Office of the Inspector-General of
Intelligence and Security

______________________________________________________
Inquiry into possible New Zealand intelligence and security agencies’
engagement with the CIA detention and interrogation programme 2001-2009
______________________________________________________
PUBLIC REPORT

Cheryl Gwyn
Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security
31 July 2019

 2

CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................3
II WHY DO THE ISSUES IN THIS INQUIRY REMAIN IMPORTANT? .........................................................9
III CHRONOLOGY OF RELEVANT EVENTS........................................................................................... 11
IV THE ROLE OF GCSB AND NZSIS STAFF IN RESPECT OF AFGHANISTAN ........................................... 11
V THE ROLE OF THE FORMER DIRECTORS IN RESPECT OF AFGHANISTAN......................................... 26
VI SUMMARY OF NEW ZEALAND AGENCIES’ INFORMATION EXCHANGES WITH THE CIA REGARDING
DETAINEES ................................................................................................................................ 34
VII THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK IN RELATION TO THE PROHIBITION OF TORTURE ................................. 41
VIII

BEST PRACTICE APPROACHES TO INFORMATION SHARING AND COOPERATION: ENSURING
LAWFUL ACTION ....................................................................................................................... 42

IX ADEQUACY OF GUIDANCE MATERIALS UNDER THE GCSB AND NZSIS ACTS: AS AT APRIL 2017 ..... 61
X ADEQUACY OF CURRENT GUIDANCE MATERIALS UNDER ISA: AS AT JULY 2018 ............................. 62
XI MINISTERIAL POLICY STATEMENT ON COOPERATION OF NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND
SECURITY AGENCIES (GCSB AND NZSIS) WITH OVERSEAS PUBLIC AUTHORITIES ......................... 64
XII MINISTERIAL AUTHORISATIONS FOR SHARING INFORMATION ..................................................... 68
XIII JOINT POLICY STATEMENT: HUMAN RIGHTS RISK MANAGEMENT ............................................... 71
XIV CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................. 78
APPENDIX A: INQUIRY TERMS OF REFERENCE ................................................................................... 86
APPENDIX B: CHRONOLOGY.............................................................................................................. 87
APPENDIX C: FORMER DIRECTORS OF THE GCSB and NZSIS 2001-2009 ........................................... 112
APPENDIX D: LEGAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................. 113
APPENDIX E: GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 138

 3

I INTRODUCTION

“The use of torture and other prohibited forms of ill-treatment as a tool for obtaining
confessions is a dangerous paradigm that undermines broader peace-building efforts. Torture
does not work – it is an unreliable and ineffective tool for gathering accurate information.
Notwithstanding the destructive nature of such practices on long-term stability, torture is
illegal, immoral and wrong.”1

Purpose of Inquiry
1.

This is a Report of my Inquiry into whether New Zealand’s intelligence and security agencies and
personnel knew of or were otherwise connected with, or risked connection to, the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) detention and interrogation of detainees between 17 September 2001
and 22 January 2009 (the CIA programme).2 My Inquiry also considered the adequacy of the
agencies’ current policies and guidance materials, to ensure compliance with New Zealand’s
domestic human rights law and its international legal obligations when cooperating with other
nations.

Reporting
2.

I have prepared a detailed classified Inquiry Report. I have consulted at length on that report
with the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS or Service) and the Government
Communications Security Bureau (GCSB or Bureau)(together, the intelligence and security
agencies or agencies) and other affected parties. I am not able to disclose publicly all of the
information that I obtained in this Inquiry.3

3.

This public Report is a summary of that classified Report. It includes a summary of all factual
matters material to my Inquiry and all my findings and recommendations. It is consistent with
the full, classified Report which has been provided to the Minister responsible for the agencies,
the Directors-General of the intelligence agencies, the former Directors of both agencies for the
period covered by my Inquiry and other key Government agencies with responsibilities relevant
to the matters covered in this Report.

4.

In the interest of informing the public I describe in this report, to the extent possible, the role
of the New Zealand intelligence and security agencies in supporting New Zealand military
involvement in Afghanistan and how that gave rise to a risk of involvement in the CIA
programme. I go on to consider whether and how the agencies had regard to that risk, in light

1

2
3

Office of the United Nations (UN) High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) and UN Assistance Mission in
Afghanistan (UNAMA) Treatment of Conflict-Related Detainees in Afghan Custody: Implementation of Afghanistan’s
National Plan on the Elimination of Torture (UNAMA and UNHCHR, Kabul, 2017) at 12.
The Terms of Reference for the Inquiry are at Appendix A.
I am barred by law from disclosing information that, if publicly disclosed, would be likely to prejudice the entrusting of
information to the New Zealand Government on a basis of confidence; prejudice the continued performance of the
functions of an intelligence and security agency; or prejudice the international relations of the New Zealand
Government: Intelligence and Security Act 2017 (ISA), s 188.

 4
of their legal obligations under New Zealand law and New Zealand’s international human rights
obligations.
5.

The principal emphasis of my conclusions and recommendations is on how the risks implicit in
international intelligence-sharing and cooperation arrangements – particularly in the context of
providing intelligence support to military operations – can best be anticipated and, where
possible, mitigated. The Report’s section on Best Practice is addressed to this.

Background to the Inquiry
6.

On 9 December 2014, the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence published its
redacted Executive Summary of its Report into the CIA’s detention and interrogation of
detainees in the period between 17 September 2001 and 22 January 2009). 4

7.

The Senate Report provided new detail about the CIA’s treatment of suspected terrorists and
their detention. It described a system of secret CIA detention centres established in regions
across the world and the use of extraordinary rendition.5 The Report provided considerable and
disturbing evidence about the torture and other cruel, inhuman, degrading treatment or
punishment (CIDTP) of CIA detainees. It described the CIA’s brutal interrogation techniques 6
(called Enhanced Interrogation Techniques or EIT), its under-reporting of the number of people
subjected to harsh interrogation techniques, its misinformation about the effectiveness or
“success” of its programme and the transfer of detainees (by means of extraordinary rendition)
upon capture to secret prisons run by the CIA in various cooperating countries around the world.

Relevance to New Zealand intelligence and security agencies
8.

The Senate Report raised questions for my office as to whether New Zealand’s intelligence and
security agencies knew of, or were otherwise connected to, the activities detailed in the Senate
Report, or to information obtained as a result of those activities. It also raised the broader
question of what steps are taken by New Zealand when cooperating with other governments to
safeguard against complicity in torture or implication in other wrongful acts.

9.

Once I was aware that intelligence support was provided by the Bureau and the Service to the
coalition military forces in Afghanistan and, more broadly, to the counter-terrorism efforts of
New Zealand’s foreign intelligence partners, I was satisfied that there was a sufficient public
interest justifying the commencement of an own-motion Inquiry7 in order to answer the
questions set out at paragraph 8 above. I adopted the same timeframe for my Inquiry as the US

4

5
6
7

United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention
and Interrogation Program (December 2014) (Senate Report); Executive Summary available at
<https://fas.org/irp/congress/2014_rpt/ssci-rdi>. For completeness I note also the publication in December 2014 of a
report containing the Minority Views of several members of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the
release in December 2014 of the June 2013 “CIA Comments on the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Report on
the Rendition, Detention and Interrogation Program”.
See definition of “extraordinary rendition” in the glossary in Appendix E.
Senate Report, above n 4, at p 2.
This Inquiry was commenced under the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security Act 1996 (IGIS Act),
s 11(1)(a) and (ca). The corresponding provision in the ISA is s 158.

 5
Senate Inquiry; that is 17 September 2001 to 22 January 2009. The specific terms of reference
for my Inquiry are at Appendix A.
10.

The question of whether New Zealand’s intelligence agencies were connected to the CIA
programme and whether there were, and are, adequate safeguards against complicity in acts of
torture or CIDTP (including early alerts as to the possibility of legal or reputational risk) goes to
the heart of whether New Zealanders can have confidence that the GCSB and the NZSIS act
lawfully and properly.

Afghanistan and New Zealand involvement
11.

The 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States (9/11) had an unprecedented impact on
the global security environment, including in New Zealand. In the aftermath of 9/11, the GCSB
and the NZSIS cooperated with other New Zealand government agencies and foreign
governments in the common goal8 of disrupting and reducing the risk of terrorist attacks from
Al Qa’ida. There was intense pressure on military forces and intelligence and security agencies
across the world as they scrambled to understand and respond to the high risk of more terrorist
attacks being perpetrated against civilian populations.

12.

New Zealand’s military involvement in Afghanistan began in December 2001 as part of
Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF); a coalition of international forces led by the United States
in response to 9/11. This international effort was based on the principle of collective selfdefence. OEF’s combat mission was focused on counterterrorism.

13.

In parallel to OEF, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was mandated by United
Nations Security Council Resolution 1386 as an international coalition to help the Afghan
government maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas. The North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) took the lead of ISAF on 11 August 2003.9

14.

Both OEF and ISAF continued until 28 December 2014 when the three year transition period
process for transferring responsibility for security to the Afghan security forces was completed.

15.

From 23 September 2003, the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) took command of the
Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) located in the town of Bamian, in Bamyan Province.

16.

The New Zealand intelligence and security agencies provided assistance to military operations
in Afghanistan undertaken by the NZDF and the coalition forces and, more broadly, participated
in information-sharing with overseas intelligence agencies (including the CIA) to facilitate the
gathering of information about known or suspected terrorists. As part of the New Zealand
Government’s response, the GCSB provided intelligence support to the NZDF and coalition

8

9

Pursuant to Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts SC Res 1368 (2001) and Threats to
international peace and security caused by terrorist acts SC Res 1373 (2001).
Previously, ISAF command rotated between different nations every six months. These countries included the UK,
Turkey, Germany and The Netherlands (in joint command).

 6
forces in Afghanistan.10 Also during this period, the NZSIS agreed to the secondment of an NZSIS
staff member to a partner agency on the basis that the staff member would then be deployed
to Afghanistan as part of that partner agency’s deployment.
Findings
17.

It is important to state at the outset that I am satisfied that the agencies, the then Directors,
and individual agency staff members had no direct involvement in the CIA’s unlawful activities;
nor were they complicit in any unlawful conduct.

18.

My specific findings include:
18.1. The NZSIS and the GCSB had no involvement with the CIA rendition11 of detainees.
18.2. The GCSB had no direct involvement with CIA detention of individuals. I found no
evidence that the GCSB’s intelligence activities in-theatre and from Wellington assisted
or contributed to military chain-of-command decisions that led to the capture and then
detention of individuals by the CIA, but the nature of signals intelligence (SIGINT) activity
means GCSB involvement of that kind cannot be completely ruled out. In any event such
involvement would have been a step distant from any kind of direct involvement. I found
no evidence that the NZSIS was directly involved in the CIA programme in respect of
detention.
18.3. I found no evidence that GCSB or NZSIS personnel directly participated in or were present
at CIA interrogations. However, there is evidence that NZSIS and GCSB received
information from CIA detainee interrogations. In 2003, the Service provided questions for
the CIA to put to a detainee, and received intelligence reports in response. The agency
was not aware at the time that the detainee interrogations involved torture, although it
was known that the detainee was being held by the CIA in an undisclosed location. One
request from a GCSB staff member to attend an FBI detainee interrogation was declined
by the then Director.
18.4. Both the NZSIS and the GCSB maintained intelligence sharing and cooperation
arrangements with their partner agencies, respectively the CIA and the National Security
Agency (NSA),12 during this period.
18.5. GCSB did not adequately support its staff deployed in or otherwise engaged in intelligence
activity in respect of Afghanistan, nor provide them with any policies or procedures
relating to GCSB’s human rights obligations, and the role of civilians, in a military

10

11

12

The deployment of GCSB personnel to Afghanistan in support of New Zealand military deployments (and the GCSB’s
later intelligence support to Operation Watea) was classified information until announced by the Director-General of
the GCSB in his opening statement to the Intelligence and Security Committee on 20 February 2019.
The Senate Report looks at the totality of the CIA programme which involved, at various points, rendition, detention
and interrogation. This Inquiry too looks at each of those activities and possible New Zealand agency knowledge of or
involvement in them.
And with the knowledge that the NSA provided SIGINT, including that which originated with the GCSB, to the CIA.

 7
environment working to support military operational objectives; NZSIS policies on human
rights obligations relating to foreign intelligence cooperation were also insufficient.
18.6. GCSB and NZSIS did not provide adequate “eyes on” supervision of staff deployed to
Afghanistan or seconded to a role in, or relating to, operations in Afghanistan.
18.7. The then Directors of GCSB and NZSIS and the agency staff had a low level of awareness
of the public allegations about the CIA programme, even after the middle of 2004 when,
on my assessment, there was sufficient information in the public domain to put them
clearly on notice and lead them to make their own inquiries and assessments.
18.8. The then Directors of GCSB and NZSIS did not at the time adequately identify the potential
legal and reputational risks for their organisations and the Government from engaging
with the CIA, as an intelligence partner, when the CIA was responsible for alleged (and
subsequently established) serious mistreatment of detainees. Thus the Prime Minister
and Ministers were not informed and enabled to make decisions about how to deal with
the risks in the context of New Zealand’s overall relationship with its foreign partners.
18.9. The NZSIS provided some intelligence to the CIA during the relevant period, although the
full extent of this was unclear (including to the Service itself). The Bureau did not have a
direct relationship with the CIA, however it has not been possible to identify whether any
intelligence reported by GCSB staff was used by the CIA on any occasion. In terms of New
Zealand holdings, both agencies received and retain intelligence reports arising from the
interrogation of individuals under the CIA programme, with the Service in particular
receiving a significant number. This material remains in the agencies’ systems.
18.10. Neither agency raised any concerns about the CIA programme with that agency or the
United States Administration more generally, either formally or informally.
19.

The current Directors-General of the GCSB and NZSIS have clearly acknowledged their
leadership role in ensuring their agencies comply with New Zealand law and human rights
obligations recognised by New Zealand law, and they have provided the statement immediately
following for the purposes of this report. I have made detailed recommendations to the agencies
based on the findings made above. My recommendations are set out at the end of this report.

 8

STATEMENT OF REBECCA KITTERIDGE, DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF SECURITY NZSIS, AND
ANDREW HAMPTON, DIRECTOR-GENERAL GCSB: 28 FEBRUARY 2019
As the current Directors-General of the Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB) and the
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS), we wish to emphasise the commitment of the
agencies to complying with New Zealand law and human rights obligations recognised by New Zealand
law. This is fundamental to the agencies. Ensuring compliance is a critical responsibility of the
Directors-General in their capacity as agency heads as well as public service leaders. In addition, we
recognise that the agencies’ adherence to these obligations (and demonstration of this) is critical to
the authorising environment in which the agencies operate.
The leadership of the Directors-General plays a central role in setting organisational culture and
expectations. This drives the behaviour of staff and supports them to meet these obligations while
contributing to the protection of New Zealand’s national security and well-being. The importance that
we place on human rights is highlighted by not only the policies and processes of the agencies, but also
by our organisational values and the State Services Standards of Integrity and Conduct. Examples of
the organisational values that directly relate to human rights are Integrity and Courage for the GCSB,
and Self-aware and Courageous for the NZSIS. These require staff to act in a manner consistent with
obligations, even if doing so requires having a difficult conversation with an international partner.
Co-operation with a range of international partners is essential for the agencies to contribute to the
protection of New Zealand’s national security and well-being. The framework for this is set by the
Intelligence and Security Act and the corresponding Ministerial Policy Statements (MPSs) which the
agencies welcomed in 2017. The framework, set by Parliament and the responsible Minister, allows
information sharing with foreign partners under particular conditions that observe human rights.
The level of co-operation with international partners reflects the closeness of the relationship, with
human rights assessments setting the parameters for information sharing. The agencies share
information with partners based on need and the ability to obtain the required level of assurance
regarding the use of that information. On occasion, the agencies only share intelligence with foreign
agencies where specific caveats have been applied to ensure that human rights obligations are met.
The Directors-General have overall accountability for agencies’ relationships and level of co-operation
with international partners. The Directors-General are responsible for conveying to these international
partners the New Zealand Government’s position on, and obligations of the agencies with respect to,
human rights. It is incumbent on the Directors-General to ensure that those representing the agencies
accurately represent this position and relevant obligations.
These factors serve to highlight the seriousness with which the Directors-General take human rights
obligations of the agencies. Meeting these obligations has been and will continue to be a key focus of
ours.

 9
II WHY DO THE ISSUES IN THIS INQUIRY REMAIN IMPORTANT?

Torture is unlawful
20.

Torture is prohibited in New Zealand law, in the law of other countries and at international law.
At international law, the prohibition is absolute and non-derogable. The New Zealand
Government’s commitment to the prohibition has been expressed as “a long-standing and
strong opposition to the use of torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
(including the death penalty) in all cases and under all circumstances, including in response to
threats to national security”.13

21.

The prohibition of torture has direct and practical implications for the conduct of national
intelligence and security activities especially in relation to intelligence cooperation with
overseas agencies.

22.

Since 9/11, States that had a connection with the CIA programme of detention and
extraordinary rendition have been subject to intense scrutiny about the degree to which they
may have been implicated in the CIA’s abuse of detainees and their renditions. Across
international and domestic jurisdictions, there have been police inquiries into the actions of
intelligence agency personnel; inquiries by intelligence oversight bodies including the UK
Intelligence and Security Committee (UK ISC), a committee of the UK Parliament;14 and domestic
and international court cases. Steps have been taken to hold not only States, but also
individuals, legally accountable for complicity in torture and CIDTP.

23.

The experience of other jurisdictions, including New Zealand’s closest intelligence partners,
demonstrates how real the risks are of being challenged, and held accountable for torture (and
CIDTP) or complicity in such activities unless there are clear national standards and operational
guidance in place.

24.

Intelligence cooperation, including the sharing of intelligence, is of very significant value to New
Zealand’s national security.15 But, as experience shows, it comes with risks (which go beyond
legal risks to include matters such as reputational risk to the Government) that must be
identified and acknowledged, rigorously assessed, and, where possible, managed.

13

14

15

MPS Cooperation of New Zealand intelligence and security agencies (GCSB and NZSIS) with overseas public authorities
(September 2017)(MPS Overseas Cooperation) at [22].
The UK ISC has produced two recent reports: Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: 2001-2010 (HC 1113, 28 June 2018)
and Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: Current Issues (HC 1114, 28 June 2018).
Sir Michael Cullen and Dame Patsy Reddy, Intelligence and Security in a Free Society (G.24a, February 2016) (Cullen &
Reddy) at [4.27].

 10
25.

The political and legal circumstances leading to the development and implementation of the CIA
programme provide a salutary “case study” in warning signs16 that indicate a risk that
compliance with international law may have become compromised. It demonstrates that
observance of these standards by our closest overseas intelligence partners cannot be taken for
granted. While litigation arising from the CIA programme has occurred in other countries, to
date no US elected representative or government official17 has been held accountable for the
human rights violations committed by the CIA programme. Lack of legal accountability for
human rights breaches is a recognised risk factor18 in assessing the human rights record of a
country.

26.

Clearly stated principles and policy reflecting the gravity of the prohibition against torture will
help to ensure that in times of international pressure to cooperate against significant threats to
security, there is clarity particularly for those involved in operational decisions about the lines
New Zealand will not cross.

16

17

18

In the United States context, some of the warning signs I identified from an analysis of the development of the so called
“Torture Memos” and relevant commentary were: the publicly-expressed views of those holding executive power
about the legality and/or effectiveness of torture; indications of intra-government secrecy and selective consultation
rather than appropriate consultation with officials accepted as having the requisite subject-matter expertise; the risk
of the executive assuming expansive powers; and the lack of congruency between governmental assurances and
publicly available counter-factual evidence. Subsequently, the lack of accountability of those against whom credible
and, in some cases, confirmed allegations of torture have been made, indicates an ongoing need for caution. See Justice
Department’s Office of Professional Responsibility Investigation into the Office of Legal Counsel’s Memoranda
Concerning Issues Relating to the Central Intelligence Agency’s use of “Enhanced Interrogation Techniques” on
Suspected Terrorists, 29 July 2009; Interview of Lawrence Wilkerson, Chief of Staff to Colin Powell Secretary of State
(Steve Inskeep, National Public Radio on Morning Edition, 3 November 2005) transcript provided by National Public
Radio; Jane Meyer “The Memo. How an internal effort to ban the abuse and torture of detainees was thwarted”, The
New Yorker, 27 February 2006 at page 13; US Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel Memorandum for Alberto
R. Gonzales, 1 August 2002 at Parts III and IV; The Special Rapporteur, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High
Commissioner, Geneva, (press release, 11 December 2014).
For example, in the current US context, see Matthew Rosenberg, The New York Times, online ed, New York, 2 February
2017. I note for completeness that a government (CIA) contractor was convicted of felony assault, after severely beating
a detainee on a US base in Afghanistan in 2003. The detainee died the next day. See The New York Times “C.I.A.
Contractor Guilty of Beating Afghan” (18 August 2006). The activities of the CIA were also subjected to a 2004 review
by the CIA’s own Inspector-General (whose report was later released in a heavily redacted form).
See the section on Best Practice later in this report.

 11
III CHRONOLOGY OF RELEVANT EVENTS

27.

In reaching the findings in this Inquiry, I had to make a judgement as to whether it was
reasonable to conclude that reports in the public domain about the CIA’s use of rendition and
torture on detainees were sufficient in number, had sufficient credibility, and carried enough
weight, to put the agencies’ Directors on notice to independently inquire and assure themselves
about what the CIA was doing and what impact it might have on their agencies. In my view they
should have done so; I acknowledge that in their view making their own inquiries would have
jeopardised receipt of intelligence relevant to New Zealand’s security.19 I determined it was
reasonable to identify such a time, and I took a conservative approach to that assessment. In
my view this tipping point was reached by mid-2004, at the latest. A chronology of relevant
events is at Appendix B. It includes information about a range of matters relating to the period
(2001-2009) and subject matter covered by this Inquiry, including: significant events (some of
which were not publicly known at the time); and reports and publications that were in the public
domain. While the Chronology sets out key events and the most relevant publications, it is not
an exhaustive record.

IV THE ROLE OF GCSB AND NZSIS STAFF IN RESPECT OF AFGHANISTAN

28.

This section will examine, in turn, the GCSB’s and the NZSIS’S support to military operations in
Afghanistan during the time period subject to this Inquiry. In contrast to the support provided
by the GCSB, the NZSIS had only one officer deployed to Afghanistan during this period.

29.

The information in this section is drawn from interviews of GCSB staff and the NZSIS staff
member who were involved in providing this support. Staff also provided us with additional
documents and we carried out extensive searches of the GCSB’s and the NZSIS’s information
systems. I provide, with as much detail as is consistent with national security constraints, a
summary of the work carried out by staff of the agencies and the supporting structures and
processes that were in place. However, I am not able to describe where interviewed staff were
deployed and their particular roles in providing intelligence support to the coalition forces.

30.

In order to assess whether the agencies or their personnel knew of or were otherwise connected
with, or risked connection to, the activities discussed in the US Senate Report, we sought a range
of information to ensure that we accurately understood the various roles undertaken by staff
and where they were positioned in the organisational contexts in which they worked. Often, in
the case of GCSB staff, they did not know who would ultimately be using the intelligence they
collected, or for what purpose and because of this it was not possible to consider the particular
issues of this Inquiry in isolation from a fuller understanding of the context involved.

31.

The organisational focus of the Inquiry was on the adequacy of the support provided by the
agencies to their staff in relation to legal risk, particularly the risk of contribution to, or

19

Further discussed in part V of this report.

 12
association with, any human rights breaches. I thought it important to obtain the staff
perspective on this. I have commented in this report on matters arising from those interviews
that were illustrative of the legal complexities of providing support to military operations. These
issues indicated the extent to which staff understood the relevant legal frameworks as they
carried out their various roles in a coalition environment and therefore the extent to which they
would have been in a position to identify a risk of being caught up in or connected to actions
involving grave human rights breaches.
32.

The systemic deficiencies identified in the supporting organisational frameworks do not
undermine the quality of the professional contribution provided by GCSB and NZSIS staff.
However, neither agency20 had adequate policy or procedures in place or provided sufficiently
specific New Zealand training on human rights obligations to ensure that their staff understood
the relevant legal framework and its possible “in theatre” application to their work while
deployed or seconded. Related to this, I was concerned that there was limited scope (aside from
the deployees’ written reports) for the GCSB and NZSIS to provide effective oversight of their
deployed and seconded staff activities especially for those who did not have a military
background.

GCSB CIVILIAN SUPPORT TO MILITARY OPERATIONS IN AFGHANISTAN
Introduction
33.

Part of the lawful exercise of GCSB’s statutory functions was and remains to support New
Zealand Defence Force operations, and this included New Zealand’s military involvement in
Afghanistan. At the relevant time GCSB staff were deployed to support the Afghanistan mission,
and the support GCSB provided to that mission included providing both intelligence and
information assurance services. Such support properly falls within GCSB’s mandate. During the
period subject to this Inquiry, GCSB personnel were sent to various locations in Afghanistan, and
seconded to SIGINT partner agencies in support of the coalition forces’ efforts in Afghanistan.
Intelligence support for the NZDF and coalition forces was also provided from Wellington. At all
times GCSB staff retained their status as civilians.

34.

Details about the work carried out by GCSB deployees helped us to identify, for example, the
particular risks linked to operations where the objective was to kill or capture enemy
combatants. It was possible that intelligence supplied by a GCSB staff member might have
resulted in, or contributed to, the capture of targets and their detention by the CIA. Another risk
that emerged and was not foreseen at the start of the Inquiry was that if staff were supporting
operations run by a foreign military force that had different Rules of Engagement (ROE) 21 from

20

21

The one NZSIS staff member deployed in Afghanistan was there as a secondee to a partner agency which did have
appropriate policies, procedures and training. However, as the secondee remained an employee of the NZSIS during
this period (see paragraph 101 below), guidance on relevant NZSIS’s policies and procedures should have also been
provided.
New Zealand Defence Doctrine Publication Rules of Engagement NZDDP-06.1 (second edition) defines ROE as “… orders
issued by the highest level of military command that specify the circumstances and manner under which force will be
used in the execution of the mission.” Letter of GCSB and NZSIS to IGIS, 5 October 2018, para 24, explains, citing NZDDP06.1, page 3, that “ROE direct members of the Armed Forces as to when they may or may not use force against persons

 13
the NZDF, it was possible that they were supporting operations that the NZDF would not
consider lawful under International Humanitarian Law (IHL). However, there was no way to
verify any direct connection with possible human rights breaches committed by a coalition
partner. What we describe in this Report are situations which had the potential to risk
connection to human rights breaches.
Legal basis and organisational arrangements for GCSB deployments to Afghanistan
Government authorisation
35.

The GCSB has been unable, to date, to provide the Inquiry with a complete set of Government
authorisations covering the deployment of GCSB staff to Afghanistan. This is a surprising and
significant gap in the record of official authorisation.

Arrangements with NZDF
36.

The GSCB and NZDF entered into a memorandum of understanding (MOU)22 which
acknowledged the GCSB’s mission and the willingness of the NZDF to provide appropriate
assistance to GCSB deployed staff, “without such assistance causing detriment to wider NZDF
operations”. The NZDF support included logistic and welfare support and in-theatre force
protection. GCSB staff were deployed as civilians and remained “under the command and
control” of the GCSB. GCSB staff were not to be armed. The GCSB was also responsible for all
legal aspects of the GCSB deployments.

37.

A Wellington–based position was formalised23 in May/June 2007 to support these
arrangements. A Senior Military Advisor role was established as a joint GCSB/NZDF position
(held by one person) with the goal of ensuring good coordination between the GCSB and the
military. In relation to deployed GCSB staff, the Senior Military Advisor’s function was to assist
civilian personnel to go through the necessary NZDF processes to ensure their preparation for
deployment and their safety once deployed. The appointment of the Senior Military Advisor
also enhanced the suitability of the arrangements in place for deployees as improvements were
made based on the feedback received from returning deployees. Later deployees interviewed
were grateful for the structured pre-deployment process that was set out for them.

GCSB authorisation
38.

22

23

Each staff member was provided with a GCSB deployment directive setting out a brief
description of their role in Afghanistan, pre-deployment training instructions and a welfare
support plan. This document was stated as providing “GCSB authority and Director’s guidance
in order to successfully deploy [name] in the role of [title].” It listed in detail the range of actions
or property, and detail the authorised level of any such force.” NZDF’s ROE are endorsed by the Minister of Defence,
approved by the Prime Minister, and issued as orders by the Chief of Defence Force (NZDDP-06, preface). It should be
noted that governments may authorise different national positions for the use of force or engagement that are entirely
consistent with IHL.
Memorandum of Understanding between the NZDF and the GCSB Concerning Assistance to the GCSB Mission in
Afghanistan signed by “BR Ferguson, Chief of Defence Force” and “WH Tucker, Director, GCSB” (30 January 2006).
Prior to this appointment, GCSB senior staff carried out these functions.

 14
that had to be completed prior to deployment and referred to the intent to provide
“comprehensive and appropriate training” and appropriate support.
39.

In relation to their association with military forces, the deployment directives instructed staff
not to wear the military uniform of New Zealand or any other country whilst deployed and noted
they were to undertake a basic New Zealand Police weapons familiarisation course.24 The
directives placed responsibility on the GCSB legal advisor to ensure that all deploying employees
were aware of the “New Zealand legal limitations placed upon them regarding carriage and use
of weapons as a civilian”.

40.

Staff carrying out SIGINT functions in Afghanistan were expected to comply with and oversee,
where applicable, the implementation of New Zealand Signals Intelligence Directives (NZSID).
These Directives provided mandatory guidance for all SIGINT activities.25

41.

GCSB deployees, especially those in more senior roles, were given considerable scope to shape
their roles, according to their particular skills, experience and preferences and the changing
needs of the NZDF and New Zealand’s coalition partners in Afghanistan and the missions of OEF
and ISAF. The then GCSB Director advised in April 2015 that “those deployed had a significant
degree of freedom/discretion as to the scope of their role and what exactly they did in-theatre.”
The weekly staff reports provided a degree of transparency about how staff were shaping their
roles.

Civilian GCSB staff working in Afghanistan within the coalition forces
42.

Deployed Bureau staff worked in a war zone. Some worked closely with NZDF and others were
more spread out among coalition partners. They all worked as civilians in military environments
where they received daily tasking in order to support military objectives. These staff had the
technical expertise to carry out the tasks involved but they had to learn how to use their
expertise in relation to a military tactical environment.

43.

Because of the time period covered by the GCSB deployments, some staff worked to OEF
command and its ROE and some to ISAF command and its ROE.

Selection of deployed personnel
44.

The earliest GCSB staff deployed were chosen partly because of their previous military
experience. Into the second year, a process was established where selection was based on
broader merit grounds (including technical competence, health and personality factors) and
there was a formal interview of candidates. Applicants were provided with a basic position
description. Prior military experience was not determinative but was a positive factor.

45.

One interviewee thought that the role required someone who was able to interact with military
personnel and stand up for themselves, was physically fit, had mental fortitude (particularly to

24
25

The opportunity to attend weapons familiarisation training, given by the NZ Police, was not provided until 2007.
GCSB is known in the intelligence world as a SIGINT agency. That is, it collects and disseminates “signals” intelligence.
In contrast, the NZSIS is known as a HUMINT agency. Its focus is on the collection and dissemination of intelligence
from human sources.

 15
see and read reports about attacks) and the patience to persevere. Another said that the GCSB
was looking for people who were prepared and able to look after themselves. These
characteristics make sense and we found no evidence that GCSB deployees lacked them; we
found to the contrary. In addition, they had relevant technical skills and experience and were
able, at times, to introduce useful innovations which were appreciated by the coalition forces.
Comment
46.

I consider that the GCSB exercised good judgement in its selection of individuals during the
period relevant to this Inquiry. The expertise and temperaments of the deployees stood the
GCSB in good stead. We saw no reports of missteps by the deployees who, to a large extent,
had to find their own feet in roles which were not defined in any detailed way and, for some, in
an unfamiliar military environment. Deployed staff showed initiative in developing good
relationships with their international colleagues and using their expertise to make valuable
contributions to the work at hand. The Inquiry reviewed documents supporting this assessment.

47.

Having said this, a number of those interviewed also expressed the view that the GCSB relied
heavily on their common sense while providing little written instruction, particularly in relation
to the ambit of their jobs and the legal and policy basis for their roles.

Work environment for GCSB staff deployed to Afghanistan
48.

Some deployed GCSB staff, with no military background, were placed in roles where they were
embedded with an overseas coalition partner without any other New Zealanders working
alongside them who were experienced in working in a combined joint forces environment. Their
workplaces had video feeds, showing close to real time, “kill or capture” military operations
against High Value Targets (HVT). While one early staff report back to GCSB Wellington warned
that this could be a highly stressful experience especially if it involved civilian deaths, the general
consensus among deployed interviewees was that the NZDF training they had undergone had
provided some insight into what to expect in a combat zone. None of the staff interviewed who
worked in an environment where there were video feeds of live military operations stated that
this was of concern to them.

49.

A number of interviewees recalled debriefings, either with a psychologist or a more general
debriefing, but we were not able to confirm that there was a systematic practice of psychological
debriefing for all those who were deployed to Afghanistan.

50.

Some GCSB deployees provided support to both non-kinetic targeting and kinetic targeting
operations. Non-kinetic targeting related to the targeting of individuals and groups to
understand their capabilities, intentions and activities that posed a threat to NZDF operations
or were relevant to broader New Zealand force protection or foreign policy interests.

51.

“Kinetic targeting” was described as the physical strike on a target such as a missile attack.
“Dynamic targeting” involves tracking an HVT in “relative” real time. Dynamic tracking may serve
a range of intelligence purposes, including supporting both the non-kinetic and kinetic targeting

 16
processes. Staff reports from Afghanistan to Wellington described work carried out in
monitoring targets.
52.

Labelling an individual26 as an HVT was a means of prioritising targets who were placed by
military command on the Joint Prioritisation Effects List (JPEL). There was a strict legal threshold
for placing targets on the JPEL as they had to meet the legal definition of being a “direct
participant in hostilities” (DPH). This involved detailed target vetting and validation processes
to ultimately ensure compliance with the Commander’s objectives, the Law of Armed Conflict27
(LOAC), ROE, and relevancy of the proposed target within the target system. 28

53.

Usually the regional commands and special forces would identify HVTs from their own
intelligence and forward a request (and profile/target pack) up the military command structure
for permission to have an individual included as an HVT on the JPEL. The decision to place an
HVT on the JPEL was a separate decision from specific decisions involved in particular capture
and kill kinetic actions.

54.

GCSB staff interviewed were clear that, as civilians, they were not part of the military decisionmaking process to allocate resources to carry out kinetic targeting although they provided
information that informed these decisions. It was pointed out to us that the role of SIGINT was
to provide good quality information which the military command could take into account, along
with all other relevant information, in making a decision to authorise the use of force. Those
interviewed observed the military following a rigorous process before the capture or killing of a
target was approved, including positive voice identifications, visual identifications, and
collateral damage assessments, often on the advice of military lawyers. The actual
implementation of a kinetic targeting decision was carried out by special forces and that process
itself was subject to a number of authorising steps and restrictions.

Concerns expressed by deployees
55.

Although GCSB deployees demonstrated a commendable degree of resilience living and working
within a military environment, at interview they consistently expressed a criticism about the
lack of preparation for working as civilians within a military environment. A number interviewed
described the GCSB as “naïve” in its lack of explanation of how they, as civilians, were to
contribute to military objectives.

56.

One interviewee commented that the NZDF training did try to explain what people should
expect in a combat zone. However, in hindsight it would have been helpful to have more robust
support around what he could and could not do, and what it meant to be a New Zealand
government official in a JPEL meeting. He noted that a deployed civilian from another country
with whom he worked had very clear guidance on what was expected, even down to where he
could and could not travel. This person also asked to be removed from some pieces of work

26
27

28

Usually key insurgent leaders.
The Law of Armed Conflict is known today as International Humanitarian Law (IHL). Because staff referred to it as LOAC
we have used this term for the purposes of this part of the Report.
Unclassified briefing to the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Targeting Cycle and Collateral Damage Estimation
Methodology (CDM), General Counsel (10 Nov 2009).

 17
because of their national constraints. One GCSB deployee expressed his belief that certain US
practices regarding kinetic targeting did not provide a model to follow.
57.

Another suggested that a clear legal and policy basis for their participation in support of military
operations would have been beneficial.

58.

One interviewee said that they would have appreciated more advice about kinetic targeting
given the deployee’s role in undertaking dynamic targeting in support of the military kinetic
targeting. Another said that, with hindsight, it would have been a good idea to have some
comfort around how the “products” they were involved with were being used. It was less of a
problem if the targeting work did not relate to kill or capture missions.

59.

One interviewee thought that the GCSB was “profoundly naïve” about the implications of
deploying someone into a role in support of the military targeting process that would involve
them contributing to kill or capture missions. He was aware of contributing to a system which
supported a number of government agencies, military and non-military groups. He believed that
some of these agencies were not operating under conventional rules of engagement. There was
no training on how to operate in a combined joint environment or on how to navigate the moral
ambiguities inherent in counter-insurgency operations.

Comment
60.

Of those deployed to Afghanistan from the GCSB, many had no military background and they
were placed in roles where they operated without any direct New Zealand support from
experienced officers, in a complex combined joint forces environment. Some expressed
awareness that there were different rules of engagement between OEF and ISAF and what that
might mean when carrying out an attack against a HVT in terms of the acceptable level of
collateral damage. But they were not provided with an explanation about how they stood in
relation to the different ROE. Essentially they were reliant on the direction of their Officers in
Charge (OICs), who were not New Zealanders. One interviewee expressed the view that if any
process involving a deployee had “gone off the rails”, the GCSB would have been “dragged along
with it”. As far as we were able to ascertain, this did not happen but some interviewees voiced
concern that they were unknowingly exposed to this risk particularly with regard to kill or
capture missions.

Other GCSB roles in support of military operations in Afghanistan
61.

In addition to those who were deployed to Afghanistan, there were some GCSB staff who
provided support to coalition forces from a distance.

Secondees and liaison officers
62.

Secondee placements were seen as providing mutual benefit to the overseas intelligence
partner agency and the GCSB. The secondees brought their skills, knowledge and experience to
the work of the partner agency and, in return, acquired knowledge that they could bring back
for use at the GCSB. More broadly, secondments were seen as a way in which to maintain and

 18
expand relationships with overseas counterparts, increase GCSB’s credibility as a SIGINT
organisation, and identify opportunities to improve the GCSB’s collection capabilities.
63.

A very small number of GCSB staff seconded to partner SIGINT agencies worked, during their
secondments, in support of the coalition forces in Afghanistan. Their day to day work involved
tasking for the partner agency and within the partner agency’s legal and human rights
compliance frameworks. Their work included providing intelligence in support of kinetic
targeting.

64.

Secondees could also contact more senior GCSB staff posted as liaison officers with partner
agencies. Part of the role of GCSB liaison officers was to meet regularly with secondees and
provide support. The liaison officers interviewed did not recall a secondee raising an issue about
the nature of the work they were involved in or recall any personal concern about the nature of
a secondee’s contribution.

65.

One GCSB secondee was deployed to Afghanistan by the partner agency during their
secondment for the purpose of supporting the establishment of intelligence-gathering
capabilities and processes. They were not involved with producing intelligence in support of
military targeting. Pre-deployment training was provided by that agency, which the secondee
considered to be very thorough. This deployment was approved by the GCSB which retained
general oversight of the secondee. The secondee was expected to keep in contact with the
appropriate GCSB managers including the relevant liaison officer.

GCSB Wellington
66.

In mid-2006 a team was established at the GCSB Wellington to also provide support to the New
Zealand Government’s objectives in Afghanistan. It focused on providing intelligence support to
the NZDF and PRT in Bamyan Province. It identified potential security threats for the PRT. It
mapped out the proposed work against the then New Zealand Government Foreign Intelligence
Requirements and relevant ISAF priorities.

67.

During the period covered by this Inquiry, the focus for intelligence reporting seemed to be
mainly on factors affecting regional and local security, including the risks posed by local
insurgents.

Legal risk: preparation and safeguards
68.

In assessing the adequacy of support provided to GCSB deployees, we were interested in the
nature of the training they received, particularly in relation to any legal risks. These could arise
by Bureau personnel being drawn, by their work in supporting the military activities of coalition
forces under OEF and ISAF, into areas of operation that carried a risk of being in breach of New
Zealand’s legal obligations. The importance of such training was underscored by the fact that,
apart from those who worked within a NZDF environment, deployees were embedded within
the US and later ISAF military forces, subject to their management and reporting structures and,
in many instances, contributing to the intelligence picture that informed kinetic targeting
decisions. What did staff know about LOAC and the New Zealand ROE? Did they know of any

 19
New Zealand Government restrictions29 on military activities and did they have sufficient
knowledge to recognise situations that potentially could have raised legal issues? Did staff need
to know about these matters? Were they clear about the institutional position on staff carriage
of weapons?
69.

Interviewees described, to the best of their recollection, the preparation they received before
deploying to Afghanistan. In addition to the interviews of nine staff deployed to Afghanistan we
found a number of end-of-tour reports written by deployed staff who were not interviewed.
These reports also provided information about pre-deployment preparation.

70.

I set out below what we found in respect of four areas where we expected to find evidence of
GCSB support to deployees: GCSB legal briefings, training on relevant LOAC and ROE, human
rights policies and procedures and supervision.

GCSB legal briefings to deployees
71.

Those working in support of the armed forces in Afghanistan should have received a clear
explanation of the legal and policy basis for their deployments/secondments. A number of
interviewees noted this omission.

72.

It is not clear, from the GCSB records or interviews, what direction or advice was given by GCSB
about issues and decisions that a civilian might face deployed within the complex coalition
forces environment. Most deployees recollected having a meeting, before deployment, with
either the Director GCSB or a member of the Senior Management team, about the GCSB’s
expectations in terms of behaviour and, in two cases at least, they were asked if they were
“okay” with producing SIGINT products resulting in death. A number of interviewees could not
recollect receiving any GCSB legal briefing before deployment but, given the passage of time,
this does not establish they did not receive it. However, we found no record of briefings having
occurred.

73.

We considered the implementation of the directive that prohibited the carriage and use of
weapons.30 I expected that the instructions around this would be clear. We found they were
clear to the extent that most interviewees believed that they were strictly forbidden to carry
weapons at any time. What they were unsure about was the subsequent instruction that
deployees were required (from 2007) to undertake weapons familiarisation training provided
by the New Zealand Police. The purpose of the training was to ensure that deployees would
know how to use weapons in self-defence or at least be able to make a weapon safe so that
they did not inadvertently injure themselves or anyone else. The uptake of training among those
interviewed was very limited perhaps due to some confusion about the legal framework for
civilians and the carriage and use of weapons.

29

30

These can be called “national caveats” and are usually contained within the Rules of Engagement as either limitations
on (also known as “yellow-card restrictions) or prohibitions of (also known as “red-card” constraints) actions of armed
forces.
See para 39 above.

 20
GCSB legal briefings for secondees and liaison officers
74.

GCSB staff seconded to partner agencies and liaison officers did not receive training on potential
legal risk or “no go” areas for New Zealanders in relation to military operations. While most of
the secondees were not involved in work relating to the military forces in Afghanistan, a few
were. These secondees were in a not dissimilar position to those who were deployed to
Afghanistan as they too were working to further the objectives of coalition forces.

Comment
75.

Those deployed to work with coalition forces in Afghanistan and elsewhere should have
received New Zealand-specific legal briefings on the legal framework relevant to military
operations even if they also received useful and thorough training from seconding agencies.
That training did not obviate the responsibility on the GCSB to provide a New Zealand
perspective on the LOAC and other human rights obligations.

76.

I note that some partner agencies may choose to arm their non-military personnel. I would
expect to see evidence from any New Zealand intelligence agency that the implications of
seconding their staff to carry out work in support of the partner agencies’ military forces (albeit
in coalition with New Zealand) were considered and evaluated prior to any future secondment.
This would likely involve New Zealand-specific legal briefings.

LOAC and Rules of Engagement
77.

Most of those interviewed said that they had received no training on the possible implications
of the law of armed conflict or New Zealand’s ROE on the work they were to carry out, either
directly from the GCSB or during their NZDF Minor (or Other) Missions Training Course.

78.

All deployees were required to attend the NZDF course and the majority of those interviewed
were positive about the information and training they received. The GCSB held little information
about the content of this course but the NZDF was able to provide the Inquiry with relevant
material. For the Bureau deployees the training included a country/PRT Bamian briefing, fitness
testing, survival skills, mine awareness training, medical training and environmental health.
Students were tested on the training components they received. Of the nine interviewed, only
three said that they attended the session on LOAC/ROE training. This component was provided
as background on a voluntary basis.

79.

One of those who had attended the LOAC level 1 training did not think it was sufficient for the
work he undertook in Afghanistan. The basic training explained the difference between a civilian
and combatant, and operational rules such as not shooting prisoners. In hindsight, after
completing level 3 LOAC training in another context, he thought that this level training should
have been provided to GCSB staff even though they were not involved in making targeting
decisions. It provided more information about how targeting decisions were made and what to
look out for in terms of national caveats. He made the point that the Afghanistan counterinsurgent situation was complex and difficult in an environment where intelligence may be
supporting kinetic targeting.

 21
80.

Another complexity in the Afghanistan environment related to the different ROEs for OEF and
ISAF countries. The rules around the scope of a country’s campaign, its objectives and
operational implementation differed between coalition forces.

81.

Some staff, although they were not briefed by the Bureau about the differing ROE, were aware
in a general sense that there were differences between the OEF and ISAF ROE. One staff member
(who was working under ISAF) tried to ensure that he worked only to ISAF’s requirements even
though he was in a joint OEF and ISAF environment. This staff member was reliant on the OIC
(not an NZDF officer) proactively identifying work which would take the staff member into areas
of engagement not authorised by the New Zealand Government.

82.

Some staff said that once they were in Afghanistan they became aware of some of the
differences including differences in targeting rules.31 Some staff said they knew that OEF had
different targeting rules from ISAF and this was a source of discussion with other members of
coalition forces. One interviewee said that many of the European personnel were aware of the
potential liability for human rights abuses or war crimes and so care was taken with the process
of providing potential “action on” intelligence to OEF.

Concerns expressed by deployees
83.

One interviewee was not sure how the LOAC applied to a civilian in the context of providing
support for kinetic targeting processes. It was not clear to this person when a targeted military
action would become an extra-judicial killing if a civilian is providing critical support for military
decisions. This interviewee did not believe that the issues arising from deploying a civilian into
a military force had received adequate legal attention and analysis from the GCSB.32

84.

Another interviewee thought that specific training or discussion on the rules of engagement,
would have helped deployees understand the difference between OEF and ISAF, what the New
Zealand mission was and what they wanted to achieve. A couple of interviewees said that they
had not received a briefing on the differences between OEF and ISAF and what, if any, impact
this would have on targeting rules. The distinction between the two was clearer once they were
deployed.

Comment
85.

31

32

While staff did not make decisions about the use of lethal force or the necessity of capture, they
conveyed information that, at times, was an important component of the ultimate decision in
In this context, these rules are a reference to the factors relevant to the proportionality analysis of and threshold for
taking kinetic action against a target.
NZDF explained, in feedback to IGIS on the draft Report, that the question of who qualifies as a “Direct Participant in
Hostilities” (DPH) is not a straightforward question. Direct participant in hostilities is not a consistently defined term
and it may be interpreted more narrowly or more broadly by different military commanders in different situations. The
NZDF guidelines (2017 LOAC Guideline Manual) indicate that individuals who do not make LOAC decisions are not
regarded as a DPH. However other views are more expansive and are not dependent on an individual’s decision-making
capacity and focus more on how far up the targeting chain an individual contributes. For example, providing location
intelligence for the purpose of tracking a target, voice identifications for strike purposes or providing intelligence to
justify nomination as a JPEL target might qualify an individual as a DPH.

 22
relation to those activities. In these circumstances, it is necessary and appropriate for civilians
to understand the military processes accompanying their work and its legal framework, together
with their responsibilities within it. Without this knowledge they are at a disadvantage in terms
of understanding and evaluating the processes they were part of. It is difficult to question
something that you do not adequately understand. The omission of adequate and consistent
New Zealand LOAC training and/or legal briefings constituted a significant gap in the preparation
of those deployed to Afghanistan, and those seconded to partner agencies in support of their
military efforts in Afghanistan.
86.

In light of deployees’ statements that they did not know the difference between the ROE of OEF
and ISAF, that they had no clear legal and policy understanding of their roles and no guidance
about how to evaluate their contributions to kinetic targeting operations, I have to conclude
that they were vulnerable to being involved in complex foreign state activities which raised legal
risks.

Lack of human rights policies or procedures
87.

GCSB staff were thoroughly trained in the relevant NZSIDs governing collection and
dissemination. But they were not provided with any policies or procedures relating to the GCSB’s
human rights obligations and the role of civilians within a military environment working to
support military operational objectives (in contrast to providing strategic intelligence). Indeed
we found no evidence that the GCSB had any human rights related policies or procedures in
place at the time.

Comment
88.

Given that most GCSB deployees were coping (in a combat zone) with many day to day stresses
and frustrations and might not have been able to access GCSB Wellington quickly or easily, it
was a significant oversight not to provide easily accessible reference material. Written material
would have provided an important back-up especially for those working for the first time in a
combat zone and without direct New Zealand support.

Contact with Wellington, but lack of “eyes on” supervision
89.

There was a general acknowledgement among interviewed deployees that they could contact
GCSB in Wellington if they needed advice or if there were issues affecting their welfare. Most of
the contact with GCSB Wellington concerned practical matters or related to the provision of
pastoral support.

90.

Those deployed in Afghanistan had a practice of sending weekly reports to GCSB Wellington.
These reports contained a range of observations about general strategic matters and technical
issues. Some staff were also able to contact GCSB Wellington by email and telephone. Some
staff indicated that their reports were also intended to provide transparency about their work
so that Wellington was fully aware of what they were doing.

91.

Some interviewees expressed an impression of being at a distance from GCSB Wellington and
in one case being “out of sight, out of mind”. It was apparent, however, from the interviews that

 23
the strength of connection back to GCSB Wellington improved over time as returning deployees
gave their feedback. There developed a pattern of regular, often weekly, telephone contact. I
also noted examples where if an issue was raised, it was dealt with as speedily as possible. Visits
were made by senior management from time to time. Sir Bruce Ferguson made several visits in
his capacity as Bureau Director,33 with the primary aim of talking with Bureau staff and ensuring
their wellbeing.
92.

When asked what would they do if they had a question about the appropriateness of their
contribution, most thought they would have contacted a GCSB manager or the Senior Military
Advisor. There was some evidence that some staff on occasion raised personal concerns about
kinetic targeting.

Comment
93.

It is apparent that the GCSB placed considerable reliance on its choice of deployees – reasoning
that those selected would exercise good judgement and make an effective contribution if they
had the right values, temperament and professional expertise. At one level this worked. But
best practice requires more oversight and supervision.

94.

For those seconded to partner agencies, they had the option of consulting a Liaison Officer
about any questions they had. However, in practice the main role for Liaison Officers in relation
to secondees was to provide pastoral and administrative support. They did not have day to day
insight into the work of secondees and even for performance reviews they had to rely on the
assessments of secondees’ team managers.

Contact with CIA by GCSB staff
95.

The majority of staff interviewed had little awareness, at the time, that the CIA had a detention
programme which had given rise to overseas partner agencies having serious concern about
those detained by the CIA. It was expected in a combat zone that there would be prisons for
those captured but the GCSB staff had no interaction with people who worked in these prisons:
in their view, this aspect of the war was not a SIGINT issue.

96.

All those interviewed said they had no operational contact with members of the CIA. Some staff
were aware that they were not invited to certain meetings involving the US Defense Intelligence
Agency, FBI and CIA. They did not know if there was or was not a CIA presence in their
workspace.

97.

GCSB staff were not aware of any tasking coming directly from the CIA. They also did not know
if any of the work they contributed to was used by the CIA as they often had no knowledge of
who it was disseminated to or used by.

98.

The secondees and liaison officers interviewed advised that they had no working relationship
with the CIA or access to their databases. They were aware that the CIA held things closely. The
liaison officers interviewed said that their only knowledge of the CIA programme came from

33

He had also previously made four trips to Afghanistan in his role as Chief of Defence Force.

 24
public reports. One said that he had no sense that the work of the secondees was contributing
to the CIA efforts in Afghanistan or its programme.
NZSIS SUPPORT TO COALITION FORCES IN AFGHANISTAN
99.

During the period covered by my Inquiry, the NZSIS had one officer in Afghanistan. The officer
was seconded to a partner agency (not the CIA) in 2008 with the intention of being deployed by
the partner agency to Afghanistan.

Authorisations
100. Approval for this arrangement was given by the Minister in Charge of the NZSIS.34
101. There were appropriate documents in place between the two agencies to support a
secondment. The officer remained an employee of the NZSIS but during the period of
secondment, the officer was bound by all instructions from and policies and legal requirements
relevant to the partner agency. The officer was also to maintain the confidentiality of
information acquired through the partner agency. Any deployment to an operational theatre
was to be agreed in writing in advance between the agencies and comply with the requirements
of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969.
102. While NZSIS could not locate the actual partner agency deployment agreement, we were able
to view part of the template form, which included guidance on human rights obligations.
Selection and duties
103. The seconded officer applied through a contestable process within the NZSIS for the
secondment. Once in Afghanistan, the officer was required by the partner agency to carry a
firearm.
104. The officer believed that the purpose of the secondment, from a New Zealand perspective, was
to learn new skills that could be brought back to New Zealand.
Communications with Wellington
105. While in Afghanistan, the NZSIS officer did not have direct communications with Wellington.
The need to do so only arose over administrative matters. The officer had no contact with NZDF
and only informal contact with GCSB staff members. There was one visit from the NZSIS Director
of Security which was purely pastoral in nature. The officer could have raised issues with the
NZSIS head office if there were any, but saw no need to do so.
Pre-deployment preparation
106. The officer was provided with four months of pre-deployment training with the partner agency
and was expected to pass all the courses involved. The courses included training on basic IT
network technology, how to write reports, 4WD handling, first aid, briefings with legal teams
34

NZSIS letters of 10 December 2007 and 10 April 2008 to the Minister in Charge of the NZSIS.

 25
and psychologists, training on LOAC, the legal context and basis for military engagement in
Afghanistan, the legal basis for carrying a firearm and two weeks training on how to use it. The
officer also underwent two psychological assessments. The officer viewed this training as
providing thorough preparation.
107. The officer received training in how to conduct an interview with detainees and on the human
rights and legal framework within which these interviews were to take place.
Comment
108. While I recognise the comprehensive pre-deployment training provided by the seconding
agency, as with GCSB deployees, this officer did not receive a briefing on a New Zealand
perspective on the LOAC and other human rights obligations. There was also no evidence that
the NZSIS had any human rights related policies or procedures in place at the time.
Contact with the CIA
109. Aside from one meeting about a non-Afghan matter, the officer had no contact with the CIA.
The officer could not recall hearing about the CIA’s mistreatment of detainees or having
discussed it at the time. The officer did not interview a CIA detainee.
CONCLUSION
110. Staff who support military action require a sound understanding of the particular factual and
legal contexts in which they work. They must be able to evaluate received intelligence for human
rights impacts, identify risks and questions, elevate concerns, and work in the knowledge and
with the comfort that they are operating within the law. My observation is that the agencies’
former and current staff who were deployed to roles in-theatre performed those roles to the
standards required, notwithstanding the gaps in their training, pre-deployment legal
preparation and a robust support framework. However, that is insufficient. Systematised
support and training is necessary. The agencies cannot rely predominantly on individual staff
experience and judgement. The statutory regime has since changed, the agencies have
improved the relevant support and training for staff, and both current Directors-General
acknowledge their responsibility to ensure compliance with New Zealand law.35
Recommendations
111. I have made recommendations later in this report concerning the support to all staff engaged
with the provision of support to military operations.

35

See Director-Generals’ statement at paragraph 19, above.

 V THE ROLE OF THE FORMER DIRECTORS IN RESPECT OF AFGHANISTAN

112. I interviewed the former Directors of the GCSB and the NZSIS for the relevant period, 2001 to
2009.36 They cooperated fully with my Inquiry and have had the opportunity to comment on the
draft classified Report and on a draft of this public report.
113. The former Directors carried out their roles with professionalism and integrity. All of them
expressed their abhorrence of the use of torture in strong terms. They made significant
individual contributions at the time they were agency Directors, in terms of developing New
Zealand’s working partnerships with Five Eyes counterparts. There are distinctions too that can
properly be drawn between the positions of each of the former Directors and between the each
agency. Such distinctions can be found in the detail in the classified Report concerning the role
and activities of each agency at different points in the timeframe covered by this Inquiry. For
instance, there is a distinction in the number and nature of their staff deployments. The Service
only had one person deployed. Similarly, as the CIA’s programme wound down, the risks it posed
for partner countries was objectively reduced. To a degree this factor distinguishes the position
of the former Directors in the latter period covered by my Inquiry (from 2006). Mr Woods, in
response to a draft of this report, notes that he was the Director of Security at the critical period
(which he identifies as mid-2004 to the end of 2006) and notes that the NZSIS, not the GCSB, is
the main counterpart of the CIA. For those reasons, in his view, if there was a failure to make
the kind of assessment this report finds was necessary (which Mr Woods does not believe was
the case), that failure was his alone, not that of the Directors of GCSB or his successor as Director
of Security. Dr Tucker, for his part, disagrees that any such “failure” should be regarded as Mr
Woods’ alone.
114.

Without seeking to detract from the Directors’ specific contributions or minimising their
individual responses to this Inquiry, I identify common themes that emerged from their
interviews about how the two agencies responded to the situation during this period.

115. The events of 9/11 had an unprecedented impact on the international security environment. I
acknowledge the difficulties and pressures for all New Zealand government agency heads,
particularly the former intelligence and security agency Directors, of operating in that context.
Inevitably it shaped their approach to their roles.
116. For those reasons among others, the responses of the former Directors during the period in
question cannot be assessed only with the benefit of hindsight. They did not break the law; nor
were they unconcerned about New Zealand’s human rights obligations. But they were not fully
alive to the range and extent of risks for their organisations and for the Government more
generally. Those risks were not limited to moral or ethical risks, but risks that their agencies
might become involved in unlawful activity. The fact that the legal risk did not crystallise does
not negate the responsibility to be alive to it, and to ensure organisational processes are in place

36

A list of relevant Directors for both agencies is at Appendix C.

 27
to maintain a safe distance. Objectively assessed, the New Zealand agencies’ connections to the
CIA’s activities at the time required more of the former Directors as heads of State agencies,
albeit operating in extraordinary times.
117. The former Directors gave evidence to the Inquiry about when and how each of them became
aware of the CIA’s unlawful treatment of detainees, initially in the form of emerging allegations
and reports about detainee treatment. Each of them cited the US government’s public denial of
the allegations as a reason for not taking steps to investigate the validity of the allegations and
assess their relevance for the New Zealand agencies.
118. As I noted above, by mid-2004 reports in the public domain were in sufficient volume and had
sufficient credibility to ground an assessment that it was highly likely the CIA was committing
serious human rights breaches in relation to some detainees. There were many credible public
reports by this time which may not have been common knowledge among the New Zealand
public but which could and should have been known to those working in the New Zealand
intelligence and security agencies.37 The accounts of the inquiries triggered by the allegations in
other jurisdictions (eg the UK ISC in June 2003) and the volume and credibility of the reporting
from respected NGOs38 and from established and reputable newspapers,39 meant that the then
Directors ought to have made their own inquiries. I accept that it would not have been for them
alone to undertake the necessary rigorous and independent assessment of those reports, but
the initial responsibility to ask the relevant questions, notwithstanding the denials and
assurances of the US agencies and their government, sat with them. Had they done so, the New
Zealand Directors could have formed a preliminary view of the legal and ethical risks of the
alleged CIA conduct for the agencies they led and for New Zealand as a whole. This may well
have prompted them to report their conclusions to wider Government, including putting
appropriate Ministers on notice, so that informed decisions could be made about aspects of
New Zealand’s ongoing strategic engagement with US activities relating to Afghanistan. Those
things did not happen.
119. In response, both Mr Woods and Dr Tucker have emphasised that they were well aware of the
limits of their agencies’ activities and the calibre of their personnel; it was those things that
served to ensure that their agencies were ultimately not complicit in torture. As they put it
“[t]his was hardly a matter of luck.” As I have noted elsewhere in this report, to the extent I was
able to determine, both agencies were well-served by the experience and judgement of their
staff. Nor do I dispute that the former Directors were aware of the limits on their agencies’
activities. However I do not think those two factors entirely meet the specific obligation to be
fully aware of the activities of their closest partner agencies with whom their staff might be
engaging. I have found that in some circumstances staff were doing that without adequate
knowledge or preparation. I also note again the view of all of the former Directors that, if they
had made their own inquiries of their partner agencies, they would have jeopardised receipt of
intelligence relevant to New Zealand’s security.

37
38
39

See Appendix B - Chronology.
Including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the International Committee of the Red Cross.
For example, The Washington Post, The New York Times and The Guardian.

 28
120. Sir Bruce Ferguson was appointed Director of the GCSB in November 2006. He emphasised to
me the fact that the Senate Report of December 2014 noted that, by March 2006, the CIA
programme was operating in only one country and that the last recorded instance of a CIA
detainee being subjected to “enhanced interrogation techniques” occurred on 8 November
2007. In Sir Bruce’s submission to the Inquiry, those dates significantly affect his position and
the reasonableness of the steps he took to mitigate the risk of complicity arising from
intelligence sharing arrangements with the United States. I accept that, as a matter of fact, as
unlawful activity by the CIA diminished and then ceased there was necessarily a significant
reduction in the risk of the New Zealand agencies becoming involved in that unlawful conduct.
I do not think however that the end of the CIA programme negated the obligation as Director to
continue to be scanning for and assessing potential risks to the GCSB. My fundamental concern,
put simply, is that there was never any internal formal consideration given by the New Zealand
agencies to whether there was a live risk, and if so what that might require of them, or whether
any prior risk had thoroughly dissipated.
121. In hindsight, there were a number of inter-related reasons why the then Directors did not take
the steps the Inquiry now identifies as having been necessary.
Focus on re-establishing New Zealand’s role in the Five Eyes
122. All of the former Directors were very focused on strengthening the New Zealand agencies’
relationship with their United States counterparts. They saw this as vital to ensuring access to
US intelligence relevant to New Zealand’s security interests. Both agencies were anxious to be
seen as valuable, contributing members of the Five Eyes. I have no doubt that the Directors’
focus on restoring and building the intelligence relationship reflected the priorities of the New
Zealand Government at the time.
A technical conception of “NZ’s security interests”
123. All the former Directors expressed a technical and narrow view of what was relevant to New
Zealand’s security interests. CIA activities were seen as relevant only if they directly affected
New Zealand’s security interests – for example, if the CIA and the NZSIS were carrying out a joint
operation or if the CIA provided intelligence to the NZSIS that was directly relevant to NZSIS’s
operational functions. In my view, this did not adequately reflect the full nature of the
relationship and the shared objectives.
124. The former Directors emphasised what they believed was their entirely proper focus on their
specific statutory operational functions: stated as obtaining and disseminating intelligence and
collecting SIGINT. They noted that intelligence collection and receipt was not an end in itself,
but for the purpose of disseminating relevant intelligence to their New Zealand “customers”. All
of the former Directors also noted the risk of compromising intelligence flows of vital
importance to New Zealanders (and thus being unable to fulfill their primary statutory functions)
if they had challenged their US counterparts or ceased receipt of intelligence.
125. There can be no argument that the collection and dissemination of intelligence relevant to
security was the agencies’ raison d’etre, as was the statutory requirement to “evaluate” or

 29
“analyse” intelligence. But a focus on collection and dissemination functions should not have
precluded them from thinking about whether and how the burgeoning intelligence cooperation
met other New Zealand legal and ethical imperatives, and what that might mean for them as
the heads of the two government agencies most directly involved.
Reliance on personal relationships with counterparts
126. The Five Eyes relationships were personal as well as institutional. The former Directors relied to
a significant extent on the personal integrity of their counterparts in the CIA and NSA and the
relationships they developed with them, to assure themselves that the US agencies were acting
lawfully and appropriately.
127. During this period, as the Chronology shows, it became apparent that such personal
relationships provide insufficient guarantee of partner agency transparency and integrity.40
Reluctance to ask questions of counterparts
128. It was apparent that there was an unspoken general rule that one did not ask direct questions
about the operations of Five Eyes counterparts, whether one-on-one, in bilateral meetings, or
in group discussions, and despite opportunities to do so. 41 The former Directors did not agree
that they had an obligation, whether statutory or otherwise, to ask questions of their
counterparts when credible allegations about acts of torture by partner agencies came to light.
I discuss the obligations and standards relevant to the intelligence agency chief executives later
in this Report.
129. It is no doubt relevant that New Zealand was and is the smallest partner in the Five Eyes
intelligence alliance and, as the review of Intelligence and Security in a Free Society made clear,
New Zealand is a net beneficiary of intelligence under that alliance.42 It was implicit in
discussions with the former Directors, and explicit in their feedback on the draft Report, that
they felt constrained not to do anything which would have risked or reduced New Zealand’s role
as part of the alliance or to the flow of intelligence. As noted above, they saw other risks,
particularly the risk of compromising vital intelligence flows at a vital time, if they asked
questions of their partner agencies, particularly in light of the official denial by the United States
that the CIA’s programme included torture or other unlawful mistreatment of detainees.43

40
41

42

43

See the Chronology in Appendix B.
For example, multiple overseas visits to partner agencies and regular periodic conferences of Five Eyes agency heads
(including in Queenstown in 2002).
Cullen and Reddy, above n 15, at [3.43]: “For every intelligence report the NZSIS provides it receives 150 international
reports. Similarly, for every report the GCSB makes available to its partners, it receives access to 99 in return”.
The issue is not unique to New Zealand: See the UK ISC Report Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition 2001-2010, above
n 14, at 4, which talks of a “difficult balancing act” for the UK agencies in this regard. “… the agencies were the junior
partner with limited access or influence, and distinctly uncomfortable at the prospect of complaining to their host [in
Afghanistan]”. See also the ECHR judgments describing the roles played by Lithuania and Romania in CIA black sites and
rendition in their own countries “to avoid disturbing their relationship with the United States, a crucial partner and
ally”. Abu Zubaydah v Lithuania (Application no 46454/11) ECHR 31 May 2018, at [272], citing PACE Committee on Legal
Affairs and Human Rights, Report of investigation into CIA secret detention sites, Senator Dick Marty, 7 June 2006 at
[230].

 30
130. As one of the former Directors said, it was not realistic to think that New Zealand could have
said “please explain” to the United States, the most powerful country in the world. Realistically
the response would have been that New Zealand would again have been cut out of the recently
resumed intelligence flow, at a time when it most needed it. The former Director noted that
asking questions about the allegations in these circumstances “would have put at risk the
statutory objective of receiving intelligence relevant to New Zealand’s security”.
131. Mr Woods also noted the importance of the longstanding ‘need-to-know’ principle: the sources
and methods used to acquire sensitive intelligence are strenuously protected. Dr Tucker
confirmed that view. Here, in the absence of a joint operation between a New Zealand
intelligence and security agency and the CIA, there was not a New Zealand ‘need to know’. Dr
Tucker’s view was that asking questions about the allegations in these circumstances would
have put at risk the statutory objective of receiving intelligence relevant to New Zealand’s
security.
132. At least one of the former Directors explicitly saw it as a situation where he was required to
carry out a risk assessment exercise: “what are the real risks [of continuing to cooperate and
share information with the CIA]? What are the costs and benefits of mitigating those risks?”
Theoretically that must be correct, but I take a different view from the former Directors as to
how factually proximate the New Zealand agencies were to the CIA’s activities and its
intelligence products. I have found, as detailed elsewhere in this report, that the New Zealand
agencies were sufficiently proximate to oblige the Directors to make a considered assessment
of what risks (legal, moral, reputational) those CIA activities involving torture posed for their
own agencies and the New Zealand Government. I agree that at that point it was for Ministers
to assess what the risk meant in practical terms for New Zealand’s relationship with the United
States but, as noted, the Directors did not themselves raise the issue with Ministers. And in fact,
none of the former Directors appear to have consciously undertaken such a risk assessment at
all.
Reliance on broad official assurances
133. The former Directors relied on official assurances provided by US partner agencies at
conferences and made more broadly by the US Administration in public statements. They did so
even after it became evident that previous such assurances and statements about the CIA
programme had been incorrect or even intentionally misleading.
No monitoring of policies and actions of partner agencies
134. Neither agency had any systematic process to regularly monitor, assess and evaluate their
partners’ policies and actions, in particular to check whether partner practices accorded with

 31
New Zealand’s legal obligations, and if not, what that would require of the New Zealand
agencies.44
Role of other government agencies
135. The former Directors emphasised the related and concurrent responsibilities of other New
Zealand government agencies regarding, for example, international relations and the
application of IHL and articulation of the law as it applied to New Zealand government agencies.
Those other agencies had access to the same (emerging) public allegations about the CIA’s
unlawful treatment of detainees.
136. All the former Directors placed reliance on the fact that the Prime Minister and other New
Zealand government agencies such as MFAT were not asking questions or raising concerns
about the CIA activities during the relevant period,45 with the suggestion that it was not
therefore for the Directors of the intelligence agencies to do so.
137. Sir Bruce Ferguson referred to Crown Law advice to NZDF, dated 2 November 2010 (after the
timeframe of this Inquiry).46 The advice sets out the key legal principles relating to complicity in
the law of torture and applies them to particular aspects of NZDF’s operations in Afghanistan.
The advice does not consider how the law applied to the operations of the intelligence agencies
in or in relation to Afghanistan. Sir Bruce’s view is that if he or the other former Directors had
sought advice from Crown Law at the time they would not have received any different advice.
The Inquiry has found no evidence that such advice was sought by either NZSIS or GCSB during
the relevant period. I agree that any Crown Law advice, had the question been asked, would
likely have identified the same high threshold for State or criminal liability for complicity. It
would also likely have said (as the advice to NZDF does) that there is “a moral (and arguably
legal) duty to take reasonable steps to ascertain that the human rights of persons detained in
partnered activities are respected”.47 The opinion also sets out the steps that should “in
practice” be taken to ensure non-complicity in the context where New Zealand involvement is
“less direct”, “less specific”.48 These align with my own conclusions with regard to best practice
approaches: seeking on-going and credible assurances; taking all due steps to gather
information about the practices of the partner agency; being aware that if circumstances
change, New Zealand cooperation should be restricted or withdrawn.

44

45

46

47
48

The New Zealand agencies were subject to their own legislation, the Government Communications Security Bureau Act
2003 (GCSB Act) and the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 (NZSIS Act), but also to other legislation
including the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. The agencies’ legal obligations are discussed further in Appendix D
of this Report.
MFAT notes that when it was asked to provide advice in a particular context it did so. By way of example, we located a
2004 MFAT cable (which the GCSB received) in which MFAT considered the appropriate treatment of detainees if
handed over by the NZSAS to coalition forces in Afghanistan, including expectations that custody would be in
accordance with IHL and human rights.
The advice has subsequently been made public by the Inquiry into Operation Burnham (available at
<https://operationburnham.inquiry.govt.nz> Document entitled “03.02 Note to Minister 484 Detainee Arrangements
– Afghanistan”).
Note to Minister 484 Detainee Arrangements – Afghanistan at [39].
Note to Minister 484 Detainee Arrangements – Afghanistan at [42].

 32
138. The Inspector-General’s jurisdiction extends only to the NZSIS and the GCSB, but it is
undoubtedly correct that other government agencies had relevant roles and in retrospect there
could have been more coordinated consideration of the issues arising out of the New Zealand
military deployment that were posed for the government as a whole. I accept the point which I
think is implicit in the former Directors’ responses that it should not ultimately have been for
them to make decisions or take actions which would have jeopardised receipt of intelligence
relevant to New Zealand’s security. Those were decisions and actions properly to be taken by
Ministers. In my view that does not displace or diminish the responsibility of intelligence
community Directors to raise the issues with Ministers and other relevant public sector
agencies. While others had overlapping responsibilities and knowledge, the obligation to ensure
New Zealand’s compliance with domestic and international human rights obligations does not
sit only with those that have specialised expertise in those matters. All government agencies
must themselves have regard to those obligations in so far as they affect their activities. The
Directors of the intelligence and security agencies were uniquely positioned by virtue of their
roles and their relationships with their Five Eyes counterparts to ask factual questions and seek
more information, which might have informed Ministers’ decisions at a political level. Mr Woods
and Dr Tucker do not accept that, as the heads of apolitical agencies, they had such a role.
Reliance on agency staff
139. All of the former Directors described their reliance on the experience, values and good
judgement of their individual staff members who were deployed or seconded to Afghanistan
and reliance on those staff to raise any concerns with them relevant to the treatment of
detainees by the CIA, or by the National Directorate of Security in Afghanistan. While, as I have
found, that reliance was well-placed in a professional and technical sense, the primary
responsibility to recognise and raise such significant issues must rest with the senior leaders of
the agencies.
Confidence in internal policy and training
140. The former Directors all in different ways expressed confidence in the adequacy of their
agencies’ policies and training of staff to identify legal risks relating to human rights obligations,
and how they should be managed in day to day operational activities. Given my assessment of
those matters earlier in this report, I do not think their confidence was well-founded. At the very
least there should have been written policies applying the legal framework for civilians in an
armed conflict and in the context of agency staff deployments; clear written parameters on
involvement in or contribution to CIA interrogation; and a fully developed policy on how the
agencies might identify, and then manage and respond to, information that may have been
obtained through detainee mistreatment.
No re-evaluation of intelligence held by the agencies
141. Even after confirmation that the CIA had obtained information by torture, the former Directors
did not re-evaluate the relevant CIA intelligence reports held on their files to assess their
provenance and what that meant for whether the reports could lawfully and properly be
retained and/or shared. A consequence of not doing this was that there was no consideration

 33
of the total extent of this information. Had that occurred it might, in turn, have prompted the
question of whether New Zealand’s role in the exchange of information with the CIA was in
accordance with New Zealand’s human rights obligations and/or moral obligations, or at least
needed some measure of explicit Ministerial approval.
Conclusions
142. The volume and credibility of public reporting on CIA rendition and torture of detainees meant
that, in my view, the then Directors ought to have made their own inquiries and conducted a
rigorous and independent assessment of those reports, notwithstanding the denials and
assurances of the US agencies and the US government.
143. All chief executives, whether in core Public Service departments, in the wider State Sector, or in
private enterprise, have, in addition to their operational or business mandates, a fundamental
obligation to monitor, assess and protect their organisation from legal and other risk.49 Events
in respect of Al Qa’ida and Afghanistan raised an undoubtedly complex, unfamiliar, and evolving
operational context, but nevertheless more was required of the Directors to ensure their
agencies had a conscious and prudent approach to organisational risks of the kind at issue here.
144. I consider that it was then, and is today, for the Directors to be alert to where the most acute
risks might arise; to ask the direct and difficult questions of their relevant counterparts; to model
a responsibly sceptical and inquiring approach within their agencies to these inherently risky
cooperation activities; and to give clear direction to their staff about how they operate in this
environment. In my view, reliance by a Director on the ‘need to know’ principle, as justification
for the lack of inquiry into allegations of torture, is at odds with the position of a Director,
engaged in cooperation with close and trusted top-level counterparts in the Five Eyes
intelligence community. During the relevant period there should have been more focus on New
Zealand’s human rights obligations, in agency policies, training, and engagements (at all levels)
with Five Eyes counterparts.
Recommendations
145. Later in this report I include recommendations which relate to the role of the Directors-General
of the agencies.

49

See discussion in Appendix D of this Report.

 VI SUMMARY OF NEW ZEALAND AGENCIES’ INFORMATION EXCHANGES WITH THE CIA
REGARDING DETAINEES

146. The Inquiry attempted to locate any information exchanges between the New Zealand
intelligence and security agencies (predominantly the NZSIS as New Zealand’s HUMINT agency)
and the CIA, which related to CIA detainees. This was not a straightforward task. Some of the
historical document management systems were more accessible than others. The hierarchy of
paper files was extensive, with many potentially relevant files archived off-site.
147. We have located and reviewed many relevant documents. I cannot say with certainty that we
have located all relevant information, but I am confident that the large volume of material
reviewed during this Inquiry has been sufficient to form a sound basis for my conclusions on
matters of fact.
148. Of the historical materials reviewed, the following have been of particular interest to the
Inquiry:


Intelligence reports on the CIA’s capture of key senior operatives, predominantly
from Al Qa’ida or Jemaah Islamiyah (some of whom were described as “high
value”);



Intelligence reports from “US Liaison” providing information obtained through CIA
custodial interviews/debriefings/interrogations50 of at least 16 of the 39
detainees whom the CIA subjected to torture;51



NZSIS’ communications with the CIA about detainees, including providing
questions to be put to a detainee;



Open source material/media reports held on file.

The nature of the intelligence reports and related documents regarding CIA detainees
149. We have reviewed hundreds of documents, including intelligence reports from the CIA received
and held on file (paper and electronic) by the NZSIS, and to a much lesser extent52, by the GCSB.
The intelligence reports contain information obtained from CIA interrogation of detainees.53
150. A large volume of documents, reports and requests were received by Five Eyes and other States’
intelligence and security agencies over the early years of the “war on terror”. “Trace requests”

50
51

These terms are interchangeably used in the intelligence reports.
Senate Report, above n 4, at Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008, lists 119 CIA detainees, with the 39 detainees
known to have been subjected to the CIA’s Enhanced Interrogation Techniques identified in the Appendix. Discussed
further below.

52

The GCSB has advised us that at the date of this report it holds approximately two dozen reports.

53

The Senate Report, above n 4, addressed in considerable detail intelligence reports (including some report numbers)
that the CIA disseminated as a result of its interrogations of 32 of the 39 detainees (ie, the 39 subjected to enhanced
interrogation techniques). Notes summarising this dissemination include, for example: at 46, that while in CIA custody
“information provided by Abu Zubaydah resulted in 766 disseminated intelligence reports”; at 80 “The CIA
disseminated 109 intelligence reports from the CIA interrogations of Ramzi bin al-Shibh”; at 96 “The CIA disseminated
831 intelligence reports from the interrogations of KSM [Khalid Sheik Mohammed] over a period of 3.5 years”.

 35
came from the CIA and FBI, seeking checks for intelligence held about specific names, phone
numbers, IP addresses and travel movements. Due to the volume, the NZSIS advised US partners
that it would only be providing “a response for those individuals for whom we hold traces”.
There are also numerous CIA requests for “terrorist cell members and supporters” names and
aliases to be added to Watchlists and alerts on the CUSMOD 54 system, plus:
“if any of these individuals attempt to enter your country, please detain them for questioning
pursuant to your authorities and notify our service immediately”.

151. From the documents I have seen, and checks we made with the Service, it does not appear that
any person so named by the CIA attempted to enter New Zealand.
152. The NZSIS also established personal files (PF) for dozens of people suspected or known to be Al
Qa’ida or Jemaah Islamiyah operatives. The PF (as well as other files) included reports precapture and reports from interrogations post-capture. For one CIA high value detainee alone,
for example, there are on file well over a very large number of post-capture intelligence
reports.55 The majority of relevant reports held on agencies’ files (predominantly on NZSIS files)
were generated during the period 2002 to 2004. Most identify the detainee from whom the
information was obtained, although a number refer only to “the detainee” or to “a senior AlQa’ida operative and detainee”.
153. The majority of the intelligence reports commence with a disclaimer from US Liaison that the
information the detainee provided “may be meant to influence as well as inform. The detainee
may also have been intentionally withholding information and employing counter-interrogation
techniques”.
154. None of the reports confirm the country in which the CIA is holding the detainee (and it is not
possible to identify this with any certainty from the multiple countries listed as the origins of
the reports).
155. The recipients for the reports vary. Some were directed only to the NZSIS, most were sent to
Five Eyes partners, others also went to agencies in South East Asia and/or the Middle East.
Intelligence reports and related documents about CIA detainees subjected to torture
156. I have had particular regard to the information the agencies hold which relates to CIA detainees
(mostly senior Al Qa’ida or Jemaah Islamiyah operatives), who the CIA subjected to
combinations of “Enhanced Interrogation Techniques”. The Senate Report identified 39 such
CIA detainees. There are multiple documents and reports on file about the operatives’
movements up until capture, as well as intelligence reports consisting of the information
obtained through interrogations. While I cannot be sure that we have located all such
documents, I note that in particular the New Zealand agencies held multiple intelligence reports
from interrogations of 16 of the 39 detainees subject to torture.

54
55

CUSMOD is a border management database used by New Zealand Customs Service.
Riduan Bin Isamuddin (aka Hambali); listed at 73 in the Senate Report, above n 4, at Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from
2002 – 2008.

 36
157. There is nothing on the face of the intelligence reports that would alert the recipient agency to
the fact that the detainee was subjected to torture to obtain the information contained in the
report. Nor are there any indications in the reports that the CIA had engaged in extraordinary
rendition, with these 39 detainees often moved around to several CIA black sites before
appearing in detention at Guantanamo Bay, mostly around September 2006. For the New
Zealand intelligence and security agencies, the detainees’ whereabouts prior to Guantanamo
Bay were unknown.
158. Reports considered to be relevant to New Zealand interests were issued by the NZSIS as ZI or
SIR reports. The usual distribution of such reports was to the heads of the Ministry of Defence;
External Assessments Bureau (EAB);56 MFAT; GCSB; Directorate of Defence Intelligence and
Security (DDIS); Intelligence Coordinator (IC); NZ Police and NZ Customs.
159. From the many documents we reviewed which relate specifically to the 39 high value CIA
detainees subjected to torture, I note the following.
Abu Zubaydah57
160. Abu Zubaydah was captured in March 2002. As at 6 May 2019, he was still detained at
Guantanamo Bay.58 It is now public knowledge that following his capture he was water-boarded
83 times as part of his interrogations.59 Intelligence reports of his interrogations are on file from
April 2002 and the early reports note that Abu Zubaydah was still under medication and
recovering from bullet wounds suffered at capture.
161. In October 2002 the Director of Security wrote to five other New Zealand government agencies,
providing intelligence obtained from the interrogations of Abu Zubaydah.
162. In November and December 2002, there was further correspondence between the CIA and the
NZSIS about Abu Zubaydah.
Ramzi bin al-Shibh60
163. Ramzi bin al-Shibh was captured in September 2002. As at 6 May 2019, he remains detained at
Guantanamo Bay.
164. The NZSIS had some correspondence with the CIA in September 2002 relating to Ramzi bin alShibh. No reply from the CIA has been located.

56
57
58

59

60

Now called the National Assessments Bureau (NAB) within DPMC.
No. 1 on the list, Senate Report, above n 4, at IX. Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008.
The Senate Report, above n 4, notes, at page 410, that the CIA conceded in 2006 that Abu Zubaydah “was not a member
of Al Qaeda”. From 24 January 2018, he was delisted by the UN Security Council from the ISIL and Al Qa’ida Sanctions
List (on the recommendation of the UN Ombudsperson to the ISIL and Al Qa’ida Sanctions Committee (Case 78)).
An article in Time Magazine by the Counsel for Abu Zubaydah, Joseph Margulies, dated 14 March 2018 states the
majority of Abu Zubaydah’s waterboarding occurred during a three week period in August 2002, and that his torture
has resulted in permanent physical and psychological damage. 7
No. 41 on the list, Senate Report, above n 4, at IX. Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008.

 37
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed61
165. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was captured in March 2003. As at 6 May 2019, he remains detained
at Guantanamo Bay. It is now public knowledge that commencing shortly after his capture, he
was water-boarded 183 times as part of the CIA interrogation.62 We located some a considerable
number of intelligence reports from his interrogations on file, sometimes with several reports
from the same date.
166. In May 2003 the NZSIS received a CIA intelligence report from the interrogation of an unnamed
“senior Al-Qa’ida detainee”. At the time Service staff had annotated the report “almost certainly
Khalid Sheik Mohammed”. The Director of Security has initialled the report, noting on it “seen
by the Prime Minister”.63
167. In late May 2003 the NZSIS distributed this intelligence, in a report issued to various other New
Zealand government agencies.
168. In June and July 2003, there was some correspondence between the CIA and the NZSIS about
this detainee. The Service provided questions for the CIA to put to the detainee and received an
intelligence report in response.
Mohd Farik bin Amin (aka Abu Zubair)64
169. Mohd Farik bin Amin was captured in June 2003. As at 6 May 2019, he remains detained at
Guantanamo Bay. Intelligence reports provided to the NZSIS in June, July and August 2003
related to this individual.
170. NZSIS circulated the information from those reports in a report to New Zealand agencies.
171. A CIA intelligence report in August 2003 then provided information from further interrogations
of Amin. The NZSIS again circulated this information in a report distributed to the same pool as
the earlier report.
Bashir bin Lap (aka Lillie)65
172. Bashir bin Lap (aka Lillie) was captured in August 2003. As at 6 May 2019, he remains detained
at Guantanamo Bay. We located on file some a considerable number post-capture intelligence
reports from the CIA interrogation of this detainee. As with the other detainees discussed in this
Part, confirmed in the Senate Report, but not apparent on the face of the reports, the
interrogation of this man involved torture. The NZSIS distributed the intelligence from Lillie’s
interrogation to other New Zealand agencies. We did not locate any records of the New Zealand
agencies responding to and seeking further information following these reports.

61
62
63

64
65

No.45 on the list, Senate Report, above n 4, at IX. Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008.
See the Chronology in Appendix B; Senate Report, above at n. 4, at II, page 85.
It is not known whether the Prime Minister saw the report before or after the annotation was made, or whether this
information may have been provided to the Prime Minister as a verbal update.
No. 62 on the list, Senate Report, above n 4, at IX. Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008.
No. 72 on the list, Senate Report, above n 4, at IX. Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008.

 38
Riduan bin Isamuddin (aka Hambali)66
173. Riduan Isamuddin (aka Hambali) was captured in August 2003. As at 6 May 2019, he remains
detained at Guantanamo Bay. The NZSIS holds on file a very large number of post-capture
intelligence reports from the CIA interrogation of this detainee.
174. Hambali’s PF contains a document “Daily Open Source Reporting from the US Department of
Transportation 27 October 2003” which has an Associated Press (AP) report that Hambali “has
been interrogated by US agents at an undisclosed location” since his capture. A partner agency
Daily Report from 23 January 2004 corroborates the claim that Hambali is being detained by the
CIA.67
175. Many of the intelligence reports from Hambali’s interrogation by the CIA over the period 2002
to 2004 were judged to be relevant for issue as ZI reports, distributed to other New Zealand
agencies.
Intelligence regarding detainees: Writs of habeas corpus
176. A further occasion for information exchanges between the Service and the CIA arose in the
context of Guantanamo Bay detainees’ habeas corpus cases in the US.
177. In 2008 the US Government found itself in the position of providing responses to a number of
habeas corpus cases brought by detainees held at Guantanamo Bay.
178. The Service prepared itself “to service any requests” on a case by case basis. A draft reply to the
CIA, found in the file, noted “an obligation to ensure that any information shared or used over
which we are consulted is accurate, reliable and up-to-date”.
179. The documents reviewed did not show what if any legal analysis was undertaken by the NZSIS
in 2008 in relation to the use of Service intelligence, including the possibility it might have
assisted with indefinite detention of individuals. I did not locate any specific information
requests from the CIA nor any responses provided by the Service.
Open source material/media reports on file
180. The files I reviewed also contained open source material, mainly reports in the media, on the 39
detainees. While there was much about the capture of Al Qa’ida and Jemaah Islamiyah
operatives and the potential damage done to those organisations, there were no media reports
of the allegations about CIA abuse of those detainees, including their extraordinary rendition,
although the sources of the material were the same and covered the same time periods, as
those where numerous allegations were reported (for example, The New York Times, The
Washington Post, and ABC News). The media report on file closest in time to the allegations is
from The Australian in November 2003. It reports the US State Department co-ordinator for
counter-terrorism J.Cofer Black being asked whether torture was being used on detainees Khalid
66
67

No. 73 on the list, Senate Report, above n 4, IX. Appendix 2: CIA Detainees from 2002 – 2008.
The AP report also records then President George W Bush promising to return Hambali to Indonesia for trial “once
American Investigators have finished questioning him”. Hambali remains detained at Guantanamo Bay.

 39
Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, to which he replied: “All I can say to that is that
there is a before and an after September 11. We have taken off our kid gloves.”
Conclusions
Intelligence exchange inadvertently brought the agencies into close contact with torture by the CIA
181. The treatment of the CIA detainees was not known by the Service at the time of many of the
information exchanges with the New Zealand agencies, ie, during 2002 and 2003, but plausible
reports were already in the public domain (see the Chronology at Appendix B). In hindsight the
usual intelligence exchange process - seeking, receiving, evaluating and providing –
inadvertently brought the New Zealand intelligence and security agencies, and the NZSIS in
particular, into direct connection with the CIA’s interrogation of a detainee, including its use of
torture or other CITD.
Unknown effects of actions by NZSIS on detained individuals
182. It is not possible to know whether there was any cost to Khalid Sheikh Mohammed by the NZSIS
providing questions to the CIA, seeking his answers about the specific issue they were concerned
with. The Inquiry could not tell, at this remove, whether any of the other information provided
by the NZSIS resulted in CIA interrogations of individuals, possibly involving torture, or assisted
with the further detention of individuals without trial.
Holding of detainees in undisclosed locations, incommunicado, not flagged as a human rights breach
183. I did not locate any documents, reports, or briefings for relevant Ministers, that demonstrated
any concern about the CIA holding detainees in undisclosed locations. I am satisfied that this
fact would have been known to the New Zealand agencies – it was widely reported in the media
from before 2004, and is a ‘red flag’ for abuse of human rights. I would expect it to have been
flagged as a matter of some importance in records relating to the relevant overseas partner.
Information obtained by torture held in other New Zealand Government agency records
184. As detailed above, these documents also demonstrate how information obtained as a result of
torture by the CIA (‘tainted’ information) and therefore unreliable68 found its way into the files
and records of other government agencies within New Zealand.

68

Information obtained by torture is described in the Ministerial Policy Statement Cooperation of New Zealand
intelligence and security agencies (GCSB and NZSIS) with overseas public authorities, above n 13, at [26], as “inherently
unreliable.” As to reliability, see also: Ian Leslie “The scientists persuading terrorists to spill their secrets” The Guardian
(online ed, London, 13 October 2017); FBI-administered High Value Detainee Interrogation Group’s Report
Interrogation Best Practices 26 August 2016, identifying effective interrogation practices as those “that are
individualised, flexible, rapport-based and information-seeking, and do not rely on formulaic approaches and
techniques”, at 7; Senate Report, Executive Summary at 300, 398, 400, 433, 485 and “Finding #1 The CIA’s use of its
enhanced interrogation techniques was not an effective means of acquiring intelligence or gaining cooperation from
the detainees”, “While being subjected to the CIA’s enhanced interrogation techniques and afterwards, multiple CIA
detainees fabricated information, resulting in faulty intelligence. Detainees provided fabricated information on critical
intelligence issues, including the terrorist threats which the CIA identified as its highest priorities.”, “Finding # 2 The
CIA’s justification for the use of its enhanced interrogation techniques rested on inaccurate claims of their
effectiveness.”

 40
Records remaining in NZSIS and GCSB systems not annotated as to origins or reliability, then or now
185. The records identified in this Part of my Report still remain on the NZSIS and GCSB document
management systems with no notation or indication of their provenance. The agencies did not
take any action to review the files when the torture became confirmed public knowledge. These
reports are now historical, the content likely obtained by unlawful means, and of highly
questionable reliability so should not be used or shared. They are irrelevant to current
intelligence activities. The agencies should, subject to their obligations under the Public Records
Act 2005, purge these reports from their systems and advise other New Zealand government
agencies with whom they shared this information at the time, so they too can review their files.
If they cannot dispose of this material, they should seal access to it.
Recommendations
186. These conclusions inform the recommendations I make later in this report.

 41
VII THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK IN RELATION TO THE PROHIBITION OF TORTURE

Introduction
187. In the course of the Inquiry my office developed a Discussion Paper setting out the law relating
to the prohibition on torture and complicity in torture, some possible developments in State
and individual accountability, and an assessment of the Service’s and Bureau’s policies in this
area, having regard to best practice in other comparable jurisdictions. Following the agencies’
preliminary responses to that Discussion Paper, it was included in revised form in the draft of
the classified Report which was circulated for consultation.
188. We received extensive, detailed and helpful feedback on that part of the draft Report, including
from MFAT, which has primary responsibility for advising the Government on New Zealand’s
international law obligations. As a result of that consultation process, at the time of finalising
this report, MFAT is working with Crown Law, NZDF and the intelligence and security agencies
to formalise a statement of New Zealand’s obligations in relation to the law of torture and
complicity in torture.
189. I welcome that development, which I expect will provide a clear legal framework, not only for
the intelligence and security agencies, but for other New Zealand public sector agencies also. In
light of that development (and because I have found no unlawful conduct by the agencies or
individual officers or staff of the agencies) it is not necessary to include in this Report the more
detailed discussion of the law of torture and complicity in torture which was originally
anticipated.
190. Appendix D sets out in brief terms the prohibition on torture and complicity in torture, at
international and domestic law. It also states what can be said with a degree of certainty, at the
current time, about the legal standards bearing on State and individual criminal responsibility
(international and domestic) for complicity in torture. It canvasses commentary from various
bodies and academics in other jurisdictions about how the law of complicity might or should
develop; some of that commentary is in the context of the operations of intelligence and
security agencies. That material is intended to inform the necessary discussion about what is
“best practice” for the New Zealand intelligence and security agencies, consistent with a
precautionary approach and in light of New Zealand values.

 42

VIII BEST PRACTICE APPROACHES TO INFORMATION SHARING AND COOPERATION: ENSURING
LAWFUL ACTION

Benefits from observing best practice
191. As identified elsewhere in this report, some difficult practical questions arise in the context of
intelligence-sharing arrangements, particularly in routine and reciprocal relationships between
intelligence and security agencies. The likelihood of States being held responsible for the actions
of officials sharing or using information obtained by torture as part of systematic and mutual
information sharing arrangements between States is relatively untested. New Zealand
intelligence and security agencies are net beneficiaries of information sharing and co-operation
with foreign partners, and with the Five Eyes partners in particular.69 These relationships are
highly valued and New Zealand is keen to preserve them, alongside developing other
connections. However, it is plain that relying on relationships of trust, and personal assurances
provided at high level by foreign States and agencies, are not sufficient to guarantee compliance
with international and domestic law.
192. This report demonstrates the legal, political and practical complexities that New Zealand’s
intelligence and security agencies have to navigate, in sharing information and cooperating with
foreign States and agencies, to ensure the actions of New Zealand agencies are legally
compliant. This best practice section proposes that the prudent and precautionary approach is
to observe requirements to exercise due diligence70 and adopt a best practice approach to both
policy and operational practice. Measures must provide a margin of safety, be effective and
apply across agency functions. They need to be relevant to instances where there is an
established intelligence relationship as well as where the connection with the foreign authority
is ad hoc, one-off, or infrequent.
193. The classified version of this Report contained an extensive survey and analysis of the elements
of best practice. Set out below is a brief discussion of that material, followed by a summary of
the principal elements of best practice.

69
70

Cullen and Reddy, above n 15, at [3.43] and [3.47].
See the discussion of due diligence in Anja Seibert-Fohr “From Complicity to Due Diligence: When do States Incur
Responsibility for Their Involvement in Serious International Wrongdoing?” German Yearbook of International Law,
(2018) (60) (Forthcoming) at 11 - 19.

 43

Elements of Best Practice
Ministerial Directions: Provide high-level regulation and guidance
194. Our Inquiry scrutinised high level guidance in the UK and Canada as well as New Zealand and a
brief summary of each follows.
New Zealand: 2017 Ministerial Policy Statement
195. The ISA in 2017 established Ministerial Policy Statements (MPSs) as:


“a mechanism to enable the responsible Minister to regulate the lawful activities
of the agencies”;



“to enhance oversight and compliance”; and



“to ensure the agencies have clear and objective guidance about how they are to
carry out their lawful activities”.71

196. The MPSs provide guidance to the intelligence and security agencies in relation to ten stated
areas.72 The Ministerial Policy Statement on Cooperation of New Zealand intelligence and
security agencies (GCSB and NZSIS) with overseas public authorities (MPS Overseas
Cooperation) sets out procedures to authorise intelligence cooperation, assistance and sharing,
and the protections and restrictions that need apply. The MPS Overseas Cooperation took effect
from 28 September 2017 for three years, unless amended, revoked or replaced sooner. It makes
reference to this Inquiry, and notes “when completed, the conclusions from that Inquiry may
give cause for the issuing Minister to review and reissue this MPS”. 73
UK: Consolidated Guidance to Intelligence Officers and Service Personnel on the Detention and
Interviewing of Detainees Overseas, and on the Passing and Receipt of Intelligence relating to
Detainees, July 2010 (Consolidated Guidance)
197.

The Consolidated Guidance is issued by the UK Government. It has been criticised by the UK
Intelligence and Security Committee: “it does not appear to have achieved its aim of increasing
public confidence in the Agencies. It does not provide guidance and it is misleading to present
it as such.”74

198.

In June 2018 the UK Prime Minister invited the Investigatory Powers Commissioner (IPCO) to
make proposals as to how the Consolidated Guidance could be improved, taking account of the
ISC’s views and civil society. IPCO presented a revised version of the Consolidated Guidance to
the Prime Minister for her consideration. In July 2019, the updated policy was published, now

71
72
73
74

DPMC Cabinet Paper 2 Warranting and authorisation framework at [99] and [101].
Available at <https://www.nzic.govt.nz/legislation/>.
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [67].
UK ISC Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: Current Issues (June 2018), above n 14, at 4.

 44
entitled The Principles relating to the detention and interviewing of detainees overseas and the
passing and receipt of intelligence relating to detainees.75
Canada: 2017 Ministerial Directions
199. In 2017 the Canadian Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness issued Ministerial
Directions on Avoiding Complicity in Mistreatment by Foreign Entities (CSIS MD), issued to
agencies including the Canadian Security Intelligence Services (CSIS); Royal Canadian Mounted
Police (RCMP) and the Canada Border Services Agencies (CBSA). The 2017 Directions replaced
2011 Ministerial Directions and more clearly state the Canadian Government’s “values and
principles against torture and mistreatment and commitment to the rule of law”, by:


condemning torture and mistreatment;



referring to relevant rights and protections in Canada’s Charter of Rights and
Freedoms;



promising commitment to the rule of law; and



compelling increased transparency and accountability through required reporting
to review bodies, the relevant Parliamentary Committee, the Minister and the
public.

200. The CSIS MD recognises that information-sharing with foreign entities is vital to CSIS’ ability to
maintain strong relationships and address threats to national security, while also recognising
that torture or other CIDTP serve no legitimate military, law enforcement, or intelligencegathering purpose, with any information yielded “very likely unreliable”.76
201. The CSIS MD requires CSIS to publish information that explains how the MD is implemented,
including how risk assessments are conducted, in line with Canadian values including those in
the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.77 CSIS is also directed to produce a classified
annual report for the Minister (and the oversight body, the Security Intelligence Review
Committee (SIRC)) containing number and details:


of ‘substantial risk’ cases where the MD was engaged; and



the restriction of any arrangements due to concerns related to mistreatment. 78

202. The CSIS MD79 provides a useful model for the New Zealand Government to consider in the
forthcoming review of the New Zealand MPSs, in terms of the following points.

75

76

77
78
79

While high level, the Principles require each agency to which these Principles apply to provide more detailed advice
and guidance (including legal) to their personnel (at page 1); See updates regarding the Consolidated Guidance at
<https://www.ipco.org.uk>.
Ministerial Direction to the Canadian Security Intelligence Service: Avoiding Complicity in Mistreatment by Foreign
Entities (25 September 2017) (CSIS MD) at [13].
CSIS MD, above n 76, at [19].
CSIS MD, above n 76, at [24] and [25].
Aspects of Canada’s 2017 MDs have now been codified, added to Bill C-59 as the Avoiding Complicity in Mistreatment
by Foreign Entities Act. Bill-C59 received Royal Assent in June 2019.

 45

The need for clarity and controls if information derived from torture is used in “exceptional
circumstances”
203. UNCAT states that no exceptional circumstances or public emergency may be invoked as a
justification of torture.80 A distinction is made between committing acts of torture (which is
prohibited), and using information likely obtained by torture (ie, viewed by some as permitted
in “exceptional circumstances”, or if received “passively”). Governments which decide to allow
such use must ensure clear and strict controls exist.
Define with care “exceptional circumstances” and/or “public emergency”
204. If a State considers information likely obtained by torture can be used by intelligence agencies,
the exceptional circumstances or public emergency where this may occur must be clearly and
appropriately defined. Such exceptional situations are colloquially described as ‘ticking bomb’
scenarios. The Canadian CSIS MD limits exceptional circumstance to one where use of the
information is “necessary to prevent loss of life or significant personal injury”.81 Both the Dutch
General Intelligence and Security Service (GISS) and the UK Joint Committee on Human Rights
have also considered this issue82 and emphasised that sharing of information in this situation
will be a rare event and should not occur if there are indications that providing personal data
may lead to the violation of human rights.
Place explicit limits on permissible use of torture-derived information in emergencies
205. Canada’s CSIS MD sets out processes or purposes for which information likely obtained through
mistreatment may not be used; what is required of officials where they decide there are
“exceptional circumstances”. It requires that the Minister, the relevant oversight body (SIRC)
and relevant Parliamentary Committees must be informed.
Ensure realistic assessments of the reliability and credibility of torture-derived information
206. The CSIS MD states that torture and CIDPT serve no legitimate intelligence-gathering purpose,
with any information yielded “very likely unreliable”.83
207.

80
81
82

83
84

The use of such information by government may potentially affect public perceptions around
the integrity and credibility of executive decision-making. Courts in relevant jurisdictions have
noted the negative effect admitting evidence obtained by torture would have on perceptions of
the integrity of the courts and systems of justice.84 To date the same attention and analysis has

UNCAT, Article 2(2).
CSIS MD, above n 76, at Appendix C, 1c.
CTIVD Review Report 22a on the cooperation by GISS with foreign intelligence and security services (2009) at 24; UK
JCHR The UN Convention Against Torture (Session 2005-6 HL Paper 185-1, HC 701-1) at [55].
CSIS MD, above n 76, at [13].
See, for example, A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department (No.2) [2005] UKHL 71; [2006] 2 AC 221;
[2006] 1 All ER 575 (A (No 2)) at [52].

 46
not been applied to the use of torture-derived information in executive and operational
decision-making.
208.

Relevant contextual factors in assessing the reliability of information received include:


Persons most targeted by torture are political detainees and perceived terrorists;



The more self-inculpatory the nature of the information provided by an individual,
the less likely it was provided voluntarily;



Corroborated intelligence does not mean that it has not been derived from
torture; the level of detail or the reliability of the information are not, on their
own, useful factors in assessing whether there are reasonable grounds to believe
that information was obtained by torture; the issue is not whether it is true or
false, or corroborated or not but whether it is obtained by torture;



Reports from bodies such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the
UN Committee Against Torture represent the best evidence available since there
is very little direct evidence of torture;



Intelligence agencies cannot simply rely upon anecdotal information or personal
relationships that may exist between special liaison officers and security officials
in foreign countries (as those with poor human rights records may be more
interested in maintaining a relationship with the Service than actually providing
truthful information on human rights conditions);



To establish that information was obtained by the use of torture requires more
than simply pointing to the poor human rights records of a given country.

Define the applicable law in a guide
209. Prudent practice is to provide a standalone guide to the applicable law, both domestic and
international, which can then be referenced by other related policies and procedures, and
inform staff (including if in-theatre). Setting out the legal standards can act as a quick reference
to existing benchmarks, which will be relevant if, for example, another State appears to be
relying on a different interpretation of the law or signals that it has or will cease to apply relevant
legal obligations.
Create agreements between States/agencies outlining provision of assistance and information
sharing
210. Best practice for information sharing arrangements between States (or between their agencies)
requires that such agreements or MOUs must:


be in writing;



be signed off by Directors and/or Ministers;

 47


set out rules (ie mutually agreed standards and expectations) governing the use
of shared information, not least to “reduce the scope for informal intelligencesharing which cannot be easily reviewed by oversight institutions”; 85



include a statement of parties’ compliance with human rights and data protection
requirements;



include a requirement to observe in practice the ‘third party rule’ or where more
appropriate, the ‘third country rule’ (ie where information obtained may only be
provided to others if the service/country from which the information originates
has given permission to do so);86



address the situation where the NZSIS or GCSB receives information at third hand
(ie where the information is disclosed to New Zealand by a liaison service not
suspected of mistreatment of individuals but which obtained that information
indirectly from a third party which is);87



make provision for the sending service to request feedback on the use of the
shared information;88



be regularly reviewed;89



when concluded or revised, be provided to independent oversight institutions for
review.90

211. Canada provides an example of oversight of such arrangements. CSIS is required by statute to
have Ministerial approval for information sharing arrangements with foreign intelligence
agencies91 and to provide the oversight body, SIRC, with a copy of any written arrangement that
CSIS enters into with the government of a foreign State; 92 any institution therein; or any
international organisation of States or an institution of such a body. 93 SIRC must “carefully

85

86
87

88

89

90

91
92
93

Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism A/HRC/14/46 (17 May 2010) at [45].
CTIVD Review Report 22a, above n 82, at 22 and 23.
UK Intelligence Services Commissioner Rt Hon Sir Mark Waller Supplementary to the Annual Report for 2015 (House of
Commons, HC 458, 2016) identifying this as a gap in the Consolidated Guidance.
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 85, at [45].
Commission of Inquiry into the Actions of Canadian Officials in Relation to Maher Arar Report of the Events Relating to
Maher Arar: Analysis and Recommendations (Ottawa: Public Works and Government Services Canada, Volume 3, 2006)
at 321.
Privacy International Report Secret Global Surveillance Networks: Intelligence Sharing Between Governments and the
Need for Safeguards April 2018, at 44, 47 to 48; Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights
and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and
institutional frameworks and measures that ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering
terrorism, above n 85 above, at [48] - [49].
Canada Security and Intelligence Service Act 2002, ss 13 and 16.
Canada Security and Intelligence Service Act 2002, s 17.
Privacy International Report Secret Global Surveillance Networks, above n 90, at 34.

 48
examine these arrangements and monitor the exchange of information to ensure that the terms
of the arrangements are upheld”.94
Have a policy to guide informed assessments of State/agency human rights records and accurately
identify risks around engagement
212. The UN Special Rapporteur has recommended that, before either entering into an intelligencesharing agreement or sharing intelligence on an ad hoc basis, intelligence services undertake an
assessment of the counterpart’s record on human rights and data protection, as well as the legal
safeguards and institutional controls that govern the counterpart (and whether there is
independent oversight). Before handing over information, intelligence services should make
sure that any shared intelligence is relevant to the recipient’s mandate, will be used in
accordance with the conditions attached and will not be used for purposes that violate human
rights.95
213. Sections 3, 17 and 18 of the ISA require the GCSB and the NZSIS to act in accordance with New
Zealand law and all human rights obligations recognised by New Zealand law. Implicit in those
obligations is a need to be actively thinking and asking questions about where and how risks of
being implicated in acts of torture or CIDTP by other States and agencies might arise and
assessing those risks.
Policy to establish an appropriate overall process
214. Policies in partner jurisdictions outline the scheme of inquiry to be followed. Examples are
provided in the UK Consolidated Guidance and Human Rights Guidance, by the UK’s Overseas
Security and Justice Assistance (OSJA), which addresses a wider range of activities overseas than
the Consolidated Guidance.
Policy to inform assessment of State/agency human rights records
215. Agencies need a policy to inform their assessments of other State or agency human rights
records. The Netherlands’ oversight body (CTIVD) amongst others has considered this question.
96

216. Policy guidance for making these assessments must include the range of credible sources for
officials to consult. There are many reliable and accessible sources that provide information
about a State’s human rights record, including (in no specific order):

94
95

96

97



discussions with State authorities (including at diplomatic and ministerial levels);



Governmental reports and published Government legal opinions;97

CSIS ‘Sharing Intelligence Internationally’, accessed at <https://csis.gc.ca//bts//shrng-en.php>.
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 85 at [47].
The Netherlands Review Committee on the Intelligence and Security Services (CTIVD) Review Report 22a on the
cooperation by GISS with foreign intelligence and security services (2009) at [14.2].
For example, Office of Legal Counsel in US Department of Justice; selected opinions are published on DoJ’s website.

 49


Ministerial directives;



reports of Parliamentary committees;98



Presidential orders;99



public statements and official policies of the foreign agency or State; 100



reports of fact-finding commissions and independent monitors;



reports from States’ independent oversight agencies (eg oversight of human
rights or intelligence and security matters);



country profiles drawn up by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, and reports
from embassies;



UN reports (eg, country visits by Special Rapporteurs; Concluding Observations by
the Committee Against Torture, on State compliance with UNCAT; Concluding
Observations by the UN Human Rights Committee, on State compliance with
ICCPR; Reports from UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA));



Council of Europe reports;



US State Department country reports;



International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC) reports;



relevant caselaw (eg, European Court of Human Rights; UK, Canadian and NZ
Supreme Courts);



recent reports from civil society and independent international human rights
protection organisations (eg NGOs such as Amnesty International and Human
Rights Watch);101



information from partner agencies and other States; and



media reports.

217. In addition, knowledge of wrongful conduct and its duration may be gained through longstanding prior cooperation with a foreign agency, or from geographical proximity.
98
99

100

101

For example, the UK Parliament’s Joint Committee on Human Rights.
A recent example is US President Trump’s Executive Order 13823 of 30 January 2018 Protecting America Through Lawful
Detention of Terrorists in which it is ordered at 1.(d) that “[t]he detention operations at the U.S. Naval Station
Guantanamo Bay are legal, safe, humane, and conducted consistent with United States and International law”.
See Erika de Wet “Complicity in the Violations of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law by Incumbent Governments
through Direct Military Assistance on Request” (2018) 67 ICLQ at 18, citing V Lanovoy Complicity and its Limits in the
Law of International Responsibility (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2016) at 101 and 238.
When considering potential breaches of IHL by a trading partner, Saudi Arabia, the UK Foreign Office reported in
October 2015 that “we have taken into account recent NGO reports in our assessment and we are ensuring that we
are meeting our responsibility to avoid any risk of “wilful blindness”; as referenced by the High Court in Campaign
Against the Arms Trade v Secretary of State for International Trade [2017] EWHC 1754 (Admin) at [154].

 50
Policy to require assessments that include the treatment of detainees
218. To assess the treatment of detained individuals, the policy must guide officials to consult reports
on conditions in a State’s detention facilities, for example, reports from a National Preventive
Mechanism established under the Optional Protocol to UNCAT. The UK Consolidated
Guidance102 requires that before passing information to, or seeking information from, a liaison
service, desk officers must ask themselves specific questions to ascertain the risk to an
individual’s human rights. When CSIS is considering using information received from or sent to
a foreign entity, risk assessment criteria include asking similar questions, plus whether the
information comes from a self-incriminating confession and if there is other information
indicating potential mistreatment, such as a poor human rights record or a practice of
extraordinary rendition.103
Policy to provide links to sources – Library of previous country assessments
219. Both a policy with links to the sources as listed above, and a library of the agency’s previous
country assessments, provide sound reference points for operational staff.
Ask the hard questions to inform assessments: What comprises sufficient inquiry regarding
allegations of torture?
220. A key element of best practice is an agency’s willingness to ask the difficult but essential
questions, to assess the level of risk involved in engaging with activities of a foreign agency. This
is particularly the case when specific indications of human rights breaches necessitate questions
to an agency with which there is a long-standing relationship. In Chahal v United Kingdom104 the
ECHR identified the need for States to make a “rigorous examination” and exercise “close
scrutiny” with regard to potential evidence of torture. 105 The recent report of the UK House of
Lords Select Committee on International Relations, “Yemen: giving peace a chance”, regarding
the sale of arms to Saudi Arabia in light of the war in Yemen, stated that: “[r]elying on assurances
by Saudi Arabia and Saudi-led review processes is not an adequate way of implementing the
obligations for a risk-based assessment set out in the Arms Trade Treaty”. 106 The UK Court of
Appeal reiterated this view: “[T]he User’s Guide call specific attention to the question of past
violation as a relevant consideration when assessing whether there is a real risk of future
violation. In our view that is obviously correct. How could it reasonably be otherwise?” The
Court of Appeal held that the Secretary of State had erred in law by making no assessment of
whether Saudi Arabia (leading the Coalition in the Yemen conflict) had committed past
102

103

104
105

106

UK Consolidated Guidance to Intelligence Officers and Service Personnel on the Detention and Interviewing of Detainees
Overseas, and on the Passing and Receipt of Intelligence Relating to Detainees (July 2010) at [9], [23] and [27].
Canadian Security Intelligence Service, Deputy Director Operations’ Directive Information sharing with foreign entities
(issued under the 2011 Ministerial Direction; released under the Access to Information Act).
Chahal v United Kingdom (1996) 23 EHRR 413.
For accepted standards of investigation into acts of torture in a State’s territory, see the UN Manual on the Effective
Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (The
Istanbul Protocol), Professional Training Series (No 8/Rev 1) 2004; The fundamental principles of any viable
investigation into alleged incidents of torture are competence, impartiality, independence, promptness and
thoroughness.
UK House of Lords Select Committee on International Relations, 6th Report of Session 2017 – 19 (16 February 2019) at
[72].

 51
violations of IHL, and so whether there was a “real risk” for the future, and whether Saudi Arabia
had “genuine intent” and “capacity to live up to the commitments made”. The Court’s decision
resulted in the UK International Trade Secretary having to review past decisions on arms sales
to Saudi Arabia and temporarily suspend any new ones.107
221. A decision-maker should be able to satisfactorily explain why it was not considered necessary
to have regard to credibly-sourced reports of State or agency involvement in acts of torture, and
adjust the intelligence exchanges or cooperation accordingly, if that was the case.
Require assessment of all unsolicited information received by agencies
222. In the context of information sharing relationships between States, information that is received
unsolicited by intelligence and security agencies must nevertheless be subject to comparable
legal constraints, inquiry, analysis and rigour as all other information sought or sent. This is
addressed in, for example, the UK Consolidated Guidance. 108
Mitigate risks of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
223. States have a range of measures at their disposal which may serve to mitigate the risk that their
actions are associated with torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Reliance on one measure alone will seldom provide sufficient mitigation or reduction of risk.
Nor will a substantial reliance on caveats and assurances without accompanying comprehensive
assessments and monitoring of the human rights record and practices of the country/agency.
On the other hand, mitigation of risk may be achieved simply by editing the information to omit
identifying information of individuals.109
224. Another approach when real risk exists is to make assistance conditional, as recommended in
the 2015 UNAMA report on the treatment of detainees in Afghanistan. 110
225.

The main tools used by intelligence and security agencies to mitigate identified risk are caveats,
assurances and legal initiatives.

Mitigation tool: Caveats
226. The caveat system is widely used and based on trust. In essence it describes directions on
permissible use, attached to information when dispatched. Caveats do not guarantee that a
recipient of information to which a caveat is attached will honour that caveat. The system is
primarily about source protection. Caveats are not legally enforceable.111 However, the ability
and willingness of agencies to respect caveats and seek consent before using information will
107

108

109

110

111

R (on the application of Campaign Against Arms Trade) v The Secretary of State for International Trade and Intervenors
[2019] EWCA Civ 1020 20 June 2019 at [138] to [144].
UK Consolidated Guidance to Intelligence Officers and Service Personnel on the Detention and Interviewing of Detainees
Overseas, and on the Passing and Receipt of Intelligence Relating to Detainees, above n 102, at [27] and [28].
Canada Communications Security Establishment, Operational Policy OPS-6, Policy on Mistreatment Risk Management
(2 August 2016) at [3.6].
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan Update on the Treatment of
Conflict-Related Detainees in Afghan Custody: Accountability and Implementation of Presidential Decree 129 February
2015, Kabul, Afghanistan at 113 and 114.
UK ISC Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: Current Issues, above n 14, at [143].

 52
affect the willingness of others to provide information in the future – a significant incentive for
agencies to respect caveats. “Common sense tells us the incentive is greater when caveats are
clear and in writing.”112
Mitigation tool: Assurances
227. Diplomatic assurances take a variety of forms, ranging from oral to written documents signed
by officials from both governments. Assurances may restate commitment to the state’s
international law obligations or more specifically address what it will do or not do in a particular
situation, such as intelligence sharing or deportation. 113 There is no general rule or practice at
international law preventing a state from seeking and obtaining assurances where a risk of
torture is at issue, although such assurances are not legally enforceable and will not absolve a
state of its duty to comply with its international law obligations.
228. Assurances must be practical and meaningful, with regard to the actions a State will take on
receiving the information in question, or upon receiving the transferred/deported individual.
Obvious considerations relate to whether an individual to be deported or identified in the
information will be detained and the State’s record of treatment of detainees. Mere assurances
that the activities of foreign agents will comply with international and national law, although
frequently seen, may not be considered sufficient to ensure adequate protection against the
risk of torture or ill treatment.
229. Assurances have, in some circumstances, proved unreliable. With regard to the CIA’s
extraordinary rendition of detainees from CIA-run ‘black sites’ in European States, it was
submitted to the ECHR that by 2005: 114
“any Contracting Party would or should have known that any US assurances that a detainee
previously subjected to the US programme would be treated in a manner consistent with
international law, in the case of further transfer, lacked credibility”.

230. Assurances have been considered by the House of Lords in RB and U (Algeria) and OO (Jordan)
v Secretary of State for the Home Department115 which held that such assurances need to
provide a reliable guarantee; the absence or otherwise of torture or ill-treatment in a country is
a question of fact; and, should reliable sources point to a real risk of torture or ill-treatment in
that country, it will not matter what assurances have been given. The Afghanistan Government’s
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 2009 provided an assurance to the NZDF, set out in an
“Arrangement” for “the transfer of persons between the New Zealand Defence Force and the
112

113

114

115

Commission of Inquiry into the Actions of Canadian Officials in Relation to Maher Arar Report of the Events Relating to
Maher Arar: Analysis and Recommendations, above n 89, at 106 and 107.
In a paper on “International Legal Issues Relating to Detention”, presented to the Government Inquiry into Operation
Burnham on 30 July 2019, Dr Penny Ridings noted safeguards to assist compliance with non-refoulement obligations
relating to deportation, including assurances: “Additional safeguards that assist with complying with the nonrefoulement obligation are the obtaining of formal assurances that a detainee will be treated in accordance with
international human rights standards. Assurances are usually considered in combination with complementary
mechanisms, such as monitoring of detainees, … efforts to gather and maintain knowledge about law enforcement and
detention facilities”.
Abu Zubaydah v Lithuania, above n 43, at [471]; submissions by the International Commission of Jurists and Amnesty
International.
RB and U (Algeria) and OO (Jordan) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2009] UKHL 1.

 53
Afghan Authorities” with regard to observing human rights obligations for the treatment of
detainees. The Arrangement states inter alia that both participants will “observe applicable
international and domestic law”.116 While further detail on the applicable legal obligations may
have been preferable, I note this Arrangement was not the only mechanism NZDF relied upon
to monitor the treatment of any detainees.
231. The subsequent decision of the High Court of England and Wales in R (on application of Maya
Evans) v Secretary of State for Defence117 considered the nature and effectiveness of formal
assurances made to the UK forces by the Afghanistan Government, to similarly observe human
rights in the treatment of transferred detainees. The Court concluded that, despite genuine
efforts by UK forces to ensure the arrangements were accepted by relevant Afghanistan
authorities, reliance on such assurances was misplaced given the public record of mistreatment
of detainees by several Afghanistan authorities.118 Instead, the critical question was how those
arrangements operated in practice.
232. The comprehensive 2017 UK report Deportation with assurances by David Anderson QC and
Professor Clive Walker QC observed, “deportation with assurances is not at all realistic for
chronically ‘problematic’ countries or ‘countries of concern’”.119 Although the report specifically
considered deportations its conclusions are relevant here:120
“The key consideration to be taken into account in developing safety on return processes is
whether compliance with assurances can be objectively verified through diplomatic or other
monitoring mechanisms”.”

233. The 2018 UK ISC Report on Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: Current Issues identified that
obtaining assurances in writing can be problematic, as “it can be taken to imply suspicion”,
“undermine trust and jeopardise future cooperation”.121 The Committee recommended that: 122
“where it is not possible to obtain a written assurance from a liaison partner, a written record
of the oral assurance should be produced and sent to the liaison partner so that there is a
shared understanding of expectations”.

234. Similarly the UK’s 2019 Consolidated Guidance (now called The Principles) states that “[w]hen
an assurance or caveat is not made in writing, personnel must keep an accurate record of any
discussions and, whenever feasible, should share it with the foreign authority as a formal note
as soon as is practicable.”123

116

117
118
119

120
121

122
123

Arrangement Between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the New Zealand
Defence Force Concerning the Transfer of Persons Between the New Zealand Defence Force and the Afghan Authorities
12 August 2009.
R (on application of Maya Evans) v Secretary of State for Defence [2010] EWHC 1445 (Admin).
R (on application of Maya Evans), above n 117.
David Anderson QC and Professor Clive Walker QC Deportation with assurances ((House of Commons, CM 9462, July
2017) at [7.6].
David Anderson QC and Professor Clive Walker QC Deportation with assurances, above n 119, at [3.36] - [3.42].
David Anderson QC and Professor Clive Walker QC Deportation with assurances, above n 119, at [62] Recommendation
V.
UK ISC Current Issues, above n 14, at [62] Recommendation V.
The Principles relating to the detention and interviewing of detainees overseas and the passing and receipt of intelligence
relating to detainees (July 2019).

 54
The New Zealand position on assurances
235.

New Zealand’s position has been stated in an international forum.124 While diplomatic
assurances should not be used to undermine the principle of non-refoulement, the practice of
such assurances is well-established internationally and there can be circumstances in which
assurances meet certain minimum quality and reliability thresholds, so it is possible for a State
to take diplomatic assurances into account consistent with the principle of non-refoulement. It
will depend on all the factors of a case, including the human rights situation in the receiving
State, the risk factors associated with the individual, and the quality and practical enforceability
of the assurances.

236. Recently the New Zealand Court of Appeal judicially reviewed a decision by the (former)
Minister of Justice to allow the extradition of a Mr Kim to the People’s Republic of China (PRC).125
Mr Kim had argued that he was at risk of torture and extrajudicial killing and that he would not
receive a fair trial under international law if returned to the PRC. The Court confirmed that New
Zealand is not prohibited by international law from accepting or relying on diplomatic
assurances when assessing whether there is a substantial risk that a person will be tortured or
otherwise subjected to breaches of human rights.126 However the Court held that consideration
of the preliminary question, whether the general human rights situation in China is such that
assurances should not be sought or accepted, was not sufficient.127 The Court found that it was
not reasonably open to the Minister to conclude on the evidence before her that Mr Kim was
not a high risk. In this case the Minister erred in accepting assurances in relation to torture as
adequate to protect Mr Kim on return to the PRC. The Court held that the Minister erred in
failing to address inadequacies in the assurances and how they could protect against torture in
the PRC when:128

124

125
126
127
128



Torture is already against the law, yet persists;



The practice of torture is concealed by the State and its use can be difficult to detect;



Torture often occurs outside the videotaped interrogation;



Evidence obtained by torture is frequently admitted in court; and



There are substantial disincentives for anyone, including the detained person, reporting
the practice of torture.

New Zealand Government “Observations of New Zealand on the Committee Against Torture’s draft revised General
Comment No.1 (2017) on the Implementation of Article 3 of the Convention on the Context of Article 22” (24 March
2017); Responding to the Committee’s Draft General Comment No 1 (2017) on the implementation of Article 3 of the
Convention in the context of Article 22, Committee Against Torture 60th session CAT/C/60/R.2 (2 February 2017); Now
confirmed as General Comment No. 4 (2017) on the implementation of article 3 of the Convention in the context of
article 22 (Advance unedited version, 9 February 2018).
Kyung Yup Kim v Minister of Justice and the Attorney-General [2019] NZCA 2019, 11 June 2019.
Kyung Yup Kim, above n 125, at [70].
Kyung Yup Kim, above n 125, at [275.b].
Kyung Yup Kim, above n 125, at [275.f(i) to (v)].

 55
Practical factors for considering assurances
237. Practical factors to take into account, in evaluating the appropriate use of assurances and
whether received assurances can be relied upon, are broadly instructive and applicable across
a number of areas, such as information sharing. These factors include:
For assurances developed with regard to deportation:

129

130
131

132

133

134
135

136

137



whether the general human rights situation in the receiving State excludes
accepting any assurances whatsoever (eg, including consideration of any actions
by the country taken in response to previously critical external reports); 129



whether the assurances are specific or are general and vague;130



who has given the assurances and whether that person can bind the receiving
State;131



if the assurances have been issued by the central government of the receiving
State, whether regional authorities can be expected to abide by them;132



whether the assurances concern treatment which is legal or illegal in the receiving
State;133



the length and strength of bilateral relations between the sending and receiving
States, including the receiving State’s record in abiding by similar assurances;134



whether the individual has previously been ill-treated in the receiving State;135



whether compliance with the assurances can be objectively verified through
diplomatic or other monitoring mechanisms;136 including providing unfettered
access to the individual’s lawyer;137 and to the individual themselves;



whether there is an effective system of protection against torture in the receiving
State, including a willingness to cooperate with international monitoring

Othman (Abu Qatada) v United Kingdom (Application No. 8139/09) ECHR, 17 January 2012 (Othman) at [188]; David
Anderson QC and Professor Clive Walker QC Deportation with assurances, above n 119, at 49, noting this as “the key
consideration to be taken into account when developing safety on return processes”.
Othman, above n 129, at [189(ii)] citing Saadi v Italy (GC) no 37201/06 ECHR 2008.
Othman, above n 129 at [189(iii)] citing, inter alia, Baysakov and Others v Ukraine (54131/08) ECHR 18 February 2010
at [51]; Soldatenko v Ukraine (2440/07) ECHR 23 October 2008 at [73].
Othman, above n 129, at [189(iv)] citing Chahal v United Kingdom 15 November 1996 Reports of Judgments and
Decisions 1996-V at [105] to [107].
Othman, above n 129, at [189(v)] citing, inter alia, Cipriani v Italy (221142/07) ECHR 30 March 2010; Suresh v Canada
(Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2002] 1 SCR 3.
Othman, above n 129, at [189(vii)] citing, inter alia, Al-Moayad v Germany (35865/03) ECHR 20 February 2007 at [68].
Othman, above n 129, at [189(ix)] citing, inter alia, Koktysh v Ukraine (43707/07) ECHR 10 December 2009 (Koktysh v
Ukraine) at [64].
UK Intelligence Services Commissioner Report of Intelligence Services Commissioner for 2015 (House of Commons, HC
459, 2016) at 43.
Othman, above n 129, at [189(viii)] citing, inter alia, Chentiev and Ibragimov v Slovakia (21022/08 and 511946/08)
ECHR 14 September 2010.

 56
mechanisms (including UN special procedures and international human rights
NGOs);138


whether the State is willing to investigate allegations of torture and to punish
those responsible;139



whether the reliability of the assurances has been examined by the domestic
courts of the sending State;140

For assurances in general:


whether the assurances are in writing or, at a minimum, a written record of an
oral agreement;141



whether a package of assurances can be delivered more satisfactorily through a
collective MOU, than an individually tailored arrangement;142 and



whether there are clear and effective steps in place to take in case of suspected
breach of the assurance.

Mitigation tool: Legal initiatives
238. Legal initiatives can be engaged in order to understand a recipient State's interpretation of the
law. This may seek to build a common understanding of international law and, where there are
differences, to explore whether such interpretive differences can be bridged or managed, for
example through the use of conditions, assurances and independent monitoring.143 Where
there are concerns about the recipient State's compliance with international law, it will be for
the New Zealand government, as a matter of foreign policy, to decide how to respond.
Mitigation tool: Practising segmented cooperation or confining assistance to particular parts of a
State
239. Where intelligence and security agencies hold concerns about particular agencies within a State,
they may elect in future to share information only with specific parts of the State, or they may
assess the risk to be lower if exchanging only specific types of information. This might comprise,
for example, sharing 'building block intelligence' which contributes to a picture of a terrorist

138
139
140

141

142
143

Othman, above n 129, at [189(ix)] citing, inter alia, Koktysh v Ukraine, above n 135, at [63].
Othman, above n 129, at [189(ix)] citing, inter alia, Koktysh v Ukraine, above n 135, at [63].
MFAT Expulsion with Diplomatic Assurances in the Context of Torture and Ill-Treatment (DATE) citing Othman, above n
129, at [189(xi)] citing in turn, inter alia, Babar Ahmad and Others v United Kingdom (24027/07, 11949/08 and
36742/08) ECHR 6 July 2010 at [106].
UK Intelligence Services Commissioner Report of Intelligence Services Commissioner for 2015, above n 136, at 43,
regarding best practice for UK intelligence services when sharing intelligence with liaison partners and using assurances
to mitigate against CIDT. See UK Consolidated Guidance to Intelligence Officers and Service Personnel on the Detention
and Interviewing of Detainees Overseas, and on the Passing and Receipt of Intelligence Relating to Detainees above n
102.
Anderson QC and Professor Clive Walker QC Deportation with assurances, above n 119, at [7.5].
Harriet Moynihan “Aiding and Assisting: Challenges in Armed Conflict and Counterterrorism” (Research paper,
International Law Programme, Chatham House 2016) citing Brian Egan “International Law, Legal Diplomacy, and the
Counter-ISIL Campaign” (ASIL Conference, Washington DC, 1 April 2016) at 10 to 11.

 57
group over time, but not ‘actionable intelligence’ which may be more specific to individuals and
thus more capable of giving rise to a breach of international law.144
Consider establishing a separate evaluative body
240. An external or cross-government body for approval can ensure transparent, robust and
documented decision-making, and avoids the risk that agencies may conflate their operational
or relationship objectives with the quite separate question of whether particular information
sharing or cooperation is lawful or proper in any particular case.
241. Under the CSIS MD, if there is a substantial risk of mistreatment in a given instance of
information sharing and it is unclear whether that risk can be mitigated, the decision is
automatically referred to the Director of CSIS, via an Information Sharing Evaluation Committee
(ISEC). Members of ISEC are senior CSIS officials and representatives from other government
departments.145 ISEC makes a decision subject to guidelines.
Where a substantial/real risk of torture or CIDTP exists exchange or cooperation should not proceed
242. Only after identifying likely or actual circumstances, assessing the risk, and, if necessary,
considering options for mitigation, should a decision be taken on whether to proceed with the
intelligence exchange or proposed assistance (eg at a detainee interview). If, despite taking
appropriate steps in mitigation, there remains a real risk of torture, then best practice dictates
that the exchange or cooperation should not proceed. The information sharing or participation
in a detainee interview should be suspended, deferred or cease altogether.
243. “Quite apart from the political and reputational risks involved, to proceed with assistance in the
knowledge of noncompliance with international law by the recipient State entails responsibility
under international law for the assisting State.”146
244. The UN Special Rapporteur’s Report on best practice states that “for sharing information about
specific individuals, unsurprisingly the advice is to maintain an absolute prohibition on the
sharing of any information if there is a reasonable belief that sharing information could lead to
the violation of the rights of the individual(s) concerned”.147 This stance reflects that the
condemnation of torture “is more aptly categorised as a constitutional principle than as a rule
of evidence”.148

144

145

146
147

148

On this distinction for sharing purposes, see Sir Peter Gibson The Report of the Detainee Inquiry (December 2013) at
[4.15]; also UK Intelligence Services Commissioner Supplementary to the Annual Report for 2015, above n 85, at
[21.3(2)], citing the approach taken in the OSJA Human Rights Guidance.
Security Intelligence Review Committee 2017-2018 Annual Report, “Case Studies Regarding CSIS Information Sharing
with Foreign Entities”.
Harriet Moynihan “Aiding and Assisting: Challenges in Armed Conflict and Counterterrorism”, above n 143.
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 85, at [47].
A (No 2), above n 84 at [12] per Lord Bingham.

 58
Have in place robust monitoring, regular reviews and adequate record-keeping
Robust monitoring and regular review of State/agency actions
245. A country’s record on human rights requires regular as well as responsive review. Monitoring
developments in other jurisdictions must include measuring the extent to which recipient States
comply with caveats and assurances and, as necessary, access to detainees remains open. A
review of information sharing arrangements by SIRC in Canada found a State’s failure to adhere
to assurances to be a trigger for review.149 Current litigation in the UK has identified a concern
that the Government may have relied upon assurances, despite UK intelligence agencies having,
but not disclosing, information that undermined those assurances. 150
246. If reviews, monitoring or other follow-up actions give rise to serious concerns about the
compatibility of the actions of the recipient State or agency with the international law, best
practice dictates that the agency inquires into any alleged torture or ill-treatment of individuals.
The results of these inquiries will contribute to the reassessment or final decision on whether it
is lawful to exchange information.
Regular review of policy: Content and compliance
247. A process of regular review must include an agency’s own policy, to ensure it adequately equips
staff to consider and respond to risk, and make certain it is being complied with. The UK
Consolidated Guidance was reviewed in 2016 by the then Intelligence Services Commissioner,
Rt Hon Sir Mark Waller. In 2018 the ISC summarised current issues with its breadth of application
and content, including that it actually provides little specific guidance and that in the seven years
it has been in place:
“there appears to have been remarkably little attempt to evaluate or review its operation
beyond ensuring compliance for oversight purposes. … While the Investigatory Powers
Commissioner considers compliance with the Guidance, it is not his responsibility to consider
whether the Guidance is achieving its policy objectives”.151

248. As part of its review of the consolidated guidance, IPCO commenced a consultation round with
civil society on 20 August 2018. The publication of the relevant Guidance and public consultation
as to content is a model that New Zealand should consider. Such transparency serves to
emphasise the need for regular review of keep an agency’s policy content fit for purpose.
Adequate record-keeping
249. The routine creation of an auditable trail of documents, recording the decisions and activities of
intelligence services and their partners, is essential to both their internal operation and
management and their external oversight.152

149

150
151
152

Security Intelligence Review Committee 2017-2018 Annual Report at 15 to 17. This followed a first review by SIRC in
2015.
Kamoka & Ors v Security Services & Ors [2017] EWCA Civ 1665 at [99] and [115].
UK ISC Current Issues, above n 14, at 1 and 2.
UK Intelligence Services Commissioner Supplementary to the Annual Report for 2015, above n 85, at [22.1].

 59
Summary: The Elements of Best Practice

Clear Ministerial Directions:

Set out the Minister’s expectations and guidance to staff so that information
sharing and cooperation by the intelligence and security agencies avoids any
connection with acts of torture or CIDTP by other States and agencies;


Clarify the exceptional circumstances, if any, in which the Minister considers
that information likely obtained by torture may be used by the agencies and,
if so, the constraints around such use.

Applicable law in a standalone guide for staff:

Provide relevant domestic and international law on human rights, data
protection and IHL.
Written formal arrangements/agreements on information sharing between parties (ie, between
States or State agencies):

Have clear rules governing the use of shared information, signed off by the
Director of the intelligence and security agency or Minister;


Include statements of compliance with human rights law, data protection
obligations, and with the third party rule;



Address situations where receipt is at third hand, and allow for the sending
party to request feedback on use of the information;



Ensure regular review, including by oversight
arrangements/agreements are concluded or revised.

bodies

when

Policy to inform the assessment of a State’s human rights record and risks around engagement:

Provide a range of sources for information about States’ human rights records
and practices, including the treatment of detainees, and require assessments
to be comprehensive by drawing on multiple sources of information;


Be clear that making such assessments can involve asking hard questions, and
that best practice should dictate an inquiry into allegations of torture or illtreatment;



Consider the nature of the information to be sent or received and the
particular circumstances;



Assess the likelihood of a real/substantial risk of human rights breaches;



Include templates to guide making these assessments; and



Ensure that information received unsolicited or “passively” by agencies also
undergoes the requisite risk assessment as to whether it has likely been
obtained by torture.

Take action to mitigate the risk of contributing to acts of torture:

Employ caveats to set conditions (originator control) on how information may
be used by the receiving party (or parties): in writing; establish procedures to
monitor adherence to caveats by the receiving party; not appropriate as a sole
method to mitigate risk or for a State/agency where caveats previously
breached or with a poor human rights record;

 60


Seek assurances: in writing or at least a written and shared record of an oral
undertaking; of sufficient detail; able to be monitored for compliance (for
example, through right of access to a detainee); not appropriate as a sole
method to mitigate risk or for a State/agency where assurances previously
breached or with a poor human rights record;



Use legal initiatives: to, for example, build a common understanding with
partners of obligations under international law;



Practise segmented cooperation or confine assistance to particular parts of a
State; or distinguish between ‘actionable’ and ‘building block’ intelligence.

Where there is a real/substantial risk of torture, ensure agency responses are lawful and proper:

Have a plan in place for, when necessary, the immediate cessation of
information sharing and cooperation with a State/agency, pending further
inquiry;


The plan should include seeking legal advice, informing the relevant Minister
and oversight body.

Establish regular and responsive monitoring and review:

Regularly review a State or foreign agency’s human rights record and practices
(including a State’s legal approach to prohibiting acts of torture); trigger
reviews in response to indications of human rights breaches; practice due
diligence;


Periodically monitor State/agency compliance with caveats, assurances and
other undertakings;



Regularly review policy content and your own agency’s compliance with policy.

Require adequate record-keeping:

Ensure adequate and informative records are available if decisions, in
particular any relating to torture-derived information, are to be revisited or
reviewed, and to facilitate effective democratic oversight.

 61
IX ADEQUACY OF GUIDANCE MATERIALS UNDER THE GCSB AND NZSIS ACTS: AS AT APRIL 2017

250. In April 2017 my office reviewed NZSIS and GCSB policies that were in effect during the period
2001 and 2009 and relevant to terms of reference 1 and 2 of this Inquiry. I provided my
assessment to the agencies for comment as part of my April 2017 Discussion Paper.
251. In summary, that review highlighted the need for clearer guidance on applicable law and to
identify those responsible and accountable for decision-making. A number of policies with
useful and relevant information remained in draft, others were incomplete or inadequate.
Since September 2017, those policies have been replaced by guidance material developed
by the agencies under ISA. My office has reviewed these guidance materials, as at July 2018.

 62

X ADEQUACY OF CURRENT GUIDANCE MATERIALS UNDER ISA: AS AT JULY 2018

252. I have reviewed three levels of guidance and authorisations which apply to the GCSB and
NZSIS:


the Ministerial Policy Statement Cooperation of New Zealand intelligence and
security agencies (GCSB and NZSIS) with overseas public authorities (MPS
Overseas Cooperation): required under the ISA. MPSs are policy documents
which set out the Minister’s expectations for how the agencies properly
perform these functions and establish a framework for good decision-making
and best practice conduct, although they do not set out enforceable legal
obligations; 153



the Ministerial authorisations: required under the ISA. These are conditional
authorisations for the GCSB and NZSIS to provide intelligence and cooperation
to foreign partners and others; and



the Joint Policy Statement ‘Human Rights Risk Management’ (JPS); developed
by the GCSB and NZSIS and required by the MPS Overseas Cooperation and the
Ministerial authorisations. The purpose of the JPS is to provide staff with
guidance for making necessary human rights assessments within a consistent
frame of reference, to ensure the agencies meet the ISA requirement to “act
in accordance with New Zealand law and all human rights obligations
recognised in New Zealand law”; the JPS also introduces the ‘Approved Party’
status for information sharing, which requires approval by the Minister.

253. The table that follows sets out the internal agency processes for giving effect to each of
these.

153

MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [2].

 63
Cascading human rights requirements in foreign cooperation and intelligence exchanges:
Overview
Ministerial Policy Statement on Cooperation with overseas public authorities
ISA ss 207(1)
Framework guidance on expected agencies’ policy and process regarding human rights when
cooperating with overseas public authorities and States
-----------------------------------------------Agencies must have in place policies and procedures to ensure they act in accordance with NZ law
and all human rights obligations recognised by NZ law [MPS 31]

↓
Ministerial authorisations on intelligence cooperation with countries
ISA ss 10(3) and 12(7)
Agencies’ request case-by-case or standing Ministerial authorisations to cooperate and share
intelligence with foreign partners
--------------------------------------------------Requests for Ministerial authorisations must include an assessment of the
partner/country’s human rights practices [MPS 40]
Requires ongoing monitoring of partner practices [MPS 43]
Requires risk assessment if specific instance of cooperation may lead to human rights breaches
[MPS 43]
A standing authorisation must be reviewed by the Minister if changes to policy or practice by a
country under that authorisation may increase the likelihood of human rights breaches [MPS 43]

↓
Joint Policy Statement Human Rights Risk Management
ISA ss 3(c)(i), 10(3), 12(7), 17(a) and 18(b)
The policy must set out factors to be considered when assessing whether a real risk of human
rights breaches may exist in connection with cooperation with overseas public authorities
[MPS 58]
-----------------------------------------Human rights risk assessments (HRRA) [JPS Appendix 1]
Human rights risk approvals [JPS 17 to 23]
Human rights risk reviews (HRRR) [JPS 24 to 30]
Approved Parties [JPS 16, 32 to 40]
Approved Information [JPS 41 to 42]
Meaning of terms (eg, contribute; general possibility; specific indication) [JPS Appendix 1]

 64

XI MINISTERIAL POLICY STATEMENT ON COOPERATION OF NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND
SECURITY AGENCIES (GCSB AND NZSIS) WITH OVERSEAS PUBLIC AUTHORITIES

The Ministerial Policy Statement relevant to this Inquiry
254. The MPS Overseas Cooperation is discussed in relation to several different aspects of this
Report.154 The MPS focuses on guidance for the agencies, regarding cooperation, sharing
intelligence and providing advice and assistance to overseas public authorities. The term
‘overseas public authority’ is defined broadly as “a foreign person or body that performs or
exercises any public function, duty, or power conferred on that person or body by or under
law”.155
Positive obligations and guidance established by the MPS
255. The MPS Overseas Cooperation:

154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161



emphasises the Government’s commitment to actively preventing torture,
including that New Zealand will not encourage, aid or abet such acts; 156



states that agency compliance with international and domestic human rights
obligations in ISA157 necessitates a practice of due diligence; a duty to take
reasonable steps when deciding whether to engage with an overseas
authority; and, to identify and monitor risks of human rights being breached
by partner countries and international actors;158



requires the GCSB and NZSIS to have appropriate internal policies in place to
ensure they are not associated, directly or indirectly, with unlawful or
improper activities;159



reinforces the positive obligation on the agencies to provide the Minister with
sufficient information on the legality of cooperation with an overseas public
authority, to inform his or her decision on whether to authorise it;160



clarifies that, despite any standing authorisation from the Minister for agency
information sharing, the agencies are not excused from the obligation to
monitor and ensure that such sharing and cooperation remains consistent with
the framework in the MPS;161

See for example the above discussion in Part VIII Best Practice, in this Report.
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at 1.
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [22].
ISA, ss 10(3), 12(7) and 17(a).
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [23] and [24].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [24], [30], [31] and [36].
ISA, ss 10(3) and 12(7); MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [32].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [43].

 

65
provides non-exhaustive lists of factors that the agency must consider when
assessing the human rights records and human rights practices of a foreign
State or overseas public authority;162



sets the threshold for when the intelligence and security agencies will enquire
or further enquire at the level of: an “indication” 163 of human rights breaches;
where breaches are “suspected”;164 and where there “may be uncertainty or
cause for concern”;165



requires the agencies to decline or to stop cooperating, including receiving or
sharing intelligence, with an overseas public authority when a real or
substantial risk of a breach of human rights obligations is identified;166



states that if there are changes to the domestic policy or practice in any
country subject to a standing authorisation that may increase the likelihood of
a violation of human rights, the agency must ensure the authorisation is
reviewed by the responsible Minister.167

Gaps in the MPS
256. While not itself a formal statement of New Zealand’s interpretation of all relevant legal
obligations, the MPS Overseas Cooperation should state the core obligations clearly and
unambiguously. To the extent aspects of the law are uncertain, the MPS should indicate that
propriety requires that the agencies act cautiously. In its current form the MPS has some
significant gaps, which are summarised below.
The prohibition of torture is non-derogable
257. The MPS does not specifically state that the prohibition of torture is non-derogable. It
addresses the concept of non-derogation only in the context of using information gained
through torture as evidence in any proceedings. It does not address its use in operational
matters.168
Specificity of circumstances in which ‘tainted’ information might be used
258. The MPS does not describe the circumstances which the Minister considers might justify an
intelligence and security agency taking action on the basis of information likely obtained
through torture and does not specify limits on the use of the information.

162
163
164
165
166
167
168

MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [37] and [41].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [24].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [27].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [33].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [24] and [35].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [35].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [26]; UNCAT, arts 2 and 15.

 66
Protection of property?
259. The MPS Overseas Cooperation169 indicates that information which has been, or is suspected
to have been, obtained through human rights breaches, including torture, may be used in
order to protect property. In other jurisdictions, there has been a move away from according
property primacy over protecting human rights. In my view that approach should also be
reflected in this MPS Overseas Cooperation.170
Varying formulations of threats or risks used as criteria
260. The threats or risks that, when identified, would allow the agencies to share information
gained through human rights abuses are both too general and inconsistent.
Controls when providing tainted information to law enforcement to use?
261. The MPS Overseas Cooperation is not sufficiently clear as to whether the Directors-General
may or should pass the information to the relevant enforcement agency; 171 nor how the
intelligence and security agencies anticipate being able to restrict the enforcement agency’s
subsequent use of the information to “operational purposes” only.
“Unsolicited information”
262. The MPS Overseas Cooperation emphasises information obtained or suspected to have been
obtained by torture being received by the intelligence and security agencies in an
“unsolicited” manner. It is unclear what “unsolicited” means in the context of an ongoing
intelligence-sharing relationship, and why this distinction is necessary or relevant.
Is information obtained by torture ‘credible’ or inherently unreliable?
263. The MPS Overseas Cooperation refers 172 to situations where intelligence is received by the
GCSB or NZSIS that has been or is suspected to have been obtained by torture and which
indicates a “credible” national security threat or “credible risk to safety”. It is difficult to
reconcile this reference to credibility with the preceding statement173 that information
gained through torture “is inherently unreliable”.174

169
170
171
172
173
174

MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [28] and [46].
See the CSIS MD discussed in Part VIII Best Practice.
Paragraphs 28 and 46 of the MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, are inconsistent on this point.
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [27] and [28].
MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [26] and see further at [46].
Regarding reliability: See US Army Field Manual FM- 2-22.3 at [M-16]; stating that it is impermissible to use any
form of torture, abuse or inhumane or degrading treatment; “Beyond being impermissible, these unlawful and
unauthorised forms of treatment are unproductive because they may yield unreliable results, damage subsequent
collection efforts, and result in extremely negative consequences at national and international levels.”; US Senate
Intelligence Committee Report, 2014, Executive Summary, at Finding #1 “While being subjected to the CIA’s
enhanced interrogation techniques and afterwards, multiple CIA detainees fabricated information, resulting in
faulty intelligence. Detainees provided fabricated information on critical intelligence issues, including the terrorist
threats which the CIA identified as its highest priorities”; See also Part VIII of this Report.

 67
Review of the MPS
264. The MPS itself anticipates that findings from this Inquiry may result in review and
amendments to the MPS. 175
265. For the reasons set out above I recommend later in this Report, that a review of the MPS
Overseas Cooperation receive early attention.

175

MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [67].

 68
XII MINISTERIAL AUTHORISATIONS FOR SHARING INFORMATION

266. Under the ISA the GCSB and NZSIS are required to seek authorisations from the Minister before
carrying out information sharing and cooperation with foreign parties which may impact on
individuals’ human rights. The Ministerial authorisations specifically relate to functions in the
ISA which allow:


the GCSB and NZSIS to provide intelligence collected or an analysis of that intelligence, to
any person or class of persons whether in New Zealand or overseas;176 and



the GCSB to use information – obtained in carrying out information assurance and
cybersecurity activities – to produce reports related to threat to, or interference with,
infrastructures important to the New Zealand Government and provide those reports to
any person or class of persons whether in New Zealand or overseas. 177

267. Before the Minister authorises intelligence or reports to be provided to any overseas person178
or class of persons, ISA requires:179
“the Minister must be satisfied that, in providing the intelligence and analysis [or report], the
intelligence and security agency will be acting in accordance with New Zealand law and all
human rights obligations recognised by New Zealand law”.

Two broad standing authorities
268. Shortly before the ISA came into effect, the agencies sought, and the Minister authorised, two
very broad standing authorisations for information sharing and cooperation with foreign States
and agencies. One authorisation was for the GCSB, the other the NZSIS, covering a large number
of states.
Ministerial authorisations subject to condition: reliance on the JPS
269. The Minister issued these authorisations:180
“subject to the condition that the NZSIS [or GCSB] comply with the Joint Human Rights Risk
Management Policy before providing any intelligence and analysis [or reports] to any overseas
person or class of persons.”

176
177
178

179
180

ISA, s 10(1)(b)(iii).
ISA, s 12(5).
As defined in the Overseas Investment Act 2005, s 7. For the purposes of the ISA the most relevant part of the definition
is that an overseas person is not a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident.
ISA, ss 10(3) and 12(7).
NZSIS, Ministerial Authorisations, 18 September 2017 at [2] and GCSB Ministerial Authorisations, 18 September 2017
at [2] and [6].

 69

270. The Minister recorded in the authorisation that, given this condition, he was “satisfied”, as
required by the ISA, that the agencies would be acting in accordance with New Zealand law and
all human rights obligations recognised by New Zealand law.181
271. Compliance with the JPS therefore provides a material assurance to the Minister that the
agencies in any particular case have adequately managed the risk of contributing to actions by
foreign parties that may breach human rights. It means the JPS must be fit for purpose, fully
complied with, and result in lawful action by the agencies. However, my review of the JPS,
summarised later in this Report, identifies a number of issues which call into question its
adequacy and effectiveness.
Process for authorisations: Human rights risk assessments of countries to support decision-making
272. On 17 October 2017 I sought from the agencies “copies of all the human rights assessments that
accompanied and/or supported the applications from the agencies to the Minister for these two
standing authorisations”.182
273. Out of the large number of countries covered by the two Ministerial authorisations for
intelligence sharing and cooperation, the Minister received accompanying human rights
assessments for less than 20. In general, these are countries with overall sound human rights
records.
274. For more than two thirds of the countries covered by the standing authorisations, the agencies
had not provided the Minister with any supporting information about the states’ human rights
records before seeking his authorisation. Of the States for which no supporting information was
provided none are Approved Parties.183 They include countries with well-publicised poor human
rights records.
275. The two Ministerial authorisations were expressly conditional on compliance with the JPS. Once
the two broad Ministerial authorisations were signed, the responsibility of ensuring compliance
with domestic and international human rights law in relation to all information sharing and
cooperation by the agencies under ss 10 and 12 of the ISA, shifted to rest squarely and solely on
the agencies’ application of the JPS. It continues to do so.184 For sharing and cooperation with
parties who are not Approved Parties, the agencies consider the assessment of human rights
implications is best done at the point of the particular sharing or cooperation. Reliance on the
JPS to test particular instances of sharing provides “a more agile and considered approach”.185 I
do not disagree.
276. Under the processes created in the JPS, the Minister has no further oversight of information
sharing with foreign parties, unless the agencies want to provide intelligence or reports in an
181

182
183
184

185

NZSIS, Ministerial Authorisations, 18 September 2017 at [3] and GCSB Ministerial Authorisations, 18 September 2017
at [3] and [7].
IGIS Letter to Acting Chief Legal Advisers, GCSB and NZSIS, 17 October 2017.
Further detail about Approved Parties and what that status means is set out below in relation to the JPS.
This means, for example, that for each information-sharing transaction with one of the many authorised but nonApproved-Party countries, a human rights risk assessment will be required before approval of the transaction can be
considered. Information sharing with the other countries who are now also Approved Parties requires no such case-bycase assessment of the human rights risks involved.
Letter to IGIS from Directors-General GCSB and NZSIS, 28 February 2019, Annex B at [15].

 70

instance where the human rights risk assessment identifies a substantial risk of human rights
breaches. Then the Minister is the approval authority for sharing that information.
277. My concern is that the two, broadly framed, standing authorisations referred to above approve
many countries for “in principle” sharing without the Minister having been provided with any
material on which to base even a high-level human rights assessment. I would not expect the
type of detailed material to be before the Minister that is necessary to support specific sharing
arrangements under the JPS or to achieve Approved Party status. However, the ISA’s
requirement that the Minister must be “satisfied” (s 10(3) ISA) that in providing intelligence and
cooperation the agencies will be acting in accordance with all human rights obligations seems
to me to anticipate that there would be some country-specific material to support the
Ministerial level approval. In sum, I would like to see something additional to support this level
of authorisation beyond the assurance that the agencies have in place a Joint Human Rights Risk
Management Policy, drafted by them, which they will follow.

 71

XIII JOINT POLICY STATEMENT: HUMAN RIGHTS RISK MANAGEMENT

278. The Joint Policy Statement ‘Human Rights Risk Management’ (JPS) is the pivotal document for
providing a substantive check and balance that the intelligence and security agencies are ‘acting
in accordance with New Zealand law and all human rights obligations recognised in New Zealand
law’, as required under ISA.186 It was approved for use by the Directors-General of the GCSB and
the NZSIS as of 28 September 2017.
279. The purpose of the JPS is to provide staff with authoritative guidance for making necessary
human rights assessments within a consistent frame of reference. 187 The Service has stated188
that: “The JPS will govern all interactions by NZSIS and GCSB with foreign parties, including
overseas public authorities”. The Bureau advised189 that: “Since the Inquiry was undertaken, the
Joint Policy Statement on Human Rights Risk Management has been approved and
implemented. The JPS established processes to manage the risk of contributing to breaches of
human rights by foreign parties. GCSB and NZSIS plan to work together to implement
complementary processes that suit each organisation’s operational requirements. There are no
plans for any further joint policies or procedures on this topic.” The GCSB further advises staff190
that they can be reassured that the JPS includes all relevant legal requirements.191
280. In keeping with best practice, the JPS should provide a clear process for the agencies’
judgements and assessments to be made: how to identify relevant human rights and to make
informed assessments of the human rights risk presented by the practices of another
country/foreign agency, and by GCSB or NZSIS intelligence cooperation with that country. In my
view, it falls short of these requirements.
Problems with clarity and accuracy of JPS for staff and oversight review
281. The JPS does not provide sufficiently clear guidance for agency staff. While the agencies have
developed other tools and training to supplement the JPS, the JPS itself should provide a clear
and consistent frame of reference.
Human Rights Risk Assessments
282. In our classified Report we have raised more detailed concerns regarding:


186

187

188
189
190
191

definitions of key terms used in assessments;

I note the JPS at [5] permits a Director-General to “authorise variations to this policy for specific purposes in order to
comply with any ministerial requirements for interacting with foreign parties”. The extent to which this authorisation
has been used by the Directors-General is unknown, nor the circumstances in which it has arisen or might arise. A
review of the JPS in such circumstances would provide greater clarity for staff.
Sitting beneath the JPS are underlying documents and procedures such as the framework for
“Cooperating/sharing/receiving intelligence with foreign parties” and the Standard Operating Procedure (finalised in
June 2018) “NZSIS – Sharing and protecting intelligence – SOP”.
By letter of 23 November 2017 to IGIS, at [3].
By letter of 15 June 2018 to IGIS, at [14].
In the GCSB e-learning module for information sharing with foreign parties.
For example, all requirements from NZBORA, the Crimes of Torture Act and the ICCPR.

 72



the complexity of the assessment process;



the guidance for identifying and assessing the risk category; including the
thresholds adopted for each category;



the brevity and lack of clarity of guidance provided about possible mitigations;



the lack of a clear process for when applications to approve the information
sharing or cooperation are declined.

Reviews of the human rights risk assessment process in practice
283. The Inquiry reviewed a number of actual human rights risk assessments, including two by the
NZSIS relating to sharing information with states in respect of which human rights risks plainly
might arise. We reviewed one GCSB assessment in the same category. In both of the cases
involving the NZSIS, the assessment of the human rights record and situation in the country in
question was comprehensive and well-balanced. However, in both, consideration of mitigation
strategies became mixed with detailing and assessing the level of risk of human rights abuses.
It is necessary to form an assessment of risk before noting any mitigation strategies. This helps
to direct attention to whether the mitigation strategies undertaken, or to be undertaken, can
provide the individuals in question with sufficiently robust protection and, if not, whether the
information sharing as proposed should continue.
284. One of these cases also raised a question about the standard checks carried out by the Service
prior to establishing a new relationship with a foreign agency. In the particular case the Service
advised that the relationship was only in its formative stages, but should “be viewed in the
context of New Zealand’s broader, well-established relationship with [the particular geographic
area]”. It noted the subsequent introduction of the JPS and that all future interactions would be
subject to a case-by-case risk assessment.
285. In the second example, the NZSIS relied on the “prior assurances” of the intelligence agency in
the other country. The substance of those prior assurances did not appear to have been
provided for the decision-maker.
286. The GCSB HRRA application from late 2017 which we reviewed, involved sharing information
with an agency in a country about which the US State Department had reported that human
rights abuses (such as arbitrary detention or arrest, breach of a fair trial rights, lack of access to
legal rights and minimal standards of criminal procedure) are “present in nearly any
arrest/detention by government agencies”. This report was available to the GCSB, as were two
further reports, by the US State Department and the UN, both of which provided highly relevant
information.
287. The HRRA assessed as likely that the individual about whom the GCSB would share intelligence
would be located, and arrested/detained, as a result of the information provided by the GCSB.
The risk of human rights abuses was assessed as “speculative”. It is difficult, on the basis of the
human rights record and violations listed in the HRRA, to understand how the assessment
arrived at a “speculative likelihood of any human rights breach” and not as a substantial/real
risk of human rights abuses.

 73

288. In my view, this situation called for a high-level decision on whether or not to provide the
information in question to the foreign agency and consideration of whether alternatives were
available that reduced the risks to GCSB by providing this assistance.
289. As with the NZSIS assessments, there was a blurring of primary risk assessment and mitigation
strategies.
290. Finally the HRRA did not address what would happen if the individual was detained by the
foreign agency (as the HRRA indicated was likely): if or when the individual was interrogated,
how any resulting information received by the GCSB (and involved partners) would be assessed
to identify whether it has been obtained through abuse of the individual’s human rights, given
the poor human rights record of the foreign country? If the information had been obtained
through abuse, what steps would be taken by the GCSB to assess the reliability of the
information and limit its use?
Human Rights Risk Review (HRRR)
291. The requirement to carry out an HRRR applies when the agencies receive information from
foreign parties and “where there was no reasonable prior opportunity to carry out an HRRA”.192
However, in the case of Approved Parties an HRRR is not required unless there is a “specific
indication” that the information received was obtained as a result of a breach of human rights,193
or that information to be provided by GCSB or NZSIS to a foreign party will contribute to a breach
of human rights.194 A process of regularly monitoring human rights practices of foreign states or
agencies, which could bring a ‘specific indication’ by an Approved Party to light, is not addressed
in the JPS.
292. For an Approved Party, the JPS requires an HRRR be completed in response to a “specific
indication”, but in other parts of the JPS it refers to a different, lower threshold or standard,
that of “suspecting” human rights breaches and requiring investigation into the same. Further
the interplay between the actions required by different parts of the JPS,195 in response to such
a ‘suspicion’, is not clear.
293. Where there is insufficient information for the agency to carry out a HRRR, the default risk is set
at a low risk category.196 Why this low level of risk is considered appropriate, for example, after
a specific indication involving “specific and reliable information” of a potential breach of human
rights, is not made clear.
294. The “Risk Mitigation” section should provide a fuller explanation of what “measures” might be
relevant in this context.

192
193
194
195
196

JPS at [24].
JPS at [25].
JPS at [16].
JPS at [30] and [44].
JPS at [28].

 74

Approved Parties under the JPS
Effect of grant of Approved Party status
295. Countries, agencies, non-government entities, and individuals holding Approved Party status
are not required to undergo HRRA/HRRR when information is exchanged, unless a “specific
indication” of a human rights breach occurs, which then requires a HRRR. This means that care
is required when seeking and granting Approved Party status.
296. The JPS states that the governments and any foreign public agency of Five Eyes countries are
Approved Parties. I have also been provided with copies of the Minister’s subsequent approval
of more than ten other countries as Approved Parties. Such approvals are current for three years
and it is presumed, although not clear from the JPS, that renewals will require a new application
to the Minister. I suggest that for some States with a dynamic and swiftly changing political
scene, three years may be too long.
297. In the classified Report I record my concern that the JPS allows for a Tier 3 Manager to approve
non-government entities and individuals.197
Criteria for a body to be considered for approval as an Approved Party
298. There is no information in the JPS, or in other documents reviewed, that indicates the criteria
used to decide for which countries and agencies, and which non-government entities and
individuals, the New Zealand agencies will seek Approved Party status. The JPS has no specific
threshold stated that would make a State, agency, non-government entity or individual a
candidate.
Required content of applications for Approved Party status
299. The JPS requires “all relevant information that is reasonably available”198 to be included in an
application for Approved Party status. However there are some inconsistencies with these
requirements, which I have identified in the classified Report.
300. An example of an inconsistency is that the JPS sets out the matters on which the GCSB and NZSIS
“must” advise the Minister199 when applying for Approved Party status for a government or
foreign public agency. However, when seeking Approved Party status for non-government
entities and individuals, there is no requirement for the equivalent of an HRRA to be carried out,
nor does the JPS require specific information be advised to the approval authority (a Tier 3
Manager or delegated officer approved by the Director-General). In my view, the Minister
should be the decision-maker for Approved Party status of non-government entities and
individuals, as well as for governments and foreign public agencies.

197
198
199

JPS at [33].
JPS at [34].
JPS at [37].

 75

Review of Approved Party applications and approvals
301. In October 2017 I requested from the GCSB and NZSIS copies of all applications and approvals
for Approved Party status. The JPS requires that “all approvals of Approved Parties must be in
writing”.200 I have reviewed all documents received. No applications and/or approvals exist for
Approved Party status of non-government entities and individuals.
302. My review therefore focused on the applications and approvals for the Five Eyes and other
approved countries. The human rights assessments and supporting documentation of those
countries, as provided to the Minister, were generally comprehensive and covered matters
required by the JPS. As noted above, the JPS establishes no requirement for regular monitoring
of the human rights records of parties who are Approved Parties. This calls into doubt whether
the necessary “specific indication” of a human rights breach will be identified, or identified in a
timely manner.
Absence of direct authorisation/approval by Minister for Five Eyes partners to be Approved Parties
303. While I received copies of the Minister’s signed approvals for Approved Parties, there were not
copies of the same authorisations for the four Five Eyes countries. The GCSB and NZSIS make
the point that the approval is implicit in the Minister’s authorisation for the agencies’ activities
under ss 10, 11 and 12 of ISA,201 because it is expressly conditional on compliance with the JPS.
In turn, the JPS states that the four Five Eyes countries are [ie are deemed to be] Approved
Parties. Notably, however, a human rights assessment for each of the four Five Eyes countries
was provided to the Minister at the time he issued the two broad Ministerial authorisations.
Approved Information under the JPS
304. Under the JPS, a category of information can be approved by the Director-General as “Approved
Information”202 if there is no likelihood that the type of information could contribute to a breach
of human rights. The agencies can provide such Approved Information to “any party” and “grant
permission for another party to provide the approved information to any party”. 203
305.

As at July 2018, the NZSIS had six categories of Approved Information. The risk assessments for
four of the categories specifically exclude the sharing of information “relating to those aspects
of security and intelligence – such as the identities of individuals of security interest – that could
contribute to human rights breaches by any foreign party”. Two of the categories – Intelligence
Analysis Methodology Training and NZSIS protective security services, advice and assistance –
do not explicitly exclude individuals of security interest. Whether such identifying details are
exchanged under those categories is as yet, unknown to my office.

306. As at July 2018 we had located a relatively low number of HRRA/applications for review. This
suggests that either there is a very limited amount of information being provided by the Service
to the many authorised countries who are not Approved Parties, or there is potentially a large

200
201
202
203

JPS at [35].
These are the Ministerial authorisations discussed above, commencing at page 69.
JPS at [41] and [42].
JPS at [16.e] and [16.f].

 76

amount of information being shared with foreign parties under the categories of Approved
Intelligence.
Conclusions: JPS and human rights risk assessments and applications for approval of action
Explaining the relevant law: No strong statement on torture
307. The JPS includes general statements about human rights, including torture and CIDTP, and
where the obligations arise in in domestic and international law. More detail would be helpful
for staff. In particular it would be useful to include the full definition of torture in Article 1 of
UNCAT, s 3 of the Crimes of Torture Act 1989, and information about complicity in acts of
torture.
Framework for assessments inadequate for risk of torture
308. The JPS lacks a clear process for judgements and assessments to be made. It is not sufficiently
clear, consistent and accurate for staff to use as intended (and as required by the Minister).
309. The JPS does not explain what information 204 should be provided to the Minister to assist in
assessing whether to approve the proposed cooperation with an overseas public authority.
310. There is some useful procedural material, sitting beneath the JPS, to provide guidance to staff
but more is needed.
Limited guidance on steps to take in mitigation of risk
311. There is very limited advice provided in the JPS on mitigation strategies and how best practice
directs that such strategies are to be engaged.
312. There is a reliance (observed in the HRRA I reviewed) on the actions of a third party to mitigate
risk, despite no assessment being made by the New Zealand agencies of the safeguards for
human rights that the third party can actually provide.
Procedures where real risk identified after mitigations applied
313. There is no guidance provided on appropriate steps to take if the application for information
sharing approval is declined.
314. The three HRRA I have reviewed demonstrated that the framework for assessments is not
sufficiently clear; human rights risk assessments merged with mitigation strategies; highlighted
the risk of human rights breaches being assessed at a low level of seriousness despite a country’s
human rights record and the specific circumstances described; and did not engage sufficient and
prudent mitigation strategies to reduce legal risk.
315. These elements can result in a lack of clear and necessary connection being made between a
real risk to an individual’s human rights and the actions to be taken by the GCSB or NZSIS.

204

ISA, ss 10(3) and 12(7); MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [32].

 77

Accountability for decision-making: role of the Minister
316. These elements can also result in the decisions whether to approve the risk of human rights
breaches being taken at an inappropriately low level, when in practice it should be a decision
for the Minister.
Conclusions: JPS and Approved Parties
Ministerial authorisation of Five Eyes partners as Approved Parties
317. Given the implications of being an Approved Party the JPS’s general requirement that Approved
Party status is conferred by the Minister is appropriate. As a matter of sound policy, I do not
consider that the Five Eyes partners should be exempted from this requirement by the special
“deeming” provisions in the JPS. In my view an express approval should be sought from the
Minister to make any country an Approved Party. The agencies have agreed to this, and in July
2019 they submitted an application for specific approvals to the Minister.
318. The Directors-General of the GCSB and the NZSIS advised in February 2019 that they will “seek
an explicit stand-alone Ministerial approval for Five-Eyes as approved parties”, with the intent
to provide a briefing to the Minister seeking the approval “in the coming months”. I intend to
keep this particular authorisation under review and have sought a copy of the Minister’s
approval.
No threshold for making applications for Approved Party status
319. There is no material in the JPS (or in other documents reviewed) that identifies why the New
Zealand intelligence and security agencies choose a particular country, agency, non-government
entity or individual as a candidate for whom to seek Approved Party status.
No requirement to regularly monitor human rights in relation to Approved Parties
320. The JPS does not explain how the agencies will implement their obligation to monitor the human
rights compliance of foreign partners. 205 In particular, there is no requirement for regular
monitoring of the human rights records of Approved Parties, meaning that the necessary
“specific indication” of a human rights breach may not be identified in a timely manner (or at
all). This is particularly essential where a country may have a high number of agencies with
varying histories of respect for human rights.

205

MPS Overseas Cooperation, above n 13, at [43].

 78

XIV CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions
321. There were serious and ongoing repercussions for the intelligence agencies and governments
of other countries which failed to identify and respond to the unlawful rendition and
mistreatment of detainees by the CIA in the course of counterterrorism operations overseas,
after 9/11.206
322. The New Zealand intelligence and security agencies did not participate in the rendition and
detention, or directly in the interrogation of detainees; nor were they complicit in the CIA’s
unlawful activities. The failing was one of omission, in not identifying that the CIA programme
raised risks for their agencies and for the New Zealand Government, because of their close
cooperation (including in Afghanistan) and ongoing intelligence relationships with the US
intelligence and security agencies, including the CIA.207
323. The argument consistently put to me by those in positions of control at the time was that they
did not initially know of and understand the gravity of the unlawful CIA activities and how those
activities might impact on the responsibilities of their own agencies. I accept that we must be
careful not to attribute the current level of knowledge to those who were leading the agencies
at the time and this report does not seek to apportion blame to individuals for past failures or
omissions.
324. I also accept that, once the CIA’s programme was confirmed to the Directors of the day or
sufficient information was in the public domain for partner agencies to be on alert, any decision
to cease or curtail some aspects of the intelligence-sharing relationship with the US would have
been a whole-of-government matter and ultimately a decision for Ministers to make. But
because the Directors at the time did not, in my view, adequately identify, assess and monitor
the risk posed, they were not in a position to provide what ought to have been their unique
perspective or insights to Ministers or other relevant government agencies. I acknowledge that
there appears not to have been any broader systematic Government evaluation and response
to the CIA programme,208 based on the information in the public domain, or known to other
government agencies by virtue of their own responsibilities and relationships, to plot New
Zealand’s independent course through the legal obligations and risks involved.
325. As at 2019, ignorance can no longer be an excuse. It has been clear for some 15 years that,
despite its denials at the time, the CIA did in a systematic way subject some detainees to torture
in breach of international law and contrary to New Zealand’s legal and moral standards. Much
more recently, members of the US Administration have made public statements which make it

206
207
208

See Part II of this Report.
See Parts II, IV, V and VI of this Report.
I emphasise however that the Inspector-General’s jurisdiction extends only to the NZSIS and the GCSB. This Inquiry
could not and did not directly examine the role of other Government agencies.

 79
apparent that the practices employed by the CIA in the period 2001 to 2009 are not ruled out
for the future.
326. In 2017, I discussed with the Directors-General how they had satisfied themselves that the ban
on torture in the US would continue, given certain comments made by President Trump while
he was a presidential candidate. The Directors-General advised me that following the change
of administration in the USA, they had received verbal, but absolutely clear, assurances in
person by the then CIA Director that the ban would continue.
327. The Directors-General have also told me that they placed considerable reliance upon statements
made under oath during confirmation hearings in the Senate by Mike Pompeo and Gina Haspel,
stating in absolute terms that they would not resume practices such as the “enhanced
interrogation” programme. Those statements were as follows:


At the 12 January 2017 hearing to confirm this appointment as CIA Director Mike
Pompeo was asked “if you were ordered by the President to restart the CIA’s use
of enhanced interrogation techniques that fall outside of the Army Field Manual,
would you comply?” He replied “… absolutely not.”



On 9 May 2018 Gina Haspel stated to the Senate Select Committee on
Intelligence: “I can offer you my personal commitment, clearly and without
reservation, that under my leadership CIA will not restart such a detention and
interrogation program.”

328. The Director-General of Security, who has the primary relationship with the CIA, advised me
that she could not see that any further purpose would be served by writing to ask for the same
assurances as those already given personally and publicly under oath. Both Directors-General
have advised me that from time to time they have raised difficult issues at high level bilateral
meetings, and the message has always been delivered diplomatically but clearly, and
acknowledged respectfully. The Directors-General have advised further that although they
would think very carefully about whether to raise a difficult issue with another intelligence
agency, they would do so if it were necessary – for example, if there were evidence of possible
human rights violations by partner agencies. This would be their approach regardless of the
disparity in size between New Zealand’s agencies and the agencies of most other jurisdictions.
329. In my view that is very important. It is vital that New Zealand not be deterred from raising issues
simply because it is the smallest and least powerful member of the Five Eyes partnership. I
acknowledge that New Zealand is overwhelmingly a net beneficiary of intelligence flows from
the Five Eyes partners. This was one of the considerations highlighted to me by the previous
agency Directors. But if the agencies are relying on verbal assurances and more general
statements made in other contexts (even those made under oath), their underlying structures,
policies and practices become even more important, in all New Zealand’s intelligence
cooperation and sharing relationships – not just with the US but with some other countries
whose human rights records and current practice is open to question. By way of example, I note
that in 2018 the UK ISC considered it necessary to specifically recommend that the UK

 80
intelligence agencies closely monitor their US liaison partners to identify early any change in US
policy or practices concerning detainees.
330. It is essential that the New Zealand intelligence and security agencies and other relevant
Government agencies have in place structures, policies and practices (including regular
monitoring) to detect any unlawful conduct by partner agencies and prevent New Zealand
involvement, direct or indirect, in that conduct. There is no question that a key duty on the
intelligence agencies now is to know and fully understand the gravity of what the relevant
chosen partnerships involve, and to ensure that informed decisions (by the Minister or Ministers
where that is appropriate) are made on the basis of that knowledge. All of my
recommendations relate to that central theme. The Directors-General fully accept their
responsibility in this regard, as they have emphasised in the statement included in paragraph 19
of this report.
Recommendations: Review of MPS, Ministerial authorisations and the JPS internal guidance
331. The ISA includes an explicit requirement for the NZSIS and the GCSB to “act in accordance with
New Zealand law and all human rights obligations recognised by New Zealand law”.209 The
recommendations about authorising documents, policy and other guidance are directed to that
requirement.

A. Early review of the MPS Overseas Cooperation having regard to the gaps identified
in this report, and the forthcoming whole of government legal advice on torture. The
legal status and directive power of the MPS should be considered. Consultation with
relevant NGOs and other members of the public is recommended.

Response: The Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet has the responsibility for
developing and reviewing the MPSs, on the Minister’s behalf. DPMC has advised that it will
brief the Minister Responsible for the NZSIS and the GCSB shortly on the proposed review of
the Overseas Cooperation MPS.
In parallel to the review of the MPS, MFAT is leading, working with Crown Law, NZDF and the
intelligence and security agencies to formalise a statement of New Zealand’s obligations in
relation to the law of torture and complicity in torture. DPMC will consult with the InspectorGeneral, as well as relevant government agencies throughout the review.
Whether consultation on the MPS should occur with relevant non-governmental
organisations or others, as recommended in the report, is a decision for the Minister.

B.

209

ISA, s 17(a).

Ministerial authorisations: The GCSB and NZSIS should provide the Minister with
adequate material to allow a meaningful human rights risk assessment to be made in
all cases where Ministerial authorisation is sought. Within six to twelve months, fresh
applications with relevant supporting material should be submitted by the agencies

 81
for all countries currently subject to a Ministerial authorisation, where that material
was not previously provided.

Response: The agencies will seek new Ministerial authorisations for all states previously
authorised without an accompanying human right risk assessment within twelve months of
the date of this Report. The form of the applications for Ministerial authorisation will be
considered alongside the review of the MPS and during the review of the JPS.
332. As necessary, the GCSB and NZSIS should include for the Minister’s consideration a human rights
risk assessment for specific intelligence agencies within these countries (eg if there are or have
been plausible indications of human rights abuses by the agency).

C. Joint Policy Statement on Human Rights Risk Management: the agencies’ JPS on human
rights risk assessments and associated guidance materials should be reviewed within
six months of the date of this Report to address the deficiencies identified in detail in
the classified version of the Report. 210

Response: The JPS was scheduled for review starting March 31, 2019. The agencies consider
that improvements can be made to simplify and clarify the JPS. During the review of JPS, GCSB
and NZSIS will consider all of the recommendations in the report that are relevant to the JPS,
in light of the Crown legal position on complicity and the standards in the Intelligence and
Security Act. The review of the JPS will occur following the proposed MPS review so that any
changes to the MPS are able to be reflected in the JPS.

D.

Approved Party status for Five Eyes partners: should be sought by the agencies from
the Minister as a matter of priority.

Response: In July 2019 the agencies provided human rights risk assessment for Five Eyes
partners to the Minister along with a briefing requesting that they be re-authorised as
approved parties. Notwithstanding this, the agencies consider that the existing Ministerial
authorisation issued on 18 September 2017, together with the JPS on which the authorisation
is made conditional, authorised the agencies’ Five Eyes partners to be approved parties.
Recommendations: Training and support for staff
333. This Report shows that staff at many levels in the agencies need a good understanding of the
factual and legal contexts in which the issues identified here might arise. They must be able to
evaluate received intelligence for human rights impacts, identify risks and questions, elevate
210

The Directors-General of GCSB and NZSIS advised me in February 2019 that the agencies will undertake a review of the
JPS from 31 March 2019.

 82
concerns, and be secure in the knowledge that they are operating within the law. In particular,
the New Zealand agencies should ensure that staff are properly equipped through targeted legal
training and sufficiently close supervision if they are engaged in any capacity to provide support
to military operations. I recommend that:

E.

GCSB and NZSIS support to military operations: the GCSB and the NZSIS should
ensure that their staff have supervision commensurate with their experience of
military operations and are provided with adequate information (including in writing)
and training about:


the legal and policy basis for their roles as civilians in support of military
objectives;



IHL, New Zealand ROE and any New Zealand Government restrictions relevant to
the context in which they are providing support;



the GCSB’s and the NZSIS’ policies and procedures relating to New Zealand’s
human rights obligations and those particular aspects of the policies and
procedures relevant to their particular roles; and



the process for raising any questions or concerns about the nature of their work
as it relates to IHL, ROE, or the risk of breaching human rights obligations.

Response: The agencies generally agree with recommendation E. The GCSB has concerns
about the applicability and relevance of rules of engagement and New Zealand Defence Force
law of armed conflict training to GCSB staff, however, where those matters are contextually
relevant to deployed GCSB and/or NZSIS personnel they may be considered for inclusion in
pre-deployment preparation.
Recommendation: Government authorisation for support to military operations
334. The GCSB and NZSIS should ensure there is clear government authorisation for the support it
provides to military operations. I recommend that:

F.

A complete record of government authorisations to provide support to military
operations should be maintained by each agency.

Response: The agencies accept that there should be a complete and accurate record of
government authorisations for providing support to military operations (where specific
authorisation is required or appropriate). Improving recordkeeping practices continues to be
an area of focus for both the GCSB and the NZSIS.

 83
Recommendations: Monitoring of partner country practices and human rights records
335. Active and ongoing monitoring of partner country (including Five Eyes) political and legal
developments and any changes to working practices is critical if New Zealand is to engage in
information-sharing and cooperation with its eyes wide open. Ignorance and wilful blindness
are not an excuse where relevant information is readily available to be discovered. I recommend
that:

G.

Best practice monitoring: Both agencies should develop a policy that clearly states
how they will give effect to best practice monitoring of partner countries. The policy
should provide for reassessment of a country’s human rights record every six months
for countries where the political or human rights situation is volatile or in a state of
flux.

Recommendations: Agency to agency practice
336. Organisational culture should be led from the top. As with all state sector chief executives, the
Directors-General need to be alive to the full scope of legal risk their work entails, willing to ask
hard questions, and should actively promote the human rights laws and values their
organisations are required by law to observe. The current Directors-General of the NZSIS and
the GCSB have advised me of their full commitment to those obligations. Their statement is at
page 8 of this Report. I recommend that where there are plausible indications by other States
and foreign agencies of practices unacceptable to New Zealand, the Directors-General of the
agencies:

H.

Form an independent view of partner agencies’ compliance: Use the full range of
sources and enquiry available to form an independent view of their partner agencies’
compliance with New Zealand’s legal requirements and standards of State conduct.

I.

Best practice tools and mitigation strategies: Ensure their agencies engage with the
range of best practice tools and mitigation strategies identified in this Report, for
example, by seeking, where necessary, sufficiently specific assurances in writing, or
recorded in writing, with regular and active monitoring and recording of whether
those assurances are being complied with.

 84
Recommendations: A whole of government approach
337. A whole of government approach is necessary to protect national security. A whole of
government approach is also necessary to ensure that the mechanisms for achieving national
security are consistent with domestic and international law and with New Zealand’s
humanitarian values. The intelligence agencies have a vital role to play in keeping the wider
government well-informed. They hold the key relationships, and are often best placed to obtain
the information necessary to inform decisions on how partner relationships can be maintained
consistently with New Zealand law and values. The State Sector Act requires chief executives to
collaborate to ensure necessary information is known across departments and raised with
Ministers as appropriate. I recommend that:

J.

Cooperation and sharing where risks identified The Directors-General should:
 Share with other relevant departments and/or elevate to Ministers their key
assessments of such issues, concerns and steps taken to address them.
 Obtain an informed and documented mandate from relevant Ministers for any
ongoing information sharing and cooperation with a foreign state or agency in any
case where serious legal and humanitarian issues have been raised.

Response to recommendations G, H, I and J: The JPS review will cover how monitoring may
be strengthened while taking into account operational requirements and the practicalities of
international relations. While the agencies already draw on a wide range of information
when drafting human rights assessments, this review will include consideration of whether
any further sources of information are available and necessary to ensure that assessments
are made using a range of current and trusted information.
In order to take a more all-of-Government approach and provide greater objectivity when
drafting approved party applications for countries, we will seek to involve agencies such as
MFAT and DPMC (National Security Group).
The review will consider the form of the input such agencies could take in the assessment
process, in consultation with those agencies.
Recommendations: Review historic files
338. The agencies should review their historic files which contain information obtained by torture or
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. I recommend that:

K.

The agencies assess and document the provenance of such information and dispose of
material containing such information. In doing so, they may need to navigate any
obligations under the Public Records Act 2005. If they cannot dispose of this material
they should seal access to it.

 85
Response: While there is no legal obligation for the agencies to dispose of the material, the
agencies are reviewing the extent of the files identified by the Inspector-General and where
possible will dispose of or limit access to such information, subject to obligations under the
Public Records Act 2005.

 86

APPENDIX A: INQUIRY TERMS OF REFERENCE

1. The Inquiry had three purposes, cast as the following terms of reference:
 Term of reference 1: To examine what steps were taken by the GCSB and the NZSIS during
the relevant period to address any risk of complicity in the CIA programme, including policies,
practices and/or training or other support to staff deployed in or otherwise engaged in
intelligence activity in respect of Afghanistan.
 Term of reference 2: To examine whether, and if so to what extent, the NZSIS and the GCSB:
a. were aware of the CIA programme;
b. were directly involved in the CIA programme;
c. provided any intelligence to support the CIA programme;
d. received any intelligence reports arising from the interrogation of individuals under the
CIA programme; and
e. raised concerns or objections about the CIA programme informally or formally with the
CIA and/or the United States government.
 Term of reference 3: To examine what policies, guidance and training have been developed
and are currently implemented by the GCSB and the NZSIS to ensure that their staff comply
with New Zealand’s domestic human rights law and its international legal obligations when
cooperating with other nations.

 87
APPENDIX B: CHRONOLOGY

The information in this chronology is sourced entirely from material in the public domain, and the sources are referenced. Its purpose is to show what
allegations and information were publicly available, at particular dates. I do not purport to confirm the accuracy of the specific content of the material
referenced.
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

2001
2001
2001
2001
11 Sept 2001
14 Sept 2001
17 Sept 2001

7 Oct 2001

Dr Warren Tucker, Director of GCSB; from 1999.
Mr Richard Woods, Director of NZSIS; from 1999.
George Tenet, Director of CIA; from 1996.
Terrorist attacks on USA by Al Qa’ida.
US Congress passed an authorisation for the use of
military force in Afghanistan.
President Bush signed a covert action
Memorandum of Notification authorising the CIA
Director to “undertake operations designed to
capture and detain persons who pose a continuing,
serious threat of violence or death to U.S. persons
and interests or who are planning terrorist
activities.”
Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) commenced in
Afghanistan: US-led coalition forces began attacks
on Taleban targets. US and UK reported to UN
Security Council that military force was used in
self-defence.

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

 88
DATE

Nov 2001
13 Nov 2001

6 Dec 2001

11 Dec 2001
20 Dec 2001

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA
US captured first detainees in Afghanistan. Kabul
taken by coalition forces.
President Bush issued a Military Order permitting
detention of any terrorist at a location anywhere in
the world and providing trial of detainees by
Military Tribunal.
Fall of Kandahar – last Taleban city stronghold.
Prisoners were detained. Hamid Karzai sworn in as
head of an interim power-sharing government.
NZ SAS left for Kandahar.
UN Security Council Resolution 1386 authorised an
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), as a
UN mandated coalition of the willing, to help
maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas in
Afghanistan.

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

2002
2002
10 Jan 2002

23 Jan 2002

38 CIA detainees; 10 subjected to enhanced
interrogation techniques.
First interview by UK SIS of US-held detainee in
Afghanistan where concerns noted about
treatment.
The Evening Post “Clark OK with
prisoners’ lot” notes the arrival of 158
detainees at Guantanamo Bay. NZ PM
Helen Clark accepted UK PM Tony Blair’s
assurances that British detainees at

 89
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Guantanamo Bay had no complaints re
their treatment.
29 Jan 2002

7 Feb 2002

Amnesty International wrote to UK
Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, re concerns
with detention of Al Qa’ida and Taleban
prisoners at Guantanamo Bay.
President Bush issued Memorandum Humane
Treatment of Taliban and al Qaeda Detainees,
stating: Al Qa’ida and Taleban detainees do not
qualify as POWs under Geneva Conventions;
common Article 3 requiring humane treatment of
individuals in a conflict did not apply to these
detainees. Memo does require US Armed Forces
to treat detainees humanely, consistent with
applicable law.

11 Mar 2002

The Washington Post “US behind secret
transfer of terror suspects” refers to US
transporting detainees to countries with
close links to CIA (eg, Egypt and Jordan)
where detainees can be subject to
torture.
The Guardian “US sends suspects to face
torture” partly based on above The
Washington Post article; reports CIA
spokesperson had ‘no comment’ on the
allegations.

12 Mar 2002

28 Mar 2002

CIA captures Abu Zubaydah.

 90
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

1 Apr 2002

The New York Times “A Nation
Challenged: The Capture; New
Confidence US has a Qaeda Leader” on
Abu Zubaydah’s capture, wounding and
removal to unknown location.

14 Apr 2002

Amnesty International Memorandum to
the US Government on the rights of people
in US custody in Afghanistan and
Guantanamo Bay, with reports of US
torture; claims detainees transferred to
states where torture permissible; names
detainees including Abu Zubaydah.

15 Apr 2002

26 Apr 2002

24 May 2002

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Raid on Band e Timur, Helmand Province.

Time Magazine “Anatomy of a Raid:
Inside the capture of al-Qaeda chief Abu
Zubaydah and his terror network”
discusses if Abu Zubaydah might be
subject to torture (under a heading
“How do we make him talk”).
The New York Times “Officials say Al
Qaeda suspect has given useful
information” reports a denial by US
officials that Abu Zubaydah is being
subjected to torture; “non-violent forms
of coercion are being used”.
Treatment of detainees from the raid on
Band e Timur were the subject of May
2011 Metro article “Eyes Wide Shut” by
Jon Stephenson.

 91
DATE

1 Aug 2002

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA
US Attorney-General Alberto Gonzales approves
US Justice Dept, Office of Legal Counsel
Memorandum by Assistant A-G Jay Bybee Re
Standards of Conduct for Interrogation Under 18
U.S.C. paras 2340-23404 (‘Torture Memo’;
reported in full by media June 2004).

Aug 2002

12 Dec 2002
26 Dec 2002

26 Dec 2002

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Human Rights Watch United States,
Presumption of Guilt: Human Rights
Abuses of Post-September 11 Detainees
(Vol 14. No.4 (G)), states detainees
subjected to arbitrary detention; due
process and presumption of innocence
violated.
NZSAS returned to NZ.
Human Rights Watch (HRW) United
States: Reports of Torture of Al-Qaeda
Suspects reports “stress and duress”
techniques being used by the CIA.
The Washington Post “US Decries Abuse
but Defends Interrogation: Stress and
Duress Tactics Used on Terrorism
Suspects Held in Secret Overseas
Facilities” describes rendition of
detainees; details the “takedown teams
packaging prisoners” for transport, with
hoods, gags, and being bound to
stretchers with duct tape; accuses US of
using torture with detainees including at
Bagram Airbase in Kabul; names

 92
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

detainees including Abu Zubaydah.
Refers to the above HRW report.
2003
2003

Further 53 CIA detainees; 19 subjected to
enhanced interrogation techniques.

Jan 2003

28 Jan 2003

Mar 2003
1 Mar 2003
8 Mar 2003

9 Mar 2003

The Washington Post article of 26 Dec
2002 (see above) receives wide
exposure, including an editorial in The
Economist and statement by the World
Organisation against Torture.
CIA Guidelines on Interrogations Conducted
Pursuant to the Presidential Memorandum of
Notification of 17 September 2001, with the
standard and enhanced techniques available when
interrogating detainees, approved by Director
George Tenet.
US-led coalition invaded Iraq.
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed arrested in joint
Pakistan/CIA operation.
The Economist article “Special report AlQaeda: The other war” notes the
capture of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed.
The New York Times “Threats and
Responses: Interrogations; Questioning
Terror Suspects in a Dark and Surreal
World” covers interrogation techniques
used on Abu Zubaydah (eg, sleep,

 93
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

medical treatment and food withheld),
and which might be used on Khalid
Sheikh Mohammed; notes allegations of
CIA torture by released detainees.
Time Magazine “The biggest fish of
them all” discusses capture of Khalid
Sheikh Mohammed 1 March 2003, notes
his whereabouts is now unknown and
authorities’ claims that use of
“temperature discomfort”, sleep
deprivation and hooding was not
torture.

17 Mar 2003

Apr 2003

28 May 2003

10 Jun 2003

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

International Helinski Federation for
Human Rights Anti-terrorism Measures,
Security and Human Rights: Developments
in Europe, Central Asia and North America
in the Aftermath of September 11 notes
‘special interest’ detainees being held
incommunicado, denied medical
treatment; and beaten by guards.
Amnesty International Report 2003:
United States of America discusses
conditions of transfer of detainees to
Guantanamo Bay and of detention.
UK Parliament Intelligence and Security
Committee (UK ISC) first raises issues of
treatment of detainees with the UK PM.

 94
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

Mid 2003

European Court of Human Rights, in Al
Nashiri v Poland 24 July 2014, identified
mid-2003 as the time by which Poland
ought to have known of the CIA’s
programme of detention and rendition,
given the “knowledge and emerging widespread public information about illtreatment and abuse of detained terrorist
suspects in the custody of the US
authorities”.

Jun to Aug
2003
26 Jun 2003

The Taleban resurgence in Afghanistan was
launched.

11 Aug 2003

NATO takes the lead of the ISAF mission in
Afghanistan (in Kabul initially).

18 & 20 Aug
2003

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of
Europe, Resolution 1340 (2003) (PACE
Resolution) Rights of persons held in the
custody of the United States in
Afghanistan or Guantanamo Bay, states
deep concern at the conditions of the
unlawful detention; notes contradictory
US position that Guantanamo Bay is fully
within US jurisdiction but outside
protection of the US Constitution.

Amnesty International United States of
America, The threat of a bad example:
Undermining international standards as
‘war on terror’ detentions continue and
Incommunicado detention/Fear of ill-

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

 95
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

treatment, these reports address
rendition of detainees to countries
without formal human rights protections;
the risk of ill-treatment; and undermining
of the rule of law.
Sept 2003

NZ Provincial Reconstruction Team (NZ PRT)
deployed to Afghanistan.

9 Oct 2003

International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC) issued public statement noting a
“deterioration in the psychological health
of a large number of the detainees”.

3 Nov 2003

The Australian “S11 chiefs reveal bin
Laden role” reports disclosures made by
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin
al-Shibh detained at an unknown
location; reports the US State
Department co-ordinator for counterterrorism J.Cofer Black when asked if
torture was being used on the two
detainees, saying “All I can say to that is
that there is a before and an after
September 11. We have taken off our
kid gloves.”

2004
2004

Further 22 CIA detainees; 7 subjected to enhanced
interrogation techniques.

 96
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

8 Jan 2004
Feb 2004
Feb 2004

4 Mar 2004

7 Mar 2004

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION
UK ISC wrote to UK PM informing PM of
decision to report on detainees.

NZSAS redeployed to Afghanistan.
ICRC report identified concerns about US
treatment of detainees in Abu Ghraib
prison in Iraq.
Public statement by ICRC United States:
ICRC President Urges Progress on
Detention-Related Issues: “Beyond
Bagram and Guantanamo Bay, the ICRC is
increasingly concerned about the fate of
an unknown number of people captured
as part of the so-called global war on
terror and held in undisclosed locations”;
repeats ICRC request for access to
detainees.
Human Rights Watch Report Enduring
Freedom: Abuses by U.S. Forces in
Afghanistan includes explicit reports of
torture from released detainees, mentions
torture of Abu Zubaydah; names many
other detainees eg, Khalid Sheikh
Mohammed.

28 Apr 2004
May 2004

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

First US media photos of prisoner abuse
at Abu Ghraib prison, Iraq.
UK SIS officials raise concerns with Foreign
Secretary about interrogation techniques
in Afghanistan in 2002/2003.

 97
DATE

10 May 2004
Jun 2004

Jun 2004

Jun 2004
Jun 2004

7 Jun 2004

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

The New Yorker “Torture at Abu Ghraib”.
UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) issued
formal guidance on treatment of
detainees to SIS officers; based on MoD
Sept 2003 Standard Operating Instructions
on the Policy for Apprehending, Handling
and Processing Detainees and Internees
(SOI). (The SOI was described by the UK
Defence Secretary in a Parliamentary
Answer (PQ 172994) on 7 July 2004.)
UK ISC Annual Report 2003/2004 provides
findings to date on detainees, noting
concerns about the treatment of US
detainees and their conditions of
detention.
Human Rights Watch Report The Road to
Abu Ghraib.
US media attention on interrogation
policies relating to ‘high value’
detainees.
Wall Street Journal “Pentagon Report
Set Framework for Use of Torture”
releases Defense Dept Working Group
Memo of 6 March 2003 that identifies
new interrogation guidelines for
Guantanamo Bay detainees;
incorporates the legal reasoning of the

 98
DATE

8 Jun 2004

13 Jun 2004

21 Jun 2004

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Gonzales and Bybee 1 August 2002
‘Torture Memo’.
The Washington Post “Memo Offered
Justification for Use of Torture” refers to
US Justice Dept 2002 Gonzales and
Bybee memo; covering treatment of Al
Qa’ida detainees in CIA custody
offshore; including definition of torture
as “pain accompanying serious physical
injury such as organ failure, impairment
of bodily function, or even death”; refers
to March 2003 Defense Department
review of torture for “exceptional
interrogations”; refers to Secretary of
Defense Rumsfeld’s classified directive
of 16 April 2003 approving the use of 24
interrogation techniques in Guantanamo
Bay.
The Washington Post “Justice Dept
Memo Says Torture ‘May Be Justified’”
releases the Bybee ‘Torture Memo’ of 1
August 2002; also releases Memo of 6
March 2003 by Defense Department
Working Group (above).
The New York Times “The Reach of War:
US Said to Overstate Value of
Guantanamo Detainees” Defense
Department officials acknowledge that
under pressure to produce intelligence

 99
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

in Iraq they “adapted some new more
intensive interrogation techniques that
were approved by Secretary of Defense
Donald H Rumsfeld for use at
Guantanamo”.
1 Jul 2004

Jul 2004
Sept 2004
Sept 2004
Oct 2004
26 Oct 2004

30 Nov 2004

UK Security Service issued guidance to all
officers involved in detainee interviews
(based on MoD SOI).
John E McLaughlan commences as Acting Director,
CIA.
NZSAS return to NZ.
Porter J Goss commences as Director, CIA.
Hamid Karzai elected President of Afghanistan.
Amnesty International United States of
America: Human dignity denied: Torture
and accountability in the ‘war on terror’
provides an overview of US
Administration’s response to 9/11,
“violating basic rights in the name of
national security or military necessity”,
including with regard to detainees in US
custody in Afghanistan.
The New York Times Red Cross Finds
Detainee Abuse in Guantanamo reports
on leaked copy of ICRC report to US
Government that asserts physical and
psychological treatment of detainees in

 100
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION
Guantanamo Bay is “tantamount to
torture” (after ICRC visit in June 2003).

2005
2005
2005

6 Jan 2005
1 Mar 2005

Further 4 CIA detainees; 2 subjected to enhanced
interrogation techniques.
Increased insurgency activity in Afghanistan and
increased use of IEDs and suicide bombings, plus
increased anti-Western and anti-American
sentiment.
US military authority announces further review of
allegations of detainee abuse at Guantanamo Bay.
UK ISC report The handling of detainees by
UK Intelligence Personnel in Afghanistan,
Guantanamo Bay and Iraq presented to
UK Parliament. Identifies 10 detainees in
US “ghost prisons” including Khalid Sheikh
Mohammed; Abu Zubaydah; Riduuan
Isamuddin (aka Hambali); Abd al Rahim al
Nashiri. Records US confirmed in June
2004 the hooding, food and sleep
deprivation of Guantanamo Bay detainees
between Nov 2002 and Jan 2003.
Confirms that formal guidance on the
treatment of detainees (based on the
MoD SOI) was issued to SIS officers in June
2004.

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

 101
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

Apr 2005

10 May 2005

Jun 2005
12 Jun 2005

Oct 2005

Nov 2005
2 Nov 2005

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Human Rights Watch Report Getting Away
With Torture? Command Responsibility for
the US Abuse of Detainees details
rendition and widespread and systematic
torture of US detainees. A list of those
‘disappeared’ while in CIA custody
includes Abu Zubaydah; Ramzi bin alShibh, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and
Riduan Isamuddin (aka Hambali).
US Deputy Assistant A-G Steven Bradbury issues
three Memoranda, including on “combined
effects” of “enhanced interrogation techniques”.
(Partially reported in media October 2007;
declassified 2009).
NZSAS redeployed to Afghanistan.
The New Yorker “Interrogating
Ourselves” refers to waterboarding of
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in 2003.
Vice President Cheney and CIA Director Porter
Goss ask Congress to exempt CIA employees from
legislation that would bar cruel and degrading
treatment of any prisoner in US custody.
NZSAS return to NZ.
The Washington Post “CIA Holds Terror
Suspects in Secret Prisons”. The Post
report identifies CIA prisons in Thailand,
Eastern Europe and Afghanistan;
mentions Abu Zubaydah.

 102
DATE

6 Nov 2005

8 Nov 2005

18 Nov 2005

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Human Rights Watch Statement on US
Secret Detention Facilities cites
independent HRW research that
corroborates above Washington Post
article, eg, CIA plane movements from
Afghanistan to specifically identified
countries; anonymous US Govt. officials
confirm torture, waterboarding.
The New York Times “Report Warned
CIA on Tactics in Interrogation” on 2004
classified report by CIA’s InspectorGeneral, John Helgerson, stating
interrogation “techniques appeared to
constitute cruel degrading and inhuman
treatment” under UNCAT; mentions
waterboarding of Khalid Sheikh
Mohammed; possible exposure of CIA
officials to legal liability; CIA asserts
techniques are lawful. (InspectorGeneral’s report publicly released,
heavily redacted, on 24 August 2009.)
ABC News “CIA’s Harsh Interrogation
Techniques Described” describes the use
of these techniques on at least a dozen
high value detainees, including Khalid
Sheik Mohammed and Ibn al Shaykh al
Libbi. Notes the death of two CIA
detainees as a result of torture (Gul
Rhamin in Kabul and another in Iraq).

 103
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

30 Nov 2005

5 Dec 2005

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION
Human Rights Watch List of “Ghost
Prisoners” Possibly in CIA Custody, lists 26
detainees, including Abu Zubaydah; Ramzi
bin al-Shibh; Abd al-Rahmin al- Nashiri;
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Riduan
Isamuddin (sic) (aka Hambali);
Mohammed Farik Amin (aka Zubair) and
Mohamad Nazir bin Lep (aka Lillie).

US Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice, denies
use of rendition for purpose of interrogation and
torture; says rendition a lawful weapon.

9 Dec 2005

12 Dec 2005

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Dominion Post “Fighting evil with evil”
on CIA’s “enhanced interrogation
techniques”.
United Nations (E/CN.4/2006/7) Report of
the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention
includes “reliable reports” of secret
prisons, extraordinary rendition to those
sites and indefinite detention under the
surveillance of US agents as part of the
“global war on terror”; concludes this is
incompatible with international
humanitarian and human rights law,
including right to be free from torture and
CIDTP.

 104
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

2006
2006
2006

Further 1 CIA detainee; not subjected to enhanced
interrogation techniques.
Increased UK and US public pressure and concern
related to rendition and treatment of detainees.

18 Jan 2006

European Parliament establishes a
Temporary Committee, investigating CIA
transportation and illegal detention of
prisoners (TDIP) and allegations of CIA
prisons in Europe (Fava Inquiry).
United Nations ECOSOC report
(E/CN.4/2006/120) Situation of detainees
at Guantanamo Bay, joint report by five
UN special procedure mandate holders,
identifies treatment of 500 plus detainees
at Guantanamo Bay includes torture.

27 Feb 2006

27 Feb 2006

May – Jul
2006
30 May 2006

The New Yorker (Jane Mayer) “The
Memo. How an internal effort to ban
the abuse and torture of detainees was
thwarted” includes an interview with
Alberto Mora, former General Counsel,
US Navy.
ISAF and Afghan forces in Operation Mountain
Thrust directed at Taleban insurgency in southern
Afghanistan.
General Michael Hayden commences as Director,
CIA.

 105
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

7 Jun 2006

29 Jun 2006

Jul 2006
approx

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of
Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs and
Human Rights (PACE Committee) adopts
the first Report (the 2006 Marty Report)
Alleged secret detentions and illegal
transfers of detainees involving Council of
Europe member states, report notes a
global “spider’s web” of CIA detentions
and transfers; alleged collusion by 14
Council of Europe member states with the
CIA in these unlawful activities, while
other countries “ignored them knowingly
or did not want to know”. “The main
concern of some governments was clearly
to avoid disturbing their relationships with
the Unites States, a crucial partner and
ally.”

US Supreme Court ruling in Hamdam v Rumsfeld
that common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions
applies to all detainees, of any nationality, held in
any country, in US custody.
General Hayden, Director CIA gives a personal
assurance to Five Eyes agency heads including
Directors of GCSB and NZSIS that the CIA will go
right up to but not cross the line of
legality/illegality. (Discussed in General Hayden’s
2016 book Playing to the Edge: American
Intelligence in the Age of Terror.)

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

 106
DATE

1 Aug 2006
Sept 2006
6 Sept 2006

Oct 2006
Nov 2006
Nov 2006

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA
Transfer of southern and eastern regions in
Afghanistan to NATO/ISAF.
End of Dr Warren Tucker’s term as Director of
GCSB.
President Bush acknowledges existence and use of
secret CIA prisons overseas; advises remaining
detainees to be transferred to military custody at
Guantanamo Bay.
End of Mr Richard Woods’ term as Director of
NZSIS.
Dr Warren Tucker commences as Director of NZSIS.
Air Marshal Sir Bruce Ferguson commences as
Director of GCSB.

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

2007
2007
2007
14 Feb 2007

Further 1 CIA detainee; 1 subjected to enhanced
interrogation techniques.
Continued insurgency activity in Afghanistan.
European Parliament approved the Fava
Report on CIA renditions. It identified at
least 1,245 flights operated by CIA in
European airspace between 2001 and
2005.
European Parliament adopted the
‘Resolution on the alleged use of
European countries by the CIA for the
transportation and illegal detention of

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

 107
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

28 Jun 2007

21 Jul 2007

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

prisoners’, deploring that governments of
European countries did not feel the need
to ask the US government for clarification
on the existence of secret prisons; noting
“the strong possibility that some
European countries may have received,
knowingly or unknowingly, information
obtained by torture”.
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of
Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs and
Human Rights (PACE Committee) adopts
the second Report (the 2007 Marty
Report), revealing that ‘high value’
detainees had been held in CIA detention
centres in Europe from 2003 to 2005.
UK ISC report on Rendition presented to
UK Parliament.

11 Jun 2007

20 Jul 2007

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

President Bush issues Executive Order 13440,
determining that CIA ‘s programme of detention
and interrogation “fully complies” with Geneva
Conventions common Article 3, provided CIA
practices do not include torture or CIDTP.
The Washington Post “Bush approves
new CIA methods” details the previous
abuse of detainees and the new
Executive Order; notes actual CIA
interrogation guidelines are contained in
a classified document; reports new
safeguards include every use of an

 108
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

7 Dec 2007

5 Feb 2008

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

enhanced technique is to be signed off
by CIA Director General Hayden.
The New York Times “Secret US
Endorsement of Severe Interrogations”
discloses the existence of the
Department of Justice’s 2005 opinion on
acceptable ‘combined effects’ of EIT (the
Bradbury memos), approved by A-G
Alberto Gonzales.
The New York Times “CIA Destroyed 2
Tapes Showing Interrogations” notes at
least two tapes were destroyed,
including those of 2002 severe
interrogations of Abu Zubaydah;
includes CIA Director General Hayden
stating videotapes were a security risk.

4 Oct 2007

2008
Early 2008

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

US Admiral describes situation in Afghanistan as
“precarious and urgent”; increase in US and UK
troops.
The Guardian “CIA admits
‘waterboarding’ al-Qaida suspects”
reports General Hayden told the Senate
Intelligence Committee that Khalid
Sheikh Mohammed, Abu Zubaydah and
Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri were
waterboarded by the CIA in 2002 and

 109
DATE

10 Mar 2008

11 Mar 2008

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

15 Jul 2008

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

2003; reports General Hayden saying he
opposed limiting CIA interrogation
techniques to those permitted in US
Army Field Manual.
The veto is widely criticised in US media
as allowing CIA torture of detainees to
continue.

President Bush vetoes legislation (HR 2082
Intelligence Authorization Act 2008 for Fiscal Year
2008) that would limit CIA and US government
agency interrogations to those permitted by US
Army Field Manual standards. The President’s Veto
Message (110-100) said the Bill would “impose
several unnecessary and unacceptable burdens on
our Intelligence Community. …It is vitally important
that the CIA be allowed to maintain a separate and
classified interrogation program”.
US Congress sustains the President’s veto on Bill
HR 2082 (which required a vote of two-thirds of
both the House of Representatives and Senate).

7 Apr 2008

13 Jun 2008

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

Human Rights Watch Double Jeopardy: CIA
Renditions to Jordan outlines the torture
of CIA detainees transferred to Jordan
during 2001 to 2004 or later, including
some 14 non-Jordanian detainees
transferred there from the US; includes
the torture of Ramzi bin al-Shibh.
Taleban fighters liberated 1200 prisoners from jail
in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
Journalist Jane Mayer’s book The Dark
Side: The Inside Story of How a War on

 110
DATE

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

Terror Turned into a War on American
Ideals is published; includes details of
the US Administration approved
treatment of detainees by the CIA; book
is reviewed in the media.
20 Nov 2008

2009
22 Jan 2009

Feb 2009

Report of the Committee on Armed Services,
United States Senate Inquiry into the treatment of
detainees in US Custody, determined as part of the
19 conclusions that CIA interrogation techniques
were at odds with the commitment to humane
treatment of detainees in US custody; created a
serious risk of physical and psychological harm to
the detainees; and that the Office of Legal Counsel
opinions (the “Torture Memos”) distorted the
meaning and intent of anti-torture laws,
rationalised the abuse of detainees and influenced
Department of Defense determination as to legal
interrogation techniques for use by US military.
President Obama, on second day in office, signs:
Executive Order 13491 Ensuring Lawful
Interrogation;
Executive Order 13492 Review and Disposition of
Individuals Detained at the Guantanamo Bay Naval
Base and Close of Detention Facilities; and
Executive Order 13493 Review of Detention Policy
Options.
Leon Panetta commenced as Director, CIA.

 111
DATE

2 Mar 2009

19 April 2009

EVENT IN OR RELEVANT TO AFGHANISTAN /
NEW ZEALAND INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY
AGENCIES AND NZDF SUPPORT TO OEF & ISAF /
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA GOVERNMENT & CIA

PUBLICATION – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION; GOVERNMENT; NONGOVERNMENT ORGANISATION

PUBLICATION – MEDIA

The New York Times “US Says CIA
Destroyed 92 Tapes of Interrogations”
article on the US Government discussing
the extent of the 2005 destruction of
tapes held at the CIA station in Thailand;
notes this is where Abu Zubaydah and
Abd al-Rahmin al-Nashiri were
interrogated.
The New York Times “Waterboarding
Used 266 Times on 2 Suspects” concerns
a 30 May 2005 US Justice Dept legal
memo, now publicly released, that
states the extent of waterboarding of
detainees Abu Zubaydah (83 times) and
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (183 times).
Article also details, from another
released 2005 Justice Dept memo, that
waterboarding was used more
frequently and with a greater volume of
water than the CIA rules permitted.

 112

APPENDIX C: FORMER DIRECTORS OF THE GCSB AND NZSIS 2001-2009

GCSB Director

Period in role

NZSIS Director of
Security

Period in role

Dr Warren Tucker

1999 to Sept
2006

Richard Woods

Nov 1999 to Oct
2006

Air Marshal Sir Bruce
Ferguson KNZM OBE

Nov 2006 to Nov
2010

Dr Warren Tucker

Nov 2006 to April
2014

AFC

 113

APPENDIX D: LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Prohibition of torture – sources of law
International law
Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice sets out the four main sources
of international law, which are, in summary:


international conventions (treaties);



international custom, as evidence of general practice accepted as law;



general principles of law; and



judicial decisions and expert commentary, as subsidiary means for the
determination of rules of law.211

International conventions
2.

211
212

213
214
215
216
217
218

219

New Zealand has signed and ratified the following relevant international conventions:


The United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (UNCAT).212 UNCAT requires that States shall
“prevent acts of torture”213 and provides that “no exceptional circumstances
whatsoever … may be invoked as a justification of torture”. 214 It also prohibits
‘complicity’ in torture 215 and requires that States prevent “other acts of CIDT and
punishment”.216 The prohibition in UNCAT on torture and CIDT also extends to
acts committed “at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a
public official or other person acting in an official capacity”;217



The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)218 which states
that no person shall be subjected to torture or to CIDT or punishment; and
requires that “persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and
with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person”; 219

Statute of the International Court of Justice 892 UNTS 119 (26 June 1945).
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (New York, 4 February
1985; Treaty Series No 107 (1991); Cm 1775).
UNCAT, art 2(1).
UNCAT, art 2(2).
UNCAT, art 4.
UNCAT, art 16.
UNCAT, art 16.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (New York, 19 December 1966; Treaty Series No. 6 (1977); Cmnd
6702).
ICCPR, art 7.

 114


The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Additional Protocols of 1977.220 These
require humane treatment of detainees and specifically prohibit torture, and cruel
and degrading treatment in the context of an armed conflict. The Geneva
Conventions and the Additional Protocols are sometimes referred to as the law of
armed conflict (LOAC) or International Humanitarian Law (IHL);



Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC), which includes torture as
a ‘crime against humanity’, when committed as part of a widespread or systematic
attack against any civilian population.221

Customary international law
3.

The prohibition on torture is a rule of customary international law.222 Such law is established
through state practice together with a belief that the practice is required by law (opinio juris).

4.

The prohibition on torture is also a jus cogens norm,223 a fundamental principle of international
law from which no derogation is possible.

Decisions of international courts and tribunals
5.

A subsidiary means for determining international law is the decisions of various international
courts and tribunals that have considered cases in which torture has been alleged. Of most
relevance in this context are the decisions of the ICC.224 The ICC is the court of last resort for the
prosecution of serious international crimes; it is complementary to national criminal
jurisdictions.225 The decisions of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), both established in accordance
with resolutions of the United Nations Security Council, and the International Court of Justice
(ICJ) are also relevant.

International Law Commission Articles on State Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ILC
Articles)
6.

In addition, there are relevant secondary rules of international law, including codifications of
international law produced by specialist organisations. The International Law Commission’s
Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ILC Articles) (said to,
in large part, codify customary international law) constitute a framework through which State
responsibility can arise under international law for any internationally wrongful act, including

220

Conventions for the Protection of War Victims 75 UNTS 287 (opened for signature 12 August 1949; entered into force
21 October 1950).
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 2187 UNTS 90 (opened for signature 17 July 1998, entered into force1
July 2002), art 7(1)(f) (Rome Statute).
Prosecutor v Furundzija (Judgment) ICTY Appeals Chamber IT-95-17/1-T, 10 December 1998 at [137].
Jus cogens in Latin means ‘compelling law’, in essence representing certain legal rules which uphold fundamental
values, from which it is not possible to contract out.
Rome Statute.
Rome Statute, art 1.

221

222
223

224
225

 115
torture.226 Under Article 16, a State has international responsibility where that State materially
aids or assists another State in the commission of an internationally wrongful act, if it does so
with intent and knowledge of the circumstances of that wrongful act and the act would be
internationally wrongful if committed by that State. The Articles also address serious breaches
of peremptory norms. Article 40 defines a breach as serious “if it involves a gross or systematic
failure by the responsible State.” Article 41 requires States to cooperate to bring an end through
lawful means to any serious breach within the meaning of Article 40 and not to recognise as
lawful a situation created by a serious breach nor render aid or assistance in maintaining that
situation. Article 41 is less likely to represent settled or customary international law.
Other expert sources
7.

Article 38(1) of the ICJ Statute also recognises commentary from eminent scholars as a
subsidiary means of identifying international law. Such commentary is among other significant
contributions to the debate on what at international law amounts to ‘complicity’. Some of these
are canvassed below. While not primary sources of the law, they may amount to persuasive and
influential commentary. They help to elucidate the areas that remain the subject of debate and
may lead to the progressive development of international law.

Domestic law
8.

Various New Zealand laws, particularly those which incorporate the international conventions
referred to above, are also relevant. They are set out in more detail later.

Defining torture
9.

10.

226

227
228

The three key elements of torture are:227


the intentional infliction of severe pain or suffering, physical or mental;



by, or at the instigation, or with the consent or acquiescence of, an official or
public person acting in an official capacity;



for certain purposes such as obtaining third person information or a confession.

While UNCAT also requires States to prevent “other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment which do not amount to torture as defined”, 228 CIDT, as it is known, is
not itself defined.

See ILC Articles, art 2: “There is an internationally wrongful act of a State when conduct consisting of an act or omission:
(a) is attributable to the State under international law; and (b) constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the
State.” UN General Assembly Resolutions have commended the ILC Articles to the attention of States (eg, Responsibility
of States for internationally wrongful acts A/RES/56/83 (2001); Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts
A/RES/ 62/61 (2007). The Secretary-General’s Report (A71/80) in 2016 noted a further 72 cases between 2013 and
2016 in which international courts, tribunals and other bodies cited the ILC Articles.
UNCAT, art 1.
UNCAT, art 16.

 116
How the definition of torture has been interpreted in relevant contexts
11.

Several jurisdictions have specifically considered what would constitute “torture” in relevant
contexts. While the US Manual and UK training documentation referred to in the boxes below
do not have any status under international law, except to the extent they reflect the practice of
those countries, they are a useful guide to what kinds of activities might constitute torture in
this context.
United States examples of prohibited treatment amounting to torture: The United States
Army Field Manual Human Intelligence Collector Operations explicitly prohibits torture and
cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment of detainees, including prohibiting
the following actions in intelligence interrogations:

having the detainee naked or perform sexual acts or pose in a sexual manner


using hoods or duct tape over the eyes



beatings, electric shocks, burns or other forms of physical pain



waterboarding



using military working dogs



inducing hypothermia or heat injury



conducting mock executions



depriving the detainee of necessary food, water or medical care.229

United Kingdom examples of prohibited treatment amounting to torture: The United
Kingdom Joint Services Intelligence Organisation’s training documentation identifies –
similar to the United States but more widely – the following techniques as ‘expressly and
explicitly forbidden’:
physical punishment of any sort
the use of stress positions
intentional sleep deprivation230
withdrawal of food, water or medical treatment
degrading treatment (sexual embarrassment, religious taunting etc)
the use of ‘white noise’
torture methods such as thumb screws etc.231

229

230
231

United States Army Field Manual 2-22.3 Human Intelligence Collector Operations 2006 at [5.74] to [5.75]. Note that the
Manual’s Appendix M Restricted Interrogation Technique – Separation, which is intended to prolong the shock of
capture and prevent detainees communicating, continues to attract criticism in relation to: a detainee possibly being
allowed only four hours of continuous sleep every 24 hours; physical separation for up to 30 days (the “initial duration”);
the use of earmuffs and goggles or blindfolds on detainees for separation in the field for 12 hours (the “initial duration”
at the “initial interrogation site”), not including the time blindfolds or goggles and earmuffs are used on detainees “for
security purposes during transit and evacuation”.
The Senate Report, above n 4, identified that the sleep deprivation of some detainees lasted for 170 hours (7½ days).
UK ISC The Handling of Detainees by United Kingdom Intelligence Personnel in Afghanistan, Guantanamo Bay and Iraq
(Cm 6469, March 2005) at [29]. The broader scope of specific prohibitions in the UK material reflects ECHR caselaw,
which is binding on the UK.

 117
Absolute prohibition
12.

The prohibition of torture is absolute, with no derogation allowed.232 “No exceptional
circumstances, whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political
instability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification of torture”. 233 The
Committee against Torture “is deeply concerned at and rejects absolutely” any efforts by States
to justify torture and ill treatment as a means to protect public safety and avert emergencies.234

13.

As former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said in 2005 “The threat of terror is real and
immediate. Yet fear of terrorists can never justify adopting their methods.”235
“Recent times have witnessed an especially disturbing trend of countries claiming exceptions
to the prohibition on torture based on their own national security perceptions. Let us be clear,
torture can never be an instrument to fight terror, for torture is an instrument of terror.” 236

14.

Nowak and McArthur note that: 237
“Article 2(2) [of UNCAT] confirms the prohibition of torture is one of the few absolute and nonderogable human rights. … This provision therefore provides a clear answer to all attempts
aimed at undermining the absolute prohibition of torture for the sake of national security in
combatting global terrorism, such as the ‘ticking bomb scenario’ or special interrogation
methods authorised by Israel and the US Government in their respective counter-terrorism
strategies”.

What UNCAT requires of States
15.

Among other things, UNCAT requires States to:
Ensure that all acts of torture, attempts to commit torture and any act by any person
which constitutes complicity or participation in torture, are offences under its criminal
law.238
Take “effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent acts of
torture in any territory under its jurisdiction”.239

232
233

234

235
236
237

238
239

UNCAT, art 2(2).
Supported by The Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights (1984), which at [58] provide that “no state party shall, even in time of emergency threatening the
life of the nation, derogate from the Covenant’s guarantees of … freedom from torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment”. The Siracusa Principles were developed at a colloquium composed of 31 distinguished
experts in international law, held at Siracusa, Italy, in 1984. The purpose was to identify the limitation and derogation
provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and develop principles for their application.
The colloquium was a response to the abuse of these provisions by some governments.
UN Committee against Torture, General Comment 2 Implementation of article 2 by state parties, CAT/G/GC/2, 24
January 2008 at [5].
Kofi Annan “Message for Human Rights Day”, (8 December 2005).
Kofi Annan “Message for Human Rights Day”, above n 235.
Manfred Nowak and Elizabeth McArthur The United Nations Convention Against Torture: A Commentary (Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2008) at 89.
UNCAT, art 4.
UNCAT, art 2.

 118
Take such measures as necessary to establish jurisdiction over the offences referred to in
Article 4 in the following cases:
when the offences are committed in any territory under its jurisdiction or on board
a ship or aircraft registered in that State;
when the alleged offender is a national of that State;
when the victim is a national of that State, if that State considers it appropriate. 240
Ensure that its competent authorities “proceed to a prompt and impartial investigation,
wherever there are reasonable grounds to believe that an act of torture has been
committed in any territory under its jurisdiction.241
Not use any statement “established to have been made as a result of torture” as evidence
in any proceedings.242
Prevent in any territory under its jurisdiction other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment which do not amount to torture as defined in Article 1, when
such acts are committed by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence
of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. 243
The prohibition of torture in New Zealand law
16.

240
241
242

243
244

The legal obligations in relation to torture resulting from ratification of UNCAT and ICCPR are
given domestic effect in New Zealand principally by the Crimes of Torture Act 1989 (Crimes of
Torture Act) and the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (NZBORA). Other New Zealand statutes
also incorporate into New Zealand law and give effect to related international legal obligations:


Crimes Act 1961 (Crimes Act) (offences relating to aiding and abetting criminal
acts);244



Geneva Conventions Act 1958;



International Crimes and International Criminal Court Act 2000 (makes further
provision for the punishment of the international crimes of genocide, crimes
against humanity, and war crimes and enables New Zealand to cooperate with the
International Criminal Court established by the Rome Statute in the performance
of its functions);

UNCAT, art 5.
UNCAT, art 12.
UNCAT, art 15. The phrase ‘evidence in any proceedings’ refers only to the assessment of evidence before a judicial or
administrative authority acting in accordance with certain rules of taking evidence laid down in the respective (criminal,
civil or administrative) procedural code, ie the application of Article 15 presupposes the assessment of evidence in a
formal procedure which leads to a decision of the respective court or administrative agency.
UNCAT, art 16.
Note the Fifth Periodic Report of New Zealand CAT/C/NZL/5 2007 lists offences in ss 66(1), 128, 167, 168, 171, 188, 193,
196, 204A and 204B of the Crimes Act 1961 as relevant to the domestic implementation of UNCAT.

 119


Abolition of Death Penalty Act 1989 (relating to the ICCPR and the Second
Optional Protocol to the ICCPR ‘Aiming at the Abolition of the Death Penalty’);



Extradition Act 1999 (relating to extradition of individuals for offences under the
Crimes of Torture Act);



Immigration Act 2009 (Part 5 regarding obligations under the UN Convention of
the Status of Refugees and codifying certain obligations under UNCAT and ICCPR);
and



Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 1992.

Offences under the Crimes of Torture Act 1989
17.

Section 2(1) of the Crimes of Torture Act defines an “act of torture” in essentially the same terms
as Article 1(1) of UNCAT. Section 3 creates the criminal offence: a person is liable upon
conviction to 14 years imprisonment who, being “a public official” or “acting in an official
capacity,” or “acting at the instigation or with the consent or acquiescence of such a person,”
whether in or outside New Zealand: 245
a.

commits an act of torture;

b.

does or omits an act for the purpose of aiding any person to commit an act of torture;

c.

abets any person in committing an act of torture; or

d.

incites, counsels or procures any person to commit an act of torture.

18.

Section 3 also criminalises other familiar forms of liability and secondary participation. It is an
offence246 for a public official to attempt to commit an act of torture, or conspire with another
person to commit an act of torture, or be an accessory after the fact to an act of torture.

19.

The New Zealand Government has reported to the Committee against Torture 247 that “New
Zealand law makes no provision for waiver of the provisions of the Crimes of Torture Act 1989
or of the Crimes Act 1961, nor can exceptional circumstances such as a state or threat of war,
internal and political instability, or other public emergency be invoked as defences for any
offence referred to [in New Zealand legislation]”.248

245
246
247

248

Crimes of Torture Act, s 3(1).
Crimes of Torture Act, s 3(2).
The Committee against Torture was established under Part II of UNCAT in 1984 and commenced work in 1987. The
Committee receives States’ reports (Article 19), has an inter-state complaint competence (Article 21) and may hear
individual communications (Article 22). In both the latter cases, it is necessary that the state or states concerned should
have made a declaration accepting the competence of the Committee: Malcolm N Shaw International Law (8th ed,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017) at 247.
UN Committee against Torture Fifth Periodic Report of New Zealand CAT/C/NZL/5, 15 August 2007 at [70].

 120
Rights and freedoms under the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (NZBORA)
20.

NZBORA “affirm[s] New Zealand’s commitment to the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights”. NZBORA applies to the actions of government and those acting in performance
of a public function.249 It therefore covers the actions of both intelligence and security agencies.

21.

The legal obligations under Article 7 of the ICCPR are found in s 9 of NZBORA, which provides
that “everyone has the right not to be subjected to torture or to cruel, degrading or
disproportionately severe treatment or punishment”.250

22.

New Zealand has affirmed the non-derogable nature of the prohibition on torture: “The
Government considers the prohibition of torture under article 2(2) of the Convention and s 9 of
NZBORA to be absolute and thus not amenable to reasonable limitations.”251

Complicity in torture
23.

UNCAT specifically prohibits complicity in torture, as well as torture itself. However, UNCAT does
not define what ‘complicity’ means. It implies the involvement of a party as a secondary
participant, for example by providing assistance or support, rather than as a primary perpetrator
of an act of torture. As a result of the lack of definition, Courts, lawyers and academics have
looked to related and analogous practice in respect of other international instruments and cases
to answer the question. However, as others have noted252 great care needs to be taken when
transferring concepts and interpretations from one instrument to another.

24.

Complicity in torture can give rise to both State responsibility and individual criminal liability.
The same facts might give rise to issues of complicity for a State and for its individual public
officials, but the thresholds for establishing State responsibility for complicity in torture on the
one hand, and individual criminal liability under international law, on the other, are different.

25.

International law as it applies to both State responsibility and individual liability is complex and
far from settled. What follows is a statement of the generally accepted elements required to
establish complicity in respect of each. As the Introduction to the Report notes, the terms of
reference for the Inquiry did not assume any involvement by New Zealand, or New Zealand
officials, in conduct that amounted to a breach of human rights, including torture or complicity
in torture. The legal tests set out below are those that I considered and which informed the
Inquiry findings. I reiterate that I am satisfied that the agencies, their Directors at the time and
their individual staff members, did not breach the law; nor were they complicit in such breaches.

249
250
251

252

NZBORA, s 3.
The right not to be deprived of life is provided in NZBORA, s 8.
Committee against Torture Fifth Periodic Report of New Zealand CAT/C/NZL/5 (15 August 2007), Article 2 at [14];
Restated in New Zealand’s Sixth Periodic Report of New Zealand CAT/C/NZL/6, 20 December 2013, Article 3 at [95],
simply as the “Protection against torture is absolute”.
Sir Peter Gibson The Report of the Detainee Inquiry (December 2013) Annex B ‘The Detainee Inquiry seminar on
international and domestic law on torture, other ill-treatment, and complicity’ at [18].

 121
State responsibility for complicity in torture
26.

State responsibility might arise in two ways: by the actions or omissions of organs of the State
or if the illegal acts of individual officials can be attributed to the State. 253 International law
imposes a high threshold before attributing responsibility for complicity in torture, although the
standard varies as between the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the
one hand, and the ad hoc tribunals (ICTY, ICTR) on the other. This stems (at least in part) from
the fact that the ICJ’s jurisdiction is over States which have non-criminal liability and the ICTY
and ICTR’s jurisdiction is over individuals who have criminal liability. So although all three bodies
deal with genocide, there are differences in, for example, whether the presumption of
innocence applies; whether forms of complicity beyond just aiding and abetting are recognised.
Case law shows that while the ICTY and ICTR construe ‘assistance’ to include encouragement
and moral support, the ICJ limits it to political, military and financial aid.254

27.

The high bar for finding one State complicit in the seriously wrongful acts of another State is
reflected in two decisions of the ICJ, the Nicaragua case255 and the Bosnia case.256 In Nicaragua
the Court said:257
“[the Court takes] the view that United States participation, even if preponderant and decisive,
in the financing, organizing, training, supplying and equipping of the contras, the selection of
its military or paramilitary targets, and the planning of its whole operation, is still insufficient in
itself, on the basis of the evidence in the possession of the Court, for the purpose of attributing
to the United States the acts committed by the contras in the course of their military or
paramilitary operations in Nicaragua.”

28.

In Bosnia the ICJ applied essentially the same test for State responsibility for complicity as in the
Nicaragua case:258
“The Court sees no reason to make any distinction of substance between ‘complicity in
genocide’, within the meaning of Article III, paragraph (e) of the [Genocide] Convention, and
the ‘aid or assistance’ of a State in the commission of a wrongful act by another State within
the meaning of the aforementioned Article 16 [of the ILC Articles] …. In other words, to
ascertain whether the Respondent is responsible for ‘complicity in genocide’ within the
meaning of Article III, paragraph (e), [the Court] must examine whether organs of the
respondent State or persons acting on its instructions or under its direction or effective control,
furnished ‘aid or assistance’ in the commission of the genocide in Srebrenica, in a sense not
significantly different from that of those concepts in the general law of international
responsibility.”

253
254

255

256

257
258

ILC Articles, Article 8.
Amabelle C. Asuncion “Pulling the Stops on Genocide: The State or the Individual” The European Journal of International
Law (2009) 20(4) at 1212 - 1217.
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America (US) [1986] ICJ Rep
4 (Nicaragua case).
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia-Herzegovina v Serbia
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide [2007] ICJ Rep 17 (Bosnia case).
Nicaragua case, above n 255, at [115].
Bosnia case, above n 256, at [420].

 122
29.

For the moment, the threshold for State liability through complicity is an exacting one. Under
accepted international law principles it can conservatively be stated as requiring:259
actual, as opposed to constructive, knowledge of the circumstances of the intentionally
wrongful act; and
the aid or assistance must be given with a view to facilitating, and must in fact facilitate,
the commission of the act of torture.

Individual criminal liability for complicity in torture
30.

The ICC has jurisdiction over individuals who commit a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court
(including torture, as a ‘crime against humanity’)260 but the primary responsibility for dealing
with crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC rests with individual States parties, 261 under their
domestic law. Only where the relevant State is unwilling or unable to properly investigate an
allegation does the matter become admissible for the ICC. This means that both international
cases and commentary on the meaning of complicity and domestic New Zealand law on
secondary liability are relevant.

Under international law
31.

The ICC’s Rome Statute provides for aiding and abetting as a basis for individual criminal
responsibility.262 Article 25(3)(c) provides:
“In accordance with this Statute, a person shall be criminally responsible and liable for
punishment for a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court if that person: (c) For the purpose
of facilitating the commission of such a crime, aids, abets or otherwise assists in its commission
or its attempted commission, including providing the means for its commission;”

32.

Two aspects of Article 25(3)(c) are of particular relevance. First, the mental elements necessary
to find someone guilty of aiding and abetting a crime; second, the material elements of ‘aiding’
and ‘abetting’.

33.

As to the mental elements, Article 25(3)(c) requires purpose - “the purpose of facilitating the
commission of such a crime, [that person] aids, abets, or otherwise assists …” (emphasis added).
In addition, Article 30 of the Rome Statute imposes an intent and knowledge requirement – “…
a person shall be criminally responsible and liable for punishment for a crime within the
jurisdiction of the Court only if the material elements are committed with intent and

259

260
261
262

I have adopted the statement of the current position on State responsibility for complicity in torture articulated by
international law expert Dr Melissa Perry QC (now a Judge of the Federal Court of Australia) and accepted by the
Australian Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security, Australia Inquiry into the actions of Australian government
agencies in relation to the arrest and detention overseas of Mr Mamdouh Habib from 2001 to 2005 (December 2011)
at 109 - 110. Dr Perry’s advice and the Australian Inspector-General’s conclusion was in relation to Australia’s legal
obligations. For the purposes of this Inquiry, and in the absence of an official government position, I adopt this
conservative standard.
Rome Statute, arts 7(1)(f) and 25(1).
Rome Statute, art 17(1)(a).
Rome Statute, art 25(3)(c).

 123
knowledge” (emphasis added). That is, the accessory must have lent his or her assistance with
the aim of facilitating the offence.
34.

The commentary from Olasolo and Rojo 263 emphasises this point:
“In addition to the generally applicable intent and knowledge provided for in Article 30 of the
ICC Statute, Article 25(3)(c) of the ICC statute expressly requires the ‘purpose of facilitating the
commission of such a crime’ by the perpetrator. Accordingly, an aider and abettor under the
ICC Statute must have a purposeful will to bring about the crime …., or at least the will to
assist in the commission of the crime. As a result, mere awareness that assistance in a crime
will be the necessary outcome of one’s conduct … does not suffice for responsibility to arise
as an aider and abettor under Article 25(3)(c) of the ICC Statute. Any lower mental element,
such as conditional intent … or negligence, is not sufficient either.” (emphasis added)

35.

Olasolo and Rojo go on to note: 264
“The intent required by Article 25(3)(c) of the ICC Statute marks an important difference with
the case law of the ad hoc and hybrid tribunals on aiding and abetting.”

36.

In addition to the difference between the ICC and the ad hoc tribunals as to the mental elements
necessary to establish accessorial liability, there is no consistency on what material elements –
what kind of support or assistance – will be necessary to amount to ‘aiding’ and ‘abetting’.
Within the ICTY Appeals Chamber265 there have been sharply divided views on the exact nature
of the material elements necessary to constitute aiding and abetting, which have not been
resolved.266 In Perisic, the Appeals Chamber concluded that the provision of aid “specifically
directed” to the commission of the crime by the perpetrator was required to prove accessorial
liability. The effect of Perisic is to require evidence establishing a direct link between the aid
provided by an accused and the crime committed by the perpetrator.

37.

In Sainovic a differently constituted Appeals Chamber reached the opposite view, stating that
it: “[u]nequivocally rejects the approach adopted in the Perisic Appeal Judgment as it is in direct
and material conflict with the prevailing jurisprudence on the actus reus of aiding and abetting
liability and with customary international law in this regard.” This divergence of view at the
highest level of the Court has not yet been resolved.

263

264

265

266

Hector Olasolo and Enrique Carnero Rojo, “Forms of Accessorial Liability under Article 25(3)(b)and (c)” in Stahn (ed),
The Law and Practice of the International Criminal Court (Oxford University Press, USA, 2015) at 584.
Hector Olasolo and Enrique Carnero Rojo, “Forms of Accessorial Liability under Article 25(3)(b) and (c)”, above n 263,
at 586.
The Updated Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY Statute) provides that the
Tribunal has power to prosecute persons responsible for torture, when committed in armed conflict, whether
international or internal in character, and directed against any civilian population (Article 5(f ); and for the individual
criminal responsibility of a person who “planned, instigated, ordered, committed or otherwise aided and abetted in
the planning, preparation or execution” of the torture (article 7(1)).
Prosecutor v Momcilo Perisic (Judgment) ICTY Appeals Chamber IT-04-81-A, 28 February 2013 at [36] and [41];
Prosecutor v Nikola Sainovic et al (Judgment) ICTY Appeals Chamber IT-05-87-A, 23 January 2014 at [1650].

 124
Under New Zealand law
38.

In New Zealand the Article 4 UNCAT obligation to ensure that acts of complicity or participation
in torture is a criminal offence is given effect principally by s 3 of the Crimes of Torture Act. The
Crimes Act is also generally relevant.267

39.

Section 3(1) of the Crimes of Torture Act 1989 (see earlier in this section) creates criminal liability
for those who carry out the acts which constitute the offence of torture (ie the principal), and
also criminalises the conduct of any party who intentionally aids, abets or encourages the
principal in that offence. Section 3(1) of the Crimes of Torture Act directly imports from s 66(1)
of the Crimes Act all the forms of intentional “party” participation present in New Zealand’s
general criminal law. The manner and extent of criminalisation is thus consistent with New
Zealand’s general approach to party liability: s 3(1) has the effect in law that a person convicted
of “party” participation is just as guilty of the substantive offence committed as the “principal”
who in fact carried out the criminal act; any differences in culpability are relevant only to
sentencing.

40.

Unlike the position at international law, the elements necessary for party liability to arise under
s 66(1), and thus equally under s 3(1) of the Crimes of Torture Act which mirrors it, are
reasonably settled. Case law, including the leading and recent New Zealand case of Ahsin v R,
identifies the nuances and elements of party liability under s 66(1)(b)-(d) as being:268

Proof of an action that aids, abets or encourages another to commit the offence. The
action must be deliberately taken, with the intention that the conduct will aid the
principal offender in his or her particular criminal actions.
The “essential aspects” of the principal’s criminal actions must be known to the assisting
person.
The “essential aspects” include both physical and mental aspects of the principal’s
conduct – that is, the assisting person must know both the actions to be taken by the
principal and the intention with which they are to be done.
There must be conduct from the assisting party that in fact assists or encourages the
principal in the commission of the offence.
Under s 66(1) there is no need for the assisting party to be present at the time of the
offence, and the assistance or encouragement need not remain operative at the time the
offence is committed by the principal.269 However, where the allegation of a defendant’s
involvement as a party is founded upon aiding and abetting, the act relied upon must
occur prior to or contemporaneous with the commission of the offence. 270

267
268
269
270

Crimes of Torture Act 1989, s 14.
Ahsin v R [2015] 1 NZLR 493 at [82] to [83].
Ahsin, above n 268, at [208] and [116].
R v Samuels [1995] 1 NZLR 350 (CA) at 356.

 125
New Zealand law has addressed the position of parties who are present or very
proximate to the offence but not physically involved. Criminal liability under s 66(1) will
not arise from “mere presence” at the scene of the crime, or being a “mere bystander”
to the offence. However, in certain circumstances the element of “encouragement” may
be established where the “mere bystander” has a duty to act or where the circumstances
establish that the omission to act was for the purpose of encouraging and did encourage
the principal to commit the offence. Exceptionally, given the specificity of intention
required under s 66(1), an intention to encourage may not always be necessary for
liability if there is a duty on the bystander to act. 271
It is not necessary for the prosecution to prove that there was a causal connection
between the aiding or abetting or inciting and the commission of the offence. 272

41.

I observe, without discussion, that there may be additional routes in domestic law to party or
secondary liability, beyond s 3(1), given that the Crimes of Torture Act expressly preserves the
general effect of the Crimes Act 1961. 273

Areas of uncertainty and possible development in the international law of complicity
42.

The current status of international law must, as discussed above, be gleaned from the relevant
international instruments, as interpreted by the relevant international courts and tribunals and
having regard to, for example, legal principles codified in the International Law Commission’s
draft Articles, as well as New Zealand domestic law.

43.

What is plain from the brief summary above is that the international law on complicity is not
settled, especially on issues concerning the specificity of intent required by the secondary party;
the standard of knowledge that torture is likely to occur; and the nature of assistance that will
suffice. There is also an important debate on whether, and in what factual circumstances,
“complicity” might be established on the basis of regular or systematic receipt of unsolicited
information obtained from torture. Different tribunals have taken different views on some of
these issues and international law experts and expert (non-UN and non-judicial) bodies at times
disagree. It is important not to lose sight of those debates, some of which squarely pose the
question how the law relating to complicity might or should apply in the context of intelligence
sharing and cooperation arrangements.

44.

Among those contributions are:

271
272
273

Charnley v R (2013) 26 CRNZ 264 at [45] (CA) and R v Brough CA507/96, 27 February 1997 (CA).
Ahsin, above n 268, at [46] and R v Calhaem [1985] QB 808.
Crimes of Torture Act, s 14(2). In particular, s 66(2) Crimes Act 1961 (common purpose party liability) is theoretically
available. On the right facts it could give rise to party liability under New Zealand law if a New Zealand official was party
to a “common intention to prosecute any unlawful purpose”, and one of the group, in pursuit of that purpose,
committed an act of torture.

 126

45.



report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights
and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism;274



the UK Joint Committee on Human Rights Report on Allegations of UK Complicity in
Torture;275



Sir Peter Gibson, The Report of the Detainee Inquiry;276 and



report of the Australian Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security into the detention
of Mr Habib.277

While these reports have no formal status at international law, they must be accorded
considerable weight as statements of the critical issues that arise in relation to the law of
complicity and as representing the directions in which the law may evolve.

UN Special Rapporteur
46.

The Special Rapporteur’s February 2009 report noted the US government’s “comprehensive
system of extraordinary renditions, prolonged and secret detention, and practices that violate
the prohibition against torture and other forms of ill-treatment”.278 He reminded States that
they “are responsible where they knowingly engage in, render aid to or assist in the commission
of internationally wrongful acts, including violations of human rights”.279 Furthermore, he said
“States must not aid or assist in the commission of acts of torture, recognize such practices as
lawful, including by relying on intelligence information obtained through torture. States must
introduce safeguards preventing intelligence agencies from making use of such intelligence.”280

47.

He went on to say: “[a]t a minimum, States which know or ought to know that they are receiving
intelligence from torture or other inhuman treatment, or arbitrary detention, and are either
creating a demand for such information or elevating its operational use to a policy, are complicit
in the human rights violations in question”.281

274

275

276
277

278

279

280

281

Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 85.
UK Joint Committee on Human Rights (JCHR) Allegations of UK Complicity in Torture (Twenty-third Report of Sessions
2008-09 HL Paper 152 HC 230, August 2009).
Sir Peter Gibson The Report of the Detainee Inquiry, above n 144.
Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security, Australia Inquiry into the actions of Australian government agencies in
relation to the arrest and detention overseas of Mr Mamdouh Habib from 2001 to 2005 (December 2011), above n 259.
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 274, at [51].
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 274, at [53].
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 274, at [53].
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism, Martin Scheinin Compilation of good practices on legal and institutional frameworks and measures that
ensure respect for human rights by intelligence agencies while countering terrorism, above n 274, at [55].

 127
48.

The UK Court of Appeal in the Ahmed case282 noted that the Special Rapporteur’s
recommendations ought to be accorded great respect “given the source of his mandate and his
international perspective” but described them as “significantly aspirational rather than
declaratory of existing law”.

UK Joint Committee on Human Rights
49.

The Joint Committee reported in August 2009 on the UK Government’s obligation to refrain
from acts of torture and protect against acts of torture by others, both within and outside the
jurisdiction, following media reports that members of the security services had been complicit
in the torture or mistreatment of UK nationals in detention facilities in Pakistan. The Committee
was assisted by expert evidence from international law expert Professor Philippe Sands QC.

50.

The Joint Committee made 21 conclusions and recommendations. On State responsibility for
complicity in torture, it said ‘complicity’ “means simply one State giving assistance to another
State in the commission of torture, or acquiescing in such torture, in the knowledge, including
constructive knowledge, of the circumstances of the torture which is or has been taking
place”.283

51.

It went on to say “We agree … that if the Government engaged in an arrangement with a country
that was known to torture in a widespread way and turned a blind eye to what was going on,
systematically receiving and/or relying on the information but not physically participating in the
torture, that might well cross the line into complicity”.284

52.

“Systematic, regular receipt of information obtained under torture is in our view capable of
amounting to ‘aid or assistance’ in maintaining the situation created by other States’ serious
breaches of the peremptory norm prohibiting torture. We therefore consider that, if the UK is
demonstrated to have a general practice of passively receiving intelligence information which
has or may have been obtained under torture, that practice is likely to be in breach of the UK’s
international law obligation not to render aid or assistance to other States which are in serious
breach of their obligation not to torture.”285

53.

“It follows from the above that, in our view, the following situations would all amount to
complicity in torture, for which the State would be responsible, if the relevant facts were
proved:

282
283
284
285



A request to a foreign intelligence service, known for its systemic use of torture,
to detain and question a terrorism suspect.



The provision of information to such a foreign intelligence service enabling them
to apprehend a terrorism suspect.

Ahmed and another v R [2011] EWCA Crim 184; [2011] Crim LR 734; [2011] All ER (D) 277 at [44] (Ahmed).
UK JCHR Allegations of UK Complicity in Torture, above n 275, at [35].
UK JCHR Allegations of UK Complicity in Torture, above n 275, at [41].
UK JCHR Allegations of UK Complicity in Torture, above n 275, at [42].

 128

54.



The provision of questions to such a foreign intelligence service to be put to a
detainee who has been, is being, or is likely to be tortured.



The sending of interrogators to question a detainee who is known to have been
tortured by those detaining and interrogating them.



The presence of intelligence personnel at an interview with a detainee being held
in a place where he is, or might be, being tortured.



The systematic receipt of information known or thought likely to have been
obtained from detainees subjected to torture.”286

In its response to the Report, the UK Government acknowledged287 that States have an
obligation not to ‘aid or assist’ the commission of an internationally wrongful act by another,
relying on Article 16 of the ILC Articles. The Government unreservedly condemned the use of
torture but went on to say: “[i]t would not be appropriate for the Government to comment on
whether hypothetical examples would amount to complicity in torture or the provision of aid or
assistance to the commission of torture. … such hypothetical examples are generally not
amenable to a straight yes or no answer in the abstract. [They] need to be considered in light of
all the facts and circumstances.”

Detainee Inquiry
55.

In 2010 the then UK Prime Minister, David Cameron, commissioned the Detainee Inquiry,
chaired by Sir Peter Gibson, to investigate allegations that members of the British intelligence
agencies were involved in ‘improper’ treatment of detainees by other countries. The work of
the Detainee Inquiry was concluded prematurely, with responsibility for the inquiry
subsequently given to the UK ISC.288 However the Detainee Inquiry did release a report in
December 2013 which summarised the Inquiry’s preparatory work and highlighted the
particular themes and issues which the Inquiry believed might be the subject of further
examination.

56.

As part of its preliminary work for the Detainee Inquiry, the UK ISC convened a seminar of
distinguished legal experts to discuss international and UK domestic law on torture, other ill
treatment, and complicity. The transcript of that seminar was published.289 The speakers
included four acknowledged experts in the area of public international law: Professor James
Crawford SC, Professor Philippe Sands QC, Professor Sir Nigel Rodley and Professor Malcolm
Shaw QC. A summary of the legal discussions was included as Annex B to the Detainee Inquiry
Report.

57.

The international law experts expressed their views on what is required at international law to
meet the threshold required to demonstrate complicity in torture. While there were areas of

286
287

288

289

UK JCHR Allegations of UK Complicity in Torture, above n 275, at [43].
The Government Reply to the Twenty Third Report from the Joint Committee on Human Rights (Session 2008-09 HL
Paper 152, HC 230, October 2009) at 3.
UK ISC Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: 2001 - 2010 and UK ISC Detainee Mistreatment and Rendition: Current
Issues, above n 14.
UK ISC “Legal seminar for Detainee Inquiry 8 June 2011 including speaker transcripts”.

 129
overlap in their views, there was not unanimity of opinion. Nevertheless the discussion remains
relevant to consideration of how the law might develop and to identifying the questions and
risks that should inform best practice in New Zealand.
58.

In relation to State responsibility, Professor Crawford suggested that there could be
circumstances in which a pattern of repetitive unlawful behaviour by State B could give rise to
a finding of complicity against State A where State A continued to engage with State B in the
knowledge of State B’s ongoing conduct (for example, by requesting information that could have
been obtained by torture). His comments were given with careful qualification and dealt with
hypothetical situations of general application. In addition, Professor Rodley warned that
international law imposes a high threshold before attributing responsibility to a State for the
acts of its officials.

59.

In relation to individual responsibility for complicity, Professor Sands and Professor Shaw were
agreed that three core elements could be identified:

60.



knowledge290 (but not necessarily intent) that torture is taking place;



a contribution, either tangible or moral, by way of assistance;



that has a substantial (but not necessarily causal) effect on the perpetration of the
torture.

But there was not agreement on whether Person X could be liable for an act of torture
performed by Person Y where the former gave tacit consent to the latter, for example by
receiving information that was obtained as a result of the act, and did not take steps to prevent
it from occurring or continuing. Professor Sands thought Person X could be liable for such tacit
support; Professor Shaw disagreed – in his view, individual complicity required a positive act.

Habib Inquiry
61.

290

291

In her report on the actions of relevant Australian agencies in relation to the arrest and
detention overseas of Mr Habib, the then Australian Inspector-General of Intelligence and
Security accepted and relied on the advice of Dr Melissa Perry QC (now Justice Perry of the
Federal Court of Australia], whose legal advice to the Inquiry was that “the position outlined by
the UK Joint Parliamentary Committee with respect to the circumstances in which a State will
be responsible for complicity in torture departs from the current state of international law in
material respects”.291

UK ISC “Legal seminar for Detainee Inquiry”, above n 289, at 45 defines his use of the word “knowledge” by taking the
“international approach, ‘knew or should have known’”. The point is that individual liability is broader and can include
constructive knowledge.
Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security, Australia Inquiry into the actions of Australian government agencies in
relation to the arrest and detention overseas of Mr Mamdouh Habib from 2001 to 2005 (December 2011), above n 259,
at 109.

 130
Questions about the application of the law relating to complicity in torture in the context of the
work of the intelligence and security agencies
62.

In addition to the inquiries and statements referred to above, the issue of complicity in torture
by intelligence services has been the subject of scrutiny in Canada292 and in many cases brought
by victims of the CIA programme to the European Court of Human Rights.293 In two UK cases,
the courts made obiter comments concerning the application of the prohibition against torture
in the UK context. 294

63.

A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department (No. 2) did not make a determination
on a factual issue of complicity.295 It concerned the reach of article 15 of UNCAT,296 specifically
whether an English court could “receive evidence which has or may have been procured by
torture, inflicted in order to obtain evidence, by officials of a foreign State, without the
complicity of British authorities.”297 The House of Lords unanimously agreed such information
could not be admitted as evidence in judicial or administrative proceedings.

64.

In addition to discussing whether the common law (there being no statutory law applicable)
could extend the exclusionary principle, as set out in article 15 of UNCAT, to evidence which has
or may have been procured by torture inflicted by foreign officials, the Lords considered the
application of international obligations relating to torture to UK domestic law and, in particular,
what use the UK could make of information known or suspected to be ‘tainted’. In this regard
they variously made the following points:

292

293

294

295

296

297
298
299



A primary State responsibility is to safeguard the security of the State. 298



Fragments of information are important in countering international terrorism – if
information that is known or suspected to be tainted might save lives, provide
information about a “ticking time bomb,” or, in certain circumstances, point a
finger of suspicion at a particular individual it would be “ludicrous” for the
executive branch (police, intelligence agencies) to disregard it.299

Commission of Inquiry into the Actions of Canadian Officials in Relation to Maher Arar Report of the Events Relating to
Maher Arar: Analysis and Recommendations, above n 89.
For example, Al Nashiri v Romania (Application no 33234/12) ECHR, 31 May 2018; Abu Zubaydah v Lithuania
(Application no 46454/11) ECHR, 31 May 2018, above n 43.
A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department (No 2) [2005] UKHL 71; [2006] 2 AC 221; [2006] 1 All ER 575
(A (No 2)). Ahmed, above n 282. In A (No 2) the House of Lords considered whether evidence obtained by torture could
be used in judicial proceedings of an administrative nature. In the course of deciding that such evidence could not be
used, it expressed the view that the Executive, acting under the legislation applicable in the case, could, however, use
such evidence in making operational decisions. In Ahmed (at [44]) the Court of Appeal expressed its view that the
breadth of conduct captured by the UN Special Rapporteur’s and the UK Joint Committee’s definitions of complicity in
torture was “significantly aspirational rather than declaratory of existing law”.
A (No 2), above n 84. In this case the evidence had been received and the issue to be decided was whether it could be
used in proceedings. It was not concerned with a factual question of whether the information had been obtained
through complicity in torture.
UNCAT, art 15 states that: “Each State Party shall ensure that any statement which is established to have been made
as a result of torture shall not be invoked as evidence in any proceedings, except against a person accused of torture
as evidence that the statement was made.”
A (No 2), above n 84, at [1].
A (No 2), above n 84, at [132] and [161].
A (No 2), above n 84, at [67] to [68].

 131


The State could be said to be condoning torture when using this information but
it cannot be expected to close its eyes to this information at the price of
endangering the lives of its own citizens. “Moral repugnance to torture does not
require this.”300



The Secretary of State, under Part 4 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act
2001, does not act unlawfully in providing a certificate that he reasonably believes
a person to be a risk to national security, if he relies on information which has or
may have been obtained by torture in a foreign country without British
complicity.301



Lord Bingham explained,302 using a “ticking bomb” scenario, that even if the
torture had been “officially-authorised British torture”, it would not be unlawful
for authorities to remove the source of the threat to national security (in the
exercise of their lawful powers) but he went on to acknowledge that “there would
be a flagrant breach of art 3 [of UNCAT]303 for which the United Kingdom would
be answerable, but no breach of art 5(4) or 6 [of UNCAT].”304



Tainted information can be used by the executive when making operational
decisions or by the police when exercising their investigatory powers including
powers of arrest. Their Lordships explain that these steps are essentially
operational or of a short-term interim character in contrast to judicial decisions
on criminal charges.305

65.

In Ahmed306 the UK Court of Appeal (on an application to stay criminal proceedings for abuse of
process) decided the case on the straightforward point that there was no connection between
the alleged act of torture and the circumstances giving rise to the prosecution in England, i.e.
the alleged wrongdoing and the trial. The necessary connection would only be established if the
act of torture had an impact on the trial. Accordingly, the appeal was dismissed.

66.

In respect of one of the two appellants (Rangzieb Ahmed), the Court of Appeal was considering
an antecedent crime committed by him in England before he was allegedly tortured in Pakistan.
The alleged torture occurred after the appellant left England and was detained by Pakistani
authorities. While in Pakistani detention, he was questioned by UK officials. When he returned
to England, he was tried and convicted of terrorist offences (relating to acts committed in
England) along with the other defendant. The appellant, at trial, had applied for a stay of the
criminal proceedings on the basis that in regularly receiving intelligence information from
Pakistan (including information about the appellant), the UK was complicit in Pakistan’s known
or believed use of torture and therefore continuing the prosecution was an affront to the

300
301
302
303
304

305
306

A (No 2), above n 84, at [69].
A (No 2), above n 84, at [46], [47], [68], [131] to [133], [161] and [171].
A (No 2), above n 84, at [47].
The European Convention on Human Rights, art 3, – right not to be subjected to torture or to CIDTP.
The European Convention on Human Rights, art 5(4) – right to take proceedings to determine lawfulness of deprivation
of liberty by arrest or detention; art 6 – right to a fair trial.
A (No 2), above n 84, at [70].
Ahmed, above n 282.

 132
fundamental principle of international law which outlaws torture. 307 This proposition was also
before the Court of Appeal.
67.

Because it was an essential part of the appellant’s argument, the Court of Appeal did discuss
whether the “extended” concept of complicity in torture, in so far as it relates to receipt of
information, was established law.

68.

The Court of Appeal regarded the statements by the UN Special Rapporteur and the Joint
Committee as “significantly aspirational rather than declaratory of existing law”308 and would
not adopt them to the extent they extended:
“… guilt of torture by secondary participation or complicity to passive receipt of
information even where it was not the product of torture, if there was a real risk that the
detainee might be tortured, and it would also extend it to information derived from
someone arbitrarily detained, without recourse to judicial review, even where there was
no question of torture.”309

69.

The Court also said, in relation to the Special Rapporteur’s statement that “States must
introduce safeguards preventing intelligence agencies from making use of [intelligence
information obtained through torture”, that “it is unlikely that he can have meant [this] to be a
statement of existing law and it is clear that it does not.”310

New Zealand
70.

New Zealand has not had any comparable examination of the question of what complicity in
torture might look like in practice. However, the Supreme Court in Zaoui311 did uphold the
obligation on the New Zealand Government not to expose an individual to risk of breaches of ss
8 and 9 of NZBORA. Obvious questions arise in the context of intelligence-sharing and
cooperation arrangements with the intelligence services of other countries – for New Zealand,
those are primarily, but not solely, New Zealand’s Five Eyes partners.

71.

New Zealand intelligence agencies operate within a legal framework which includes the express
obligation under ISA to act “in accordance with New Zealand law and all human rights
obligations recognised by New Zealand law”. This includes NZBORA, and the law as it applies to
the definition of torture in the Crimes of Torture Act and UNCAT. Given the complexity of this
legislative framework, and the continuing interpretative development of international rules
regarding complicity, I welcome the production by central Government agencies of a
consolidated statement of the law relating to torture and complicity in torture as it applies to
New Zealand government officials. This should provide a valuable guide against which the
intelligence agencies can assess their processes for avoiding any risk of complicity in torture.

307
308
309
310
311

Ahmed, above n 282, at [4].
Ahmed, above n 282, at [44].
Ahmed, above n 282, at [46].
Ahmed, above n 282, at [45].
Zaoui v Attorney-General (No 2) [2006] 1 NZLR 289 (SC).

 133
Precautionary approach
72.

While international law experts and courts have not universally agreed with the answers the
Joint Committee gave to the questions before it, as discussed above, or with the statements of
the UN Special Rapporteur, those questions (and related questions) remain relevant for New
Zealand and others.

73.

For New Zealand, the question is not simply what are the current, narrowly agreed parameters
of what is required to establish complicity in torture – whether State responsibility or individual
criminal liability – but to what standard should we hold our government agencies, specifically
our intelligence and security agencies? This report suggests a precautionary approach.

74.

What would a precautionary approach require? I address that question in various parts of this
Report and most comprehensively in the Best Practice section at F2. Key sources and influences
for that section include:


the Canadian Ministerial Direction to CSIS



the UK Consolidated Guidance



the New Zealand Ministerial Policy Statement on Cooperation with Overseas
authorities.

Other relevant statutory obligations
State Sector Act 1988
75.

In contrast to specific legal obligations concerning particular operational activities, such as
information sharing, the intelligence agencies and their chief executives are subject to more
general expectations and responsibilities that arise from the agencies’ status as part of the State.
The State Sector Act 1988 (State Sector Act) defines the Public service,312 sets out the role,
functions, duties and powers of the State Services Commissioner;313 and sets out the functions,
responsibilities, duties and powers of chief executives of departments and departmental
agencies.

76.

The principal responsibilities of chief executives to the appropriate Minister are set out in some
detail.314 They include:

The chief executive of a department or departmental agency is responsible to the
appropriate Minister for –
(a) the department’s or departmental agency’s carrying out the purpose of this Act;
and

312
313
314

State Sector Act, s 27 and Schedules 1 and 1A.
State Sector Act, Part 1.
State Sector Act, s 32.

 134
(b) the department’s or departmental agency’s responsiveness on matters relating
to the collective interests of government; and
(c) the stewardship of the department or departmental agency, including of its
medium and long-term sustainability, organisational health, capability, and
capacity to offer free and frank advice to successive governments; and
(d) the stewardship of –
(i) assets and liabilities on behalf of the Crown that are used by or relate
to (as applicable) the department or departmental agency; and
(ii) The legislation administered by the department or departmental
agency;

77.

The Code of Conduct for the State Services applies to public sector agencies, their chief
executives and their employees.315 The current Code has applied since November 2007 and was
preceded by the Public Service Code of Conduct which was first issued in 1990. The Code
provides minimum standards for the conduct and behaviour of chief executives and all
employees.

78.

Aspects of the Code of particular relevance include the requirements to be:

Impartial: Respect the authority of the government of the day. Chief executives are
responsible to their Ministers pursuant to s 32 of the State Sector Act. Specifically, they
are responsible for “the department’s … responsiveness on matters relating to the
collective interests of government”. It is also expected that chief executives ensure that
their organisations observe the principle of “no surprises” with their Minister, advising
them of any issues that may impact on Government strategic interests or attract public
interest or political comment, as outlined in the Cabinet Manual at paragraph 3.22.

79.

In the State Services Commissioner’s (Commissioner) response on the draft of this Report he
noted:
“These aspects of the Code are … particularly relevant to issues where a greater degree of interdepartmental understanding is desirable to ensure efficient operations and accurate
management of potential legal risk. Where agencies achieve a joined-up approach on matters
involving common interests, more accurate and efficient identification of potential legal risk for
Government is enabled.”

Responsible: Act lawfully and objectively. Chief executives and their departments are
required to comply with the law.

315

State Sector Act, s 57.

 135
80.

As the Commissioner noted, “this aspect of the Code includes any legal obligations arising from
both domestic and international law commitments”.

Responsible: Work to improve the performance and efficiency of our organisation.

81.

The Commissioner noted:
“Departments of the public service are required to meet the Government’s expectations of
delivering quality services and are responsible for improving the effectiveness of the
organisation. Collaborative work between departments on matters with shared interests
enhances the performance of each organisation and improves effectiveness, not only of the
agencies, but also from a whole of government perspective.”

Application of the State Sector Act and Code of Conduct to the GCSB and NZSIS
82.

The State Sector Act and the Code of Conduct clearly apply to both the GCSB and the NZSIS now,
but that was not the case for the whole of the period the subject of this Inquiry. The GCSB has
been a Public Service department since 2003. Prior to being put on a statutory footing for the
first time, the GCSB was an “instrument of the Executive Government of New Zealand”. 316 The
NZSIS became a Public Service department in 2017.

83.

While neither agency was explicitly subject to the State Sector Act or bound by the Code for the
whole period covered by my Inquiry,317 the Directors of both agencies had analogous
obligations. In addition to their specific statutory operational responsibilities, chief executives
now and then, have and had broader responsibilities. These include authorisation of agency
activities;318 responsibility to the Minister;319 a whole of government approach;320 and managing
legal risk.321

84.

As to legal risk:
“The nature of the authority relied on by the department should be commensurate with the
risk profile of their proposed activities. …. I consider that identifying and managing the risk
profile of proposed activities of a department is the responsibility of all chief executives.”322

85.

316
317
318
319
320
321

322

The State Services Commissioner also said:

GCSB Act (as enacted), s 6(1).
See [89] below.
GCSB Act (as enacted), ss 16(2)(c), 17, 19 and 20; NZSIS Act, ss 4(1)(a) and 4A(4).
GCSB Act (as enacted), s 8(3); NZSIS Act, ss 4(1)(b) and 5(3).
GCSB Act (as enacted), ss 7(1)(c) and 8(1)(e). NZSIS Act, ss 4(1)(c) and 4(1)(d).
With regard to the compliance of agency policy and practice with legal obligations such as: under NZSIS Act s 2(2), not
surveilling lawful advocacy, protest or dissent; under NZBORA s 27(1), observing relevant principles of natural justice
in decision-making processes; and, under GCSB Act s 8(1)(a)(iii), collecting information in any other “lawful manner”.
Response from the State Services Commissioner to draft report, dated 28 February 2019.

 136
“Managing legal risk, across all areas of compliance, is expected of a public service chief
executive. Identifying risk thresholds, and determining the response are matters for each chief
executive to undertake.”

New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 (NZSIS Act)
86.

The NZSIS Act applied to the actions of the Service and of the Director of Security over the period
of this Inquiry.323 The relevant provisions of the NZSIS Act were unchanged during that time.

87.

Under the NZSIS Act, one of the Service’s functions was to “obtain, correlate, and evaluate
intelligence relevant to security, and to communicate any such intelligence to such persons, and
in such manner, as the Director considers to be in the interests of security”. 324 This was raised
with the Inquiry in interviews with the former Directors (see Part D2). It was also a specific
function to “advise Ministers of the Crown, where the Director is satisfied that it is necessary or
desirable to do so, in respect of matters relevant to security, so far as those matters relate to
[Departments or branches of the State Services of which they are in charge].”

88.

The NZSIS Act was amended in 2011 to include principles underpinning the Service’s
performance of its functions.325 The principles include acting “in accordance with New Zealand
law and all human rights standards recognised by New Zealand law, except to the extent that
they are, in relation to national security, modified by an enactment”. 326

89.

This amendment to the NZSIS Act is outside the time period of my Inquiry, but the discussion in
the House at the time327 clarified that the new section was declaratory of existing law and did
not create new duties or powers. The then Attorney-General, the Hon Christopher Finlayson,
stated in the Committee of the Whole House that the new provision “does not impose new
duties or give new powers to the Security Intelligence Service, but it provides explicit recognition
of those matters that should guide the working of the Security Intelligence Service”. The Bills
Digest records that the principles inserted were intended to be “purely declaratory in
nature”.328

Government Communications Security Bureau Act 2003 (GCSB Act)
90.

323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330

Legislation governing the objectives and functions of the GCSB was enacted in 2003, during the
period covered by my Inquiry. The GCSB Act recorded:329 “[t]here continues to be an instrument
of the Executive Government of New Zealand known as the Government Communications
Security Bureau.” On and from commencement of the GCSB Act, the Bureau became a
department of State.330

The NZSIS Act was repealed in September 2017.
‘Security’ as defined in NZSIS Act, s 2.
NZSIS Act, s 4AAA.
NZSIS Act, s 4AAA(1)(c)(i).
(22 June 2011) 673 NZPD 19624.
Bills Digest 1876.
GCSB Act, s 6(1).
GCSB Act, s 6(2).

 137
91.

Under the GCSB Act as enacted, the Bureau’s objective included to: 331
“…contribute to the national security of New Zealand by providing –
(a) foreign intelligence that the Government of New Zealand requires to protect an advance –
(i)
the security or defence of New Zealand; or
(ii)
the international relations of the Government of New Zealand; or
(iii)
New Zealand’s international well-being or economic well-being;…”

92.

GCSB’s functions included to gather foreign intelligence, in accordance with the New Zealand
Government’s foreign intelligence requirements;332 provide reports on foreign intelligence to
the Minister and any person or office holder authorised by the Minister;333 cooperate with, or
provide advice and assistance to, any public authority or other entity, in New Zealand or abroad,
including on “any matter that is relevant to the functions of the public authority or other
entity”;334 The performance of the Bureau’s functions was subject to the control of the
Minister.335

93.

In 2013 the GCSB Act was amended to include principles underpinning the performance of the
Bureau’s functions.336 The principles include acting “in accordance with New Zealand law and all
human rights standards recognised by New Zealand law”.337

94.

The Hon Christopher Finlayson noted that the GCSB, in addition to being subject to the Public
Service Code of Conduct, was now subject to these explicit principles underpinning the Bureau’s
performance, “modelled on the principles inserted in the New Zealand Security Intelligence
Service Act 1969”. 338

Intelligence and Security Act 2017 (ISA)
95.

331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339

Since September 2017 the ISA has been the primary legislation governing the GCSB and NZSIS.
ISA requires the agencies to act in accordance with “New Zealand law and all human rights
obligations recognised by New Zealand law” and provides that the responsible Minister must be
satisfied that the agencies will so act when providing intelligence and analysis, or information
obtained by carrying out information assurance and cyber security activity, to others, including
to overseas parties.339

GCSB Act, s 7.
GCSB Act, s 8(1)(a).
GCSB Act, s 8(1)(d).
GCSB Act, s 8(1)(e)(ii)(A).
GCSB Act, s 8(3).
Government Communications Security Bureau and Related Legislation Amendment Bill (GCSB Amendment Bill).
GCSB Act, s 8D(1)(a). This clause was added to the GCSB Amendment Bill at Select Committee.
(6 August 2013) 692 NZPD 12346.
ISA, ss 3,10,12,17 and 18. I mention, for completeness, ISA s 230 which refers to information “obtained through the
use of torture”, but note it is not relevant to this Report.

 138
APPENDIX E: GLOSSARY

A
Absolute human right – a human right is considered as absolute if, under normal circumstances, no
limitations are permitted [Manfred Nowak and Elizabeth McArthur The United Nations Convention
Against Torture: A Commentary, above n 237, at [60]]
ASIO – Australian Security Intelligence Organisation
ADD/DDSMO – Assistant Director Defence/Deputy Director Support to Military Operations
Articles on State Responsibility – UN Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally
Wrongful Acts (2001)

B
BORA – New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
BSIS – British Security Intelligence Service (aka MI6)

C
Caveats – conditions placed on the dissemination and use of intelligence by the providing party
CBSA – Canadian Border Services Agencies
CDF – Chief of Defence Force (New Zealand)
CIA – Central Intelligence Agency (USA)
CIDTP – cruel, inhuman, degrading treatment or punishment
CIL – customary international law
Consolidated Guidance - Consolidated Guidance to Intelligence Officers and Service Personnel on the
Detention and Interviewing of Detainees Overseas, and on the Passing and Receipt of Intelligence
Relating to Detainees (2010, United Kingdom)
CSIS – Canada’s Security Intelligence Services
CTIVD – Netherlands Review Committee on the Intelligence and Security Services
CUSOMOD - is a border management database used by New Zealand Customs Service.

D
Dynamic Targeting - the process of tracking an HVT in “relative” real time

E
EAB – External Assessments Bureau (NZ) (became NAB – the National Assessments Bureau)

 139
ECHR – European Court of Human Rights
EIT – Enhanced Interrogation Techniques (CIA) These were coercive interrogation techniques
adopted by the CIA on US Department of Justice legal advice that the then current circumstances of
necessity or self-defence (from terrorist attacks) may justify interrogation methods that might
violate the criminal prohibition against torture. The first set of legal advice (Bybee Memos/Torture
Memos) narrowed the definition of “torture” so that the list of “enhanced interrogation techniques”
could be viewed as falling below the threshold required for torture. These Memos provided legal
authorisation to the CIA to inflict pain and suffering on detainees during interrogations, up to the
level caused by “organ failure, impairment of bodily function, or even death.”
European Convention – Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
(1950)
Extraordinary rendition – the extra-judicial transfer of an individual from one jurisdiction or State to
another, for the purposes of detention and interrogation outside the normal legal system, where
there is a real risk of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.

F
FBI – Federal Bureau of Investigation (US)
Five Eyes – a global intelligence-sharing alliance between Australia, Canada, US, UK and New Zealand

G
GA – UN General Assembly
GCHQ – Government Communications Head Quarters (UK)
GCSB – Government Communications Security Bureau (New Zealand)
GCSB Act – Government Communications Security Bureau Act 2003
GISS – Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service

H
HVT – High Value Target

I
ICC – International Criminal Court
ICCPR – UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICJ – International Court of Justice
ICTR – International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
ICTY – International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia

 140
IGIS – Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (New Zealand)
IHL – International Humanitarian Law (aka Law of Armed Conflict)
ILC – International Law Commission
ISEC – Information Sharing Evaluation Committee (Canada)
ISA – Intelligence and Security Act 2017 (New Zealand)
ISAF – International Security Assistance Force – led by NATO
ISC – the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament (UK)

J
JCHR – Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights (UK)
JPEL – Joint Prioritised Effects List

K
Kinetic targeting – the physical strike on a target such as a drone/missile attack

L
LOAC – Law of Armed Conflict (aka LOIAC – Law of International Armed Conflict); now commonly
referred to as IHL – International Humanitarian Law

M
MD – Ministerial Direction
MPS – Ministerial Policy Statement (New Zealand)
MSO – Military Support Officer (GCSB)

N
National caveats – these restrict the scope of delegated authority by limiting what military forces can
do on behalf of the nation
NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North
American and European countries)
NDS – National Directorate of Security (Afghanistan)
Non-derogable human right – a human right is considered non-derogable if States, under
exceptional circumstances, are not permitted to derogate from their respective treaty obligations in
relation to this right. These rights include: the right to life; the right to be free from torture and other
cruel, inhuman, degrading treatment or punishment; the right to be free from slavery or servitude;

 141
the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws; and from medical scientific
experimentation without free consent
Non-kinetic targeting (in Afghanistan) – the targeting of individuals for the purpose of providing
environmental awareness for force protection and for counter-narcotics teams,340 and strategic
intelligence about national and local governance
NSA – National Security Agency (US)
NZDF – New Zealand Defence Force
NZSID — New Zealand Signals Intelligence Directions
NZSAS – New Zealand Special Air Services
NZSIS – New Zealand Security Intelligence Service
NZSIS Act – New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969

O
OEF – Operation Enduring Freedom
OIC – officer in charge
Overseas public authority – a foreign person or body that performs or exercises any public function,
duty, or power conferred on that person or body by or under law

P
PF – Personal file
PP – Policy Procedure
PS – Policy Statement
PRT – Provincial Reconstruction Team (NZDF)

Q
R
RCMP – Royal Canadian Mounted Police
ROE – Rules of engagement - refers to the orders issued by a competent military authority that
delineate when, where, how, and against whom military force may be used, and they have
implications for what actions soldiers may take on their own authority and what directions may be
issued by a commanding officer

340

NZ NCR weekly reports, nos. 8 and 9.

 142

S
Selector – identifier of data sought from collection, eg, a telephone number or email address
associated with a target of intelligence interest
Senate Report - the United States Senate Committee on Intelligence redacted Executive Summary of
its report on the CIA’s detention and interrogation of detainees in the period between 17 September
2001 and 22 January 2009
SIGINT – Signals intelligence: Signals intelligence refers to intercepted electronic transmissions that
can be collected by ships, planes, ground sites or satellites.
SIRC – Security Intelligence Review Committee (Canada)

T
Torture Memo – see EIT

U
UNAMA – United Nations Assistance Mission to Afghanistan
UNCAT – United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment