Negotiations resumed May
2010

27

 Appendix 6:
UK negotiated trade deals44.
Country (Region)
Chile
Eastern and Southern Africa (Madagascar,
Mauritius, Seychelles and Zimbabwe)
Faroe Islands
Switzerland
Palestinian Authority
Israel
Liechtenstein
Pacific Islands (Fiji and Papua New Guinea)
Caribbean countries (CARIFORUM)
Norway
Iceland
Andean countries (Colombia, Ecuador and
Peru)
Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and
Panama)

Signed
30 January 2019
31 January 2019
1 February 2019
11 February 2019
18 February 2019
18 February 2019
28 February 2019
14 March 2019
22 March 2019
2 April 2019
2 April 2019
15 May 2019
18 July 2019

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Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Liam Fox MP. “UK and Chile sign continuity agreement”, 30 th
January 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-chile-sign-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs Eastern and Southern Africa trade continuity
agreement”, 31st January 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-eastern-and-southern-africa-tradecontinuity-agreement
Department for International Trade, George Hollingbery & George Eustice MP. “UK and Faroe Islands sign trade
continuity agreement”, 1st February 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-faroe-islands-sign-tradecontinuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Liam Fox MP. “UK and Switzerland sign trade continuity agreement”,
11th February 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-switzerland-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade. “UK and Palestinian Authority sign trade continuity agreement”, 18th February 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-palestinian-authority-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Liam Fox MP. “UK and Israel sign trade continuity agreement”, 18 th
February 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-israel-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade. “UK-Switzerland-Liechtenstein Trade Agreement”, 28th February 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-switzerland-liechtenstein-trade-agreement
Department for International Trade. “UK and Pacific Islands sign trade continuity agreement”. 14 th March 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-pacific-islands-sign-trade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs trade continuity agreement with Caribbean
countries”, 22nd March 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-trade-continuity-agreement-withcaribbean-countries
Department for International Trade. “UK, Norway and Iceland sign trade continuity agreement”, 2 nd April 2019.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-norway-and-iceland-signtrade-continuity-agreement
Department for International Trade & George Hollingbery. “UK signs trade continuity agreement with Colombia,
Ecuador and Peru”, 15th May 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-signs-trade-continuity-agreement-withcolombia-ecuador-and-peru
Department for International Trade & The Rt Hon Elizabeth Truss MP. “UK and Korea to sign trade continuity deal to
ensure businesses are ready to trade post-Brexit”, 21st August 2019. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-koreato-sign-trade-continuity-deal-to-ensure-businesses-are-ready-to-trade-post-brexit

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South Korea

22 August 2019

 

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