CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Impact of the mica supply chain on children’s rights from the Malagasy mines to the international product line COLOPHON Author: Sanne van der Wal (SOMO) Co-review committee at Terre des Hommes: Tirza Voss en Claire van Bekkum Contributions: Irene Schipper (SOMO) Cover photo: Jan Joseph Stok Photos: Jan Joseph Stok, Terre des Hommes Layout: Newton21 This report was commissioned by Terre des Hommes Netherlands. The content of this publication is the sole responsibility of SOMO. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the policies or views of Terre des Hommes. Any reference to a website other than Terre des Hommes does not imply that Terre des Hommes guarantees the accuracy of the information contained therein or that it agrees with the views expressed therein. This publication may be reproduced for use in research, advocacy and education only, provided the source is acknowledged (Terre des Hommes). This publication may not be reproduced for other purposes without the prior written permission of Terre des Hommes. In Madagascar, SOMO collaborated with the research team from IRISS SOA Madagascar for both phases of the research. The lead researcher from IRISS SOA Madagascar was Eli Berson Badistinah Randriantovomanana, who also contributed to writing the report. The field research team also included researcher Hajalahy Andrianirina Razafimahandry. In China, SOMO collaborated directly with a local civil society research (academic) partner that wishes to remain anonymous.The research greatly benefited from the help and advice of a number of people and organisations, including Terre des Hommes Netherlands, UNICEF The Netherlands and the UNICEF Madagascar office, Luke Freeman (research support and advice), Henri Fidson (logistics and research support), Martial Ratsimamao (research support) and Barry Ferguson (research support and advice) to whom we are very grateful. Produced by: The Centre for Research on Multinational SOMO Stichting Onderzoek Multinationale Ondernemingen Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations organisation working on social, ecological Sarphatistraat 30 development. Since 1973, the organisation Corporations (SOMO) is an independent, not-for-profit research and network and economic issues related to sustainable 1018 GL Amsterdam investigates multinational corporations The Netherlands and the consequences of their activities Tel: + 31 (20) 6391291 for people and the environment around the Fax: + 31 (20) 6391321 world. E-mail: info@somo.nl Website: www.somo.nl Commissioned by: Terre des Hommes Netherlands Terre des Hommes Netherlands prevents child exploitation, removes children from exploitative situations and ensures children Zoutmanstraat 42-44 can develop in a safe environment. Terre 2518 GS Den Haag des Hommes works towards a world where The Netherlands all children have a decent life and can Tel: +31 (70) 310 5000 grow up to be independent adults. A world E-mail: info@tdh.nl in which children are no longer exploited. Website: www.tdh.nl Terre des Hommes will continue its work until this is accomplished. November 2019 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Impact of the mica supply chain on children’s rights from the Malagasy mines to the international product line CONTENTS 9 1. Introduction 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Research objectives 10 Methodology 10 Limitations of the research 11 Review process 11 2. Madagascar - the context 2.1 2.2 2.3 Development 14 Economy 15 South Madagascar: a case apart 16 3. The mica sector in Madagascar 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 Mica Regulation and governance 21 Mica sector policies 22 Local level mica sector policies 23 The mica supply chain in Madagascar 23 Links between exporters and mining locations 25 Export destinations 26 Value distribution 28 4. Socio-economic impact of mica production in Madagascar 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.5 4.6 4.7 Labour conditions in mining 33 Labour conditions in sorting 34 Involvement of children 34 Exploitation of children in mining 35 Exploitation of children in sorting companies 36 Broader context of exploitation of children 38 Inaccessibility of basic services 38 Insufficient and inadequate nutrition 39 Migration 39 Education 41 Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children 42 Contribution to household budget 45 Contribution to local economy 46 Conflict minerals 46 12 19 30 49 5. Mica from Madagascar in global supply chains 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Mica exports from Madagascar to China 50 Importing companies 52 Types of mica importers 52 Grades and products of mica 54 Distribution of Malagasy mica in the Chinese mica supply chain 54 Company links from port to brand 56 Traceability of mica in the supply chain in China 59 6. Perspectives for improving socio-economic conditions 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 Summary of key findings 62 Concluding discussion 63 Potentially conducive characteristics for sector interventions upstream 63 Potentially conducive characteristics for sector interventions downstream 64 Recommendations 65 Addressing multidimensional problems 65 Recommendations for further research 66 60 FIGURES AND TABLES IN THE REPORT Table 1: Development indicators in mica production regions compared nationally. Table 2: Mica mining areas connected to registered mica exporters in Anosy and Androy. Table 3: Mica prices along the supply chain in 2017. Table 4: Mica export from Madagascar in 2017. Table 5: Mica export from Madagascar to China in the period 2013-2017. Table 6: Top five importers in China of Malagasy mica in 2017. Table 7: Selection of Chinese mica importers identified by type. Figure 1: Known mica deposits in south Madagascar. Figure 2: Functional phases in the mica supply chain in Madagascar. Figure 3: Destinations of mica from Madagascar in 2017. Figure 4: Mica export volume (in metric tonnes). Figure 5: Mica export price development compared. Figure 6: Mica products made of Malagasy mica. Figure 7: The distribution areas of Malagasy mica in the Chinese supply chain. Figure 8: The flow of Malagasy mica through the supply chain. Figure 9: Supply chain map of integrated mica production company Pamica. Box 1: Illicit mica exports. Box 2: Convention on the Rights of the Child. Box 3: Frederic's story. Box 4: Felicia's story. Box 5: Julie's story. Box 6: Marc's story. Box 7: Jao's story. Box 6: Portrait of two sexually exploited children. INTRODUCTION Countless products from paints to cosmetics and from cars to laptops contain mica, albeit mostly in relatively small volumes. The biggest buyers of mica are the electronics and automotive industries. Since the publication of reports by Terre des Hommes and the Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations (SOMO) in 2016 and 2018, awareness has grown about the harsh conditions and the suffering of children in the depths of illegal mica mines in India. The 2016 study estimated that in the Indian states of Jharkhand and Bihar 22,000 children were involved in mica mining. The research concluded that industries and companies using mica sourced from this country are linked to the worst forms of child labour.1 Together with key stakeholders from the private sector and the government, Terre des Hommes works towards better livelihoods for mica communities in India. As a result, more and more corporates – such as those that are part of the Responsible Mica Initiative,2 but also individual companies3 and industry initiatives4 – are trying to address this problem in their supply chains. 1. Introduction 1 2 3 4 SOMO and Terre des Hommes (2016), ‘Beauty and a Beast, Child labour in India for sparkling cars and cosmetics’, (25 September 2019). Responsible Mica Initiative, Members & Governance, (25 September 2019). For example, Mercedes Benz, ‘Mercedes-Benz puts mica mineral high on child labour risk list’, (25 September 2019). For example, Drive Sustainability, ‘Ten leading automotive companies launch an initiative to identify and address sustainability issues in raw materials sourcing’, (25 September 2019). CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 9 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The 2018 study particularly stressed the need to further The research objectives are two-fold: examine the conditions in mica mining in Madagascar. It is 1. A site-based political economy analysis (on micro level) one of the countries with the greatest risk of violation of of informal mining in southern Madagascar: contribution children’s rights in mica mining, alongside India, China, Sri to household income, involvement of children, role in Lanka, Pakistan and Brazil.5 The red flags for Madagascar regional economy, and social and economic costs and included evidence of the use of child labour in mica mines in the south of the country and suspected illegal mica mining. risks. 2. Supply chain analysis of mica production: mining, Moreover, Madagascar has become increasingly important sorting, processing, transport, export and its further as an exporter of mica. The study found that the country was downstream distribution to factories and usage in end the fourth largest mica exporter worldwide in 2015, and that products. 6 since 2015 it had even overtaken India as the biggest global exporter of sheet mica, the grade of mica that is used Analysing and ascertaining the structure of, and socio-­ extensively in the electronics and automotive industries. economic conditions in, the mica mining sector in Madagascar is crucial in order to develop programmes that can Initial desk research revealed the problematic situation of mitigate the negative impact of mining activities and to informal mining (in general) in southern Madagascar, which reduce dependence on child labour in mines and provide takes place in a socio-economic context of overlapping appropriate alternative livelihoods. This study also aims to issues such as poverty, drought and insecurity. The weak investigate the mica supply downstream. The aim is to government oversight of the mining sector increases the identify entry points to engage with the Malagasy mining possibility that children may be exploited as a labour source. sector and to identify and engage end-user companies Although illegal or unregulated trading of mining products downstream - at the other end of the mica supply chain – in provides income for many poor families, it may also contri­ mitigating identified risks and in implementing due diligence bute to regional instability and violence in the south, thereby on children’s rights in their supply chain. posing an indirect threat to child rights. Information about the reality on the ground is needed to be able to design the right programmes. However, there is scant formal and systematic 1.3 METHODOLOGY knowledge about informal mining, including mica mining. More specifically, little is known about the number of children The approach for this research was developed by SOMO in working in the mica sector and their working conditions nor the course of 2018. The research followed the research how mica from this country ends up in consumer products. guidelines as defined by UNICEF7. Desk and field research This study aims to fill these knowledge gaps. were conducted in both Madagascar and China and involved two phases. In the first exploratory stage, which started in This research aims to use the analysis for setting up December 2018 and ended in March 2019, desk and field programmes related to child protection in the context of mica research were conducted in Madagascar to identify mica mining with a broad focus on child protection that will cover mining communities and key stakeholders in the sector. In child labour, education, social services and regional stability/ the subsequent phase, based on the first phase findings, field security. This study also aims to investigate the mica supply and desk research were conducted in Madagascar and China chain downstream. This research will be used to identify and in the period from April to August 2019. For the field research engage companies and other relevant stakeholders in the in Madagascar, 13 mica mining locations were visited, four of supply chain in the Netherlands, Europe and beyond. Insights them twice, in two regions in the southern part of the into the supply chain will allow Terre des Hommes Nether- country. Here child labourers (81 in total), adult mine workers, lands to expand on their ongoing work in the mica supply traders, truckers and local administrators were interviewed. chain and inform Human Rights Due Diligence exchanges. 5 6 7 10 SOMO and Terre des Hommes (2018), ‘Global mica mining and the impact on children’s rights’, (25 September 2019). In 2017, Madagascar was the third largest mica exporter after China and India, UN Comtrade database, https://comtrade.un.org/data/ (25 September 2019). https://www.unicef.org/supply/files/ATTACHMENT_IV-UNICEF_Procedure_for_Ethical_Standards.PDF CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Eight different mica sorting and exporting companies were Sometimes this was the case because authorities and also visited and in four cases it was possible to interview companies were reluctant to share sensitive information. In their management. In addition, a number of interviews were other cases authorities just did not have the information carried out with government officials at different ministries, available or in the desired form. both in the south, and in the country’s capital Antananarivo. Because of a lack of cooperation from the companies that For the field research in China, interviews with represen­ were identified as relevant for the research in China, the tatives of 14 companies were carried out in four counties: researchers were not always able to conduct interviews with Yueyang, Pingjiang, Tongcheng and Jiaxing. The other six their management or visit their premises of the companies interviews were carried out with Yueyang Port managers and identified. Generally, whenever lack of information was mica industry experts. In both phases, overall research was significantly preventing proper and confident analysis, this is coordinated and led by SOMO’s senior researcher Sanne van clearly indicated in the report. Further studies may be needed der Wal, the principal author of the study. SOMO senior to continue building the supply chain downstream. researcher Irene Schipper authored the chapter on the Chinese mica procurement chain. 1.5 REVIEW PROCESS 1.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH All companies that are named explicitly in this report were informed of this prior to publication and were given the The interviews in the mining communities did not allow opportunity to respond. SOMO’s code of conduct requires researchers to gather enough information for a comprehen- this right to reply procedure to produce high-quality research sive in-depth analysis of household budgets. However, the to the highest ethical standards. To limit the number of study was able to outline the range of daily income and daily companies for the review process, it was decided not to list expenses for mica miners in Madagascar. It was also difficult all of the approximately 100 identified exporters and to estimate the contribution of the mica sector to the local importers, mica manufacturers and end-users in this report. economy, as comprehensive and basic information on However, the companies that were not approached and not economies on a regional scale was unavailable. However, named in the report are known to Terre des Hommes. Of the some of the characteristics and aspects of other (locally) more than 30 companies that were approached for review, important sectors allowed researchers to put the contribu- only two companies – Fujitsu and Fujikura – took the tion of the mica sector into an economic perspective. opportunity to respond. Their reactions are referred to in the Overall, in Madagascar the difficulty in accessing information report. complicated the research. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 11 CONTEXT Located in the Indian Ocean, east of Mozambique, Madagascar is a country in southern Africa with a population of 25.5 million (2017). With a land mass of 587,000 km2, roughly the size of Ukraine, Madagascar is the fifth largest island in the world.8 The country is the third biggest exporter of mica worldwide, with seven per cent of the global trade, earning US$ 6.5 million in 2017. While mica trade from the country is still very modest compared to that of many other commodities it exports, trade has increased dramatically since 2008 when exports were at only US$ 0.6 million.9 Of the 34,817 tonnes of mica Madagascar exported in 2017, 87 per cent was shipped to China.10 The following chapters will expand on the conditions under which this mica is produced and the actors that play a role in trading and further processing it in Madagascar and China. To provide context and background, this chapter will first briefly introduce Madagascar’s development and economy. 2. Madagascar - the context 8 World Bank website, Where We Work, Madagascar, ‘Overview’, (23 May 2019) 9 UN Comtrade database, (23 May 2019). 10 UN Comtrade database, (23 May 2019). 12 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR . L31In? >b>mkwo>xd 2:2.1 DEVELOPMENT Climate change aggravates the poverty of Madagascar’s population and the impact is made more severe by conti­ Madagascar is one of the least developed countries among nuous environmental degradation as a result of defores­ all developing countries. On the UN’s Human Development tation, soil erosion and urbanisation.19 Since 2018, the Index (HDI), the country is at the bottom with a 161st place country has also been affected by a measles epidemic, among 189 countries in total (2017). Madagascar is also which, to date, has led to 1,245 casualties, mostly children. In one of the highest scoring countries on the Multidimensional the same period, 50 people died of the pest.20 11 Poverty Index (MPI). With 57 per cent of the country’s population suffering severe multidimensional poverty, only In 2018, 47 per cent of all Malagasy children aged 5-17 were eight other developing countries find themselves with a engaged in child labour.21 Most working children (about 87 higher score. The country has the world’s fifth highest per cent) are involved in agriculture. However, some four per number of out-of-school children, half of the children under cent22 – an estimated 86,000 children – are involved in the the age of five suffer from stunting, and, at only 13 per cent, mining sector.23 Child labour in mining is considered to be the rate of access to electricity is one of the lowest globally.14 one of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (WFCL) by the Of the total population, 74 per cent are living below the International Labour Organization (ILO). Madagascar has national poverty line and 80 per cent live in rural areas. laws and a number of institutes and policies in place to Three quarters of the population live on less than US$ 1.90 a address child labour but these are insufficient to curb the day. rampant child labour in the country. Madagascar is also one of the countries in the world that is It is estimated that 22 per cent, or about 1.2 million, of all most severely impacted by natural disasters. Risk of tropical children aged 5 to 14 were not attending school in Madagas- cyclones, prolonged droughts, variable rainfall and severe car in 2016.24 Education is free up to the age of 16. However, floods affect 16 of the country’s 22 regions. In March 2019, parents are increasingly required to pay for registration and 1.3 million people were severely affected by food insecurity in fees to cover teacher salaries and other costs. Consequently, Madagascar. Roughly half of the communities in the south many people cannot afford to send their children to school.25 – the poorest part of the country, where most of the mica In addition, there is a lack of school infrastructure and mining takes place – are in a state of urgent food insecurity.18 qualified teachers, and there are few options for transporta- 12 13 15 16 17 tion in rural areas with long distances between schools. 11 UN Development Programme, Human Development Reports, Human Development Index, (23 May 2019). 12 UN Development Programme, Human Development Reports, Multidimensional Poverty Index, (23 May 2019). It should be noted that the data that is being used to calculate the index for Madagascar is about 10 years old. 13 World Bank website, School Enrolment Primary, (23 May 2019). 14 World Bank website, Where We Work. 15 Ministère de l’Economie et du Plan, Rapport National sur le Développement Humain, RNDH n°6, 2018, (23 May 2019). 16 World Bank website, Where We Work. 17 Ministère de l’Economie et du Plan. 18 OCHA, Madagascar, Aperçu de la situation humanitaire, March-April 2019, . 19 Ministère de l’Economie et du Plan. 20 Ministère de l’Economie et du Plan. 21 INSTAT/UNICEF, Madagascar 2018, Travail des enfants, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), PowerPoint presentation. 22 US Department of Labor, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Madagascar, (24 September 2019). 23 RFI website, Sortir les enfants des mines de saphirs du sud de Madagascar, 25 September 2017, (23 May 2019). 24 US Department of Labor, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Madagascar, (24 September 2019). 25 US Department of State, Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2018, > (24 September 2019). 14 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Banditry is a widespread and increasing problem, especially At US$ 228 million, cloves are the country’s fourth most in the south of Madagascar. The attacks by dahalo, the important commodity exported by value. The combined Malagasy word for bandits, are the island’s most persistent share of the most important minerals exported by the source of insecurity. Over five years of banditry-related country – nickel (US$ 341 million), cobalt (US$ 152 million), violence has killed nearly 4,000 people, including 100 state gold (US$ 85 million) and titanium (US$ 77 million) – security forces (gendarmes). In 2017 and 2016, gendarmes amounts to 23 per cent of all commodities exported. 26 27 killed 217 and 220 presumed thieves respectively. In the first eight months of 2018 alone, 292 casualties, both civilians Madagascar holds extensive deposits of minerals that are and security forces, were reported.28 At times, the govern- found all over the country. The country contributes signifi- ment responds to bandit-related security threats with cantly to the world’s production of cobalt (4 per cent refined, extremely violent military style campaigns that go after 3 per cent mined), ilmenite (2 per cent), nickel (2 per cent) (suspected) gangs of bandits. These campaigns sometimes and zirconium (1 per cent), which are all mined industrially.34 involve bloody shootouts and executions. By contrast, nearly 40 per cent of all sapphire produced 29 worldwide annually is mined artisanally in Madagascar.35 In addition, gold and mica are mined artisanally. 2.2 ECONOMY An estimated 2.5 million people, or one out of five of the Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is the primary country’s total workforce, find informal employment in economic activity in Madagascar, employing 80 per cent of mining. Mining companies employ only 6,000 people and a the population. In 2018, agriculture accounted for one fifth further 4,000 are formally licensed gold panners.36 Estimates of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The industrial sector, of the number of people working in artisanal and small-scale which includes mining, manufacturing, construction and mining (ASM) vary from 500,00037 to more than a million.38 utilities, contributed to 23 per cent of GDP. Making up 57 per However, the estimates of the number of people working in cent, services contributed to most of the GDP. This includes artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) are probably mostly government-related services and spending that is underestimates in light of the (perhaps inflated) estimates for largely financed by development aid that amounted to US$ employment in the mining sector as a whole and the size of 780 million in 2017.33 the formal sector in it.39 30 31 32 With a total share of 25 per cent and 22 per cent respectively, Malagasy exports are dominated by vanilla (US$ 703 million) and apparel exports (US$ 634 million). 26 Small Arms Survey 2011, > (24 September 2019). 27 J.B. Naudet, ‘A Madagascar les zébus équipés de puces électroniques pour éviter les vols’, 9 April 2019, L’Obs, (24 September 2019). 28 US Department of State. 29 J.B. Naudet. 30 World Bank website, Where We Work. 31 World Bank, Country Profile, Madagascar, (23 May 2019). 32 World Bank, Country Profile. 33 OECD website, Countries, Madagascar, ‘Aid at a glance charts’, (23 May 2019). 34 2015 figures: USGS, 2015 Minerals Yearbook, Madagascar [Advance Release], February 2019, (23 May 2019). 35 Transparency International, ‘Overview of Corruption and anti-corruption in Madagascar’, 2019, (23 May 2019). 36 Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, , 2016, p.113 (23 May 2019). 37 World Bank, ‘Retombées Economiques De L’exploitation Minière Industrielle A Madagascar‘, (24 September 2019). 38 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, Améliorons les conditions socio-environnementales de l’Exploitation Minière Artisanale à Petite Echelle à Madagascar (EMAPE), (24 September 2019). 39 The exact figures or categories used as basis for the estimates in the different sources is unknown. Neither is it clear how the large discrepancy between the estimates regarding the size of the informal workforce can be explained. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 15 2.3 SOUTH MADAGASCAR: A CASE APART In terms of health indicators, the southern provinces of Androy and Anosy are among the worst performers national- The south of Madagascar is one of the poorest regions in the ly. Androy has the lowest access nationally to health services country and finds itself at the bottom half of a number of and, with the exception of one other region, lowest access to development indicators such as poverty, health and educa- pre- and postnatal care.43 In addition, Ihorombe, and one tion. The country’s south is also where most of the mica other region in the country, benefited the least from foreign mining takes place. It is therefore important to reflect on national development aid.44 some of the characteristics of this region to understand the socio-economic conditions in mica production. The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) by INSTAT and UNICEF45 from 2018 also clearly shows that Anosy, Androy In 2016, the human development index (HDI) score for the and Ihorombe are often among the least developed regions country as a whole was 0.51. However, that same year the nationally. In Table 1, a selection is made of the most relevant country’s most important regions for mica mining, Anosy regional data for various development indicators. In the (0.47), Androy (0.49) and Ihorombe (0.36), all had below context of this research, the high share of child labour in average HDI scores. Ihorombe’s score is the lowest natio­ Androy is particularly remarkable: 62 per cent of all children nally. In 2012, Androy had the highest share of the popu­ aged 5 to 17 are involved in work. 40 lation living in poverty. Poverty levels in Anosy and Ihorombe were also relatively high.41 In Madagascar, the population is quite young: roughly half of The population in the deep south of Madagascar is also the population is below 16 years of age. However, in the generally more vulnerable to effects of climate change south and especially in Androy this share is even higher (droughts) and insecurity (dahalo), as reported in the most (57%).46 Indeed, from Table 1 it is clear that girls get married recent national survey available (2013).42 People in Androy early (roughly half of them before they turn 18), and have report the highest losses of assets and income due to children relatively early (9 to 15 per cent of women below 16 climate change and insecurity events (or shocks) in all of the has children). country. 40 Ministère de l’Economie et du Plan. 41 INSTAT, l’Enquête Nationale sur le Suivi des indicateurs des Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement (ENSOMD), Objectif: 01, 20122013, , p.140 (24 September 2019). 42 INSTAT. 43 World Bank, ‘The Deep South’, 2018, (24 September 2019). 44 Ministère de l’Economie et du Plan. 45 INSTAT/UNICEF, Madagascar 2018, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), PowerPoint presentations. 46 World Bank, The Deep South. 16 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Roughly, half of the children in Androy and Anosy do not go to primary school whereas the national average on primary school attendance is 20 per cent.47 In the mica provinces, roughly a third of the children only finish primary school (see Table 1) whereas three in four children nationally go on to finish primary education. In addition, the share of children dying young is considerable in the south of the country. In Anosy, 74 children out of 1,000 die before they are five years old (rank 5 nationally). In Androy and Ihorombe, respectively 24 and 22 out of 1,000 children do not grow to be older than one.48 In Ihorombe, only nine per cent of all children aged 12 to 23 months, the lowest level nationally, are properly vaccinated.49 Only a quarter of the population in the three main mica provinces has access to safe drinking water whereas the national average is 41 per cent. On average, nine per cent has access to a basic facility to wash their hands with soap and water in or near the house (23 per cent nationally). Roughly 2 per cent has access to a toilet they do not need to share with other households (6 per cent natio­nally).50 Region Child mariage* Nationally Child labour Girls (40%) Boys (12%) Overall 47% Androy 55% (3) 26% (1) 62% (2) Anosy 45% (10) 20% (3) 56% (4/5) 50% (5) 21% (2) 56% (4/5) Potable water (41%) Sanitation* (6%) Basic hygiene* (23%) Androy 26% (5/6) 1% (1/2/3) 6% (2/3) Anosy 26% (5/6) 3% (7/8) 13% (6) 24% (3/4) 3% (7/8) 8% (4) Primary (56%) 1st half secondary (26%) 2nd half secondary (15%) Androy 27% (2) 10% (1) 9% (7) Anosy 31% (4) 12% (3/4) 7% (3/4) 16% (8) 7% (3/4) Ihorombe Region Hygiene Nationally Ihorombe Region Education (achievement) Nationally Ihorombe Region Nationally 32% (5) Nutrition Moderate Wasting* (6%) Basic* (41%) All (33%) 7% (6/7/8) 31% (7) 24% (7/8/9) 8% (5) 45% (14/15) 39% (16) 7% (6/7/8) 24% (6) 9% (1) Androy Anosy Ihorombe Region Nationally Vaccination (12-23 months) Fertility* Adolescent fertility rate (15%) Child birth before 15 years (5%) Child birth before 18 years (36%) Androy 25% (1) 9% (7) 46% (9) Anosy 20% (5) 7% (11) 47% (7/8) 17% (10) 15% (1) 60% (1) Ihorombe Table 1: Development indicators in mica production regions compared nationally Source: SOMO based on MICS6 (2018) Legend: the corresponding position in the national ranking is shown between brackets. when multiple tanks are given they share the same rank with other regions definitions: * child marriage as derived from women aged 20-24 and who were married before the age of 18. * sanitation: % households that have their own improved toilet facility , not shared with others. * basic hygiene refers to % of households with a handwashing facility with soap/detergent present. * nutrition - Wasting: Moderate and severe -- below minus two standard deviations from median weight for height of reference population * vaccinations: basic package includes BCG, Polio3, DTP3 and measles; ALL is an expanded package * fertility: adolescent birth rate is % of women aged 20-24 who gave birth before age 15/18 adolescent fertility rate is a combined rate calculated from the birth rates of all 5 year cohorts of women aged 15-49. 47 48 49 50 World Bank, The Deep South. INSTAT/UNICEF, Madagascar 2018, Mortalité des Enfants, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), PowerPoint presentation. INSTAT/UNICEF, Madagascar 2018, Vaccination des enfants, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), PowerPoint presentation. INSTAT/UNICEF, Madagascar 2018, Eau de boisson, assainissement et hygiène, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), PowerPoint presentation. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 17 MICA SECTOR Mica is the name for a group of different minerals that form in distinct layers and that are highly reflective. Mica’s layered structure allows to split it into thin sheets without compromising its mechanical, physical or electrical properties. Mica is also chemically inert, lightweight, flexible, strong, resistant to high temperatures and temperature changes, able to insulate, withstand high voltages, absorb or reflect light and protect against ultraviolet light. Nowadays, mica finds its way into products ranging from paints to soil conditioners and from make-up to smartphones. 3. The mica sector in Madagascar CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 19 3.1 MICA Worldwide the main types of mica traded are muscovite and Mica is traded in two main categories: sheet mica and scrap phlogopite. Of the two, muscovite is by far the most fre­ mica. Scrap mica is a by-product from mining sheet mica or quently mined. Muscovite has better electrical properties other naturally occurring minerals. In 2015, the global mica than phlogopite. Glistening pigments used in cosmetics are market supply amounted to 951,129 tonnes worth US$ 478 usually made of muscovite. Phlogopite, the type that million. The global market was projected to grow to US$ 533 Madagascar mostly produces, is more resistant to high million in 2018 and US$ 669 million in 2024. The majority of temperatures, and is used in products that require both mica processing companies globally can be found in India thermal stability and electrical properties such as electrical and China. In 2015, China accounted for more than 45 per cables. cent of the global mica market.51 4 MADAGASCAR IHOSY 2 5 2 IHOROMBE 8 2 7 5 6 12 5 2 4 5 5 ANOSY 3 2 37 3 TOLAGNARO / FORT DAUPHIN 3 AMBOVOMBE ANDROY 14 2 12 10 NUMBER OF MICA DEPOSITS IN THAT AREA Figure 1: Known mica deposits in south Madagascar. SOMO based on Mindat website (2019). 51 Transparency Market Research, ‘Mica market: Global Industry, Size, Share, Growth, Trends and Forecast, 2016-2024’, August 2016. 20 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR The French discovered mica deposits in 1912 when Mada- The other permits issued allow for extracting all kinds of gascar was a French colony. Mostly found in the form of other minerals (up to 22) as well, from agate to zircon. 52 phlogopite and to a very small extent in the form of muscovite, most of the deposits are concentrated in south Mada- It was possible to roughly compare the locations of the gascar. Of the 201 known phlogopite deposits in the country, licensed perimeters with the locations of the mica mining 176 are located in the south. In the south most of the sites visited during the research.55 It was found that, of the 13 known deposits are found in three regions: Ihorombe in the sites scoped during the field research, in at least five sites North (16 deposits); Androy in the West (34 deposits); and (Ambia, Ampiha, Betanimena, Sakaravy and Talakifeno) mica Anosy in the East (123 deposits) (see Figure 1). is extracted on terrain with no (valid) licence. There is no comprehensive overview available of mica By contrast, for only two mining sites visited (Berongo and deposits or concessions that are actually mined in Madagas- Tsakamasy) it could be ascertained with some confidence car. However, 35 mica production areas, all in Anosy and they had valid permits.56 At the remaining sites, it could not Androy, are registered with the regional branch of the be excluded that at least some mining is taking place with a Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources. However, the valid licence. While this could not be verified, this pattern problem with this registry is that the information only details suggests that more illicit mica mining is taking place in other the commune (31 municipalities) or village (four villages) mining sites. 53 level and not the actual quarries. This means that there can be no absolute clarity as to the actual number of mines, or While the Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources records their status, based on this information. the volume of production for the 35 registered mining production locations, these figures were not disclosed for During interviews, respondents referred to 73 different this research. However, as there is no (significant) industrial quarries in total, which are, or have, at some point in the processing of mica in Madagascar and an uncertain volume recent past been mined. Comparison of the information from is lost during sorting, annual production will be (somewhat) the two sources available also reveals that at least four of the higher than the annual trade of 34,817 tonnes. 73 quarries identified by respondents (Andakantoposa, Emitray, Jafaro and Ampantiolotse) may be exploited illegally. This is because these are located in three com- 3.2 REGULATION AND GOVERNANCE munes that are not registered by the ministry.54 The Mining Code of 1999, last amended in 2005, regulates A licence is needed to be able to legally exploit natural mining in Madagascar.57 The law, which generally seeks to resources in Madagascar. The Madagascar Mining Cadastre increase the contribution of mining to the national economy, Office (BCMM, Bureau du Cadastre Minier de Madagascar), a specifies a range of provisions including area demarcation branch of the Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources, for mining, licensing, taxing and government administration. manages all mining licences in the country. In July 2019, the A planned revision of the Mining Code that has been in the BCMM registered 50 valid mining concessions to exploit making for four years is to enhance the mining sector’s mica. Of these, 39 are located in the south and 21 in the competitiveness, a key feature of which is to improve license middle part of the country. Only six of the permits pertain to and contract transparency.58 The Ministry of Mines and exploiting mica only. Strategic Resources is responsible for governing the mining sector. 52 C. Robequain, ‘Le mica de Madagascar’. In: Annales de Géographie, t. 56, n°301, 1947. pp. 75-76. . 53 Mindat website, (24 May 2019). 54 These are: Esira (Anosy region, Amboasary district), Jafaro (Androy region, Ambovombe district) and Belindo Mahasoa (Androy region, Bekily district). 55 The feature of the BCMM website that allows to see the location of licensed mining perimeters on a map was not working at the time of writing this research. The BCMM office did in the end share a map of Madagascar with indications of the boundaries of the perimeters of valid and expired mica licences. Visual comparison of this map with the coordinates of the mining areas visited in Google Earth allowed researchers to reach the above conclusions. 56 At the time of the research, the mines on these two sites were not being used for extraction. One was abandoned because of dahalo attacks. The other was closed in the wake of fatal accidents. 57 Law N°99-022 of 19 August 1999 modified by Law n°2005-021 of 17 October 2005 concerning the Mining Code (29 May 2019). 58 EITI, ‘Madagascar EITI points to lost revenues due to mineral smuggling’, 11 February 2015, (29 May 2019). CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 21 Among the tasks of the ministry and its auxiliary organisa- 3.2.1 MICA SECTOR POLICIES tions, such as the BCMM, are enforcement of the Mining Code through mining and transportation inspections, levying While there is no specific regulation for the mica sector, the various taxes, attracting investments and developing and ministry also develops plans for this sub-sector. In their executing policies for the development of the sector in plans, the ministry focuses on three problem areas specifi­ general. cally: safety (the risk of imploding mines especially), mining in national parks 61, and low prices for mica.62 For example, to Governance of the mining sector in Madagascar is pro­ address the low prices for mica, the ministry explained that it blematic. The ministry has limited capacity, resources and has conducted activities to promote association and formal personnel to enforce applicable laws and regulations. The registration of mica miners in the recent past. However, ministry’s branch for the country’s resource-rich south-­ according to the ministry, these interventions have not eastern Anosy and Androy regions, for example, has only one proved very successful because of a lack of enthusiasm and/ vehicle at its disposal to do the work in an area of 45,000 or recognition with miners and a lack of funds from the km2 (roughly the size of Denmark or Estonia) with very bad government side. The ministry also explained that associa- roads. As a result, inspections of mines are infrequent and tions that did attempt to organise formally ran into the plans to support artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) problem of not being able to get a permit because the BCMM through training and organisation cannot be properly was not officially managing licences for a period of many implemented. Corruption is another problem, which years.63 59 primarily takes the form of demands for payments to officials to issue licenses or other bureaucratic sign-offs, but In the experience of the artisanal miners’ associations also in terms of political interference, bribery and state interviewed for this research, such as Tamboroke Miray in officials gaining lucrative positions in mining companies. 60 Antranomaro, the ministry indeed promotes the creation of associations but it does not always offer technical or Mica exporters and traders need to be registered with the financial support, which leads to difficulties for associations ministry at the provincial level for which administration fees and they may not last. They also often lack the intellectual, apply. Moreover, there is a two per cent tax levied from financial and human resources to compete effectively with exporters of the purchasing price of the mica exported out of companies in the export business. Tamboroke Miray, for the country. Of this tax, 1.4 per cent is to go back to the example, still has difficulties to find customers for the mining communities at the origin of these exports. It could mineral products such as mica, quartz and beryl they mine in not be ascertained if and how this happens in practice. an area to which they collectively own the mining exploitation However, as earlier stated, the administrative capacity at this licence. Since the artisanal miners’ association was created level is limited and it is therefore difficult to administer, in 2016, they only succeeded this year in finding a buyer for oversee and distribute these funds correctly. The ministry their mica. According to the same regional department of the also has income from mining permits as well as exporters, ministry, there are 15 other associations of miners registered traders and weighing scale registries. in their area. However, apart from their name and the region in which they are registered, it did not provide further details. As mica mining is a relatively important activity in the region, it is likely that a number of these associations, if active, are (also) mining mica. 59 Interviews with officials in regional (4 April 2019) and national offices (2 April 2019) of the Ministry of Mines and Petroleum. 60 T. Heyman, ‘Walking the tightrope: Madagascar balances mining and the environment - Mining Technology’, Mining Technology, 6 May 2016, (7 June 2019). 61 In the course of the field research, it was confirmed that mica miners do work at night in the parks to mine mica “in all discretion” and sheltered from the eyes of park staff. 62 Mica from Madagascar is roughly 3.5 times cheaper than Indian mica, and twice as cheap as Chinese and Brazilian mica. Source: SOMO and Terre des Hommes, (2018). 63 Interviews with officials in regional (4 April 2019) and national offices (2 April 2019) of the Ministry of Mines and Petroleum. 22 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 3.2.2 LOCAL LEVEL MICA SECTOR POLICIES The most visible level of governance for mica miners around mining sites is the fokontany. This is the lowest level in the hierarchy of administration in the country and pertains to municipal districts that may encompass one or several villages. An important task of the fokontany is to administer the residency or exit of people in their area. They do this for example by issuing documents of residence or displacement called ‘passports’, the fees of which amount to about Ar 500 (US$ 0.13). This type of document is often used by migratory miners as they change workplaces regularly. During the research, it was ascertained that the fokontany are often not administered adequately because registries were incomplete and not up-to-date. This meant that accurate information about the size and composition of the population of villages was unavailable. Both fokontany and municipalities (communities), the next level up in the administrative hierarchy, tax mica production directly within their administrative area. While it is unclear how systematically these local taxes are levied in practice, infor­ mation gathered from truck drivers and local stakeholders indicated they are not uniformly applied on each administrative level. For example, tolls levied by communities on passing mica trucks ranged from Ar 40,000 (US$ 10.70)64 to Ar 50,000 (US$ 13.38). The tax per truckload of mica at the fokontany level also varied, ranging from Ar 10,000 (US$ 2.68) to Ar 20,000 (US$ 5.35). In addition, the security forces may pocket Ar 50,000 (US$ 13.38) per truck at roadblocks. Local administrators interviewed claimed the need to tax mica production directly in order to maintain or further develop local infrastructure and facilities such as roads and schools. However, according to the Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources all these taxes are illegal. 3.3 THE MICA SUPPLY CHAIN IN MADAGASCAR The mica sector in Madagascar encompasses all mica supply chain stages around and between the mining pit and the exporting ship. The key functional stages in this upstream part of the global mica supply chain (see Figure 2) are mining, collecting, transportation, primary processing (cleaving and sorting), exporting (sourcing and sales) and shipping (transportation, loading and shipping). In turn, on each functional level or link in the supply chain, other actors may be involved. Namely, for mining supplies (head lights, batteries, crow bars, shovels and sifting material), maintenance (welding and forging), catering and retail (food, drink and groceries), transportation (local buses and truck rental companies), security (security forces and police), administration (village heads, mayors and ministry officials) and banks and insurance companies. PHASE 1: MINING PHASE 2: COLLECTING PHASE 3: TRANSPORTATION • >73 Quarries • >20,000 Miners 400 Traders: independent and employed by exporting companies Truck drivers: mostly employed by exporting companies PHASE 6: SHIPPING PHASE 5: EXPORTING PHASE 4: SORTING 3 ports: Fort Dauphin is the most important by far. • 30 exporting companies • >5 companies sort mica • 5 owned by the leading exporters • 2,000 sorters Figure 2: Functional phases in the mica supply chain in Madagascar 64 Exchange rate of 01 Oct 2019: 3736.79AR - 1USD Treasury - UN Operational Rates of Exchange CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 23 Mining and loading Transportation In Madagascar, mica is mined artisanally. There is no Transportation of mica to the processing sites is done by evidence of mining companies being directly involved in mica truck. Trucks may have various capacities ranging from mining. As already noted, there are probably at least 73 6,000, 12,000 to 28,000 kg and some even have lorries to locations where mica is mined in the south of the country. It extend capacity. The exporting companies mostly own the was not possible to collect detailed information on the trucks and have their drivers on their payroll as well. However, number of people involved in mining in these locations or some drivers also work for themselves. In addition, there are their productivity throughout the year. However, based on the also companies that rent trucks to transport the mica. volume exported annually and field research-informed According to some exporters, transportation is the most estimates of productivity per miner per year among other significant cost factor in their business. Drivers may go from indicators, there are probably at least 20,000 people involved one site to another to collect mica but generally try to collect in mica mining alone. a full load at one site. Mining sites are often in very remote 65 areas and, as roads are generally in very bad shape, it may To load mica on the truck for transportation, loaders offer take many days for them to collect and deliver their cargo at their services to mica traders. Groups of local young men the processing sites. Many trucks are recognisable as being usually do this type of work, as loading is physically demand- from a specific company because of the colours in which ing. they are painted and/or the company name that is written on them. Collecting and weighing Mica sourcing in the mining sites is done by so-called Sorting traders. These are people who work on a freelance basis, or Six mica sorting facilities were scoped for this research. They who are on the payroll of exporters. To operate successfully, are all part of companies that export mica as well: Radoran, these businesspeople need to be familiar with prices and Harenasara, Hnoor, Tri-H and Tsaravintana. Three of the quality of mica and need to have contacts with exporters and facilities are located in Fort-Dauphin, two in Amboasary and resources to travel. They may go from site to site to see if one in Tranomaro. One company, Radoran, even has two there is enough mica of the right quality and right price. There locations where they process mica. Although this could not are also traders who collect only from a few specific sites for be verified, it is likely that most other exporting companies their own account. In case they have a deal and have also own sorting facilities. During peak times (in the dry sufficient volume, they will call exporters to arrange for the season) when there is a high supply of mica, up to 200 mica to be transported to their facilities. Traders need to be people may be involved in sorting at the largest among the registered with the Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resour­ sorting companies. This would mean that around 2,000 ces. The number of traders is estimated at 400. sorters are employed in the sector.67 A somewhat distinct group from the traders in the mica Exporting sector are the people that manage the scales to weigh the Based on information from the Anosy Regional office of the mica on-site before it is transported. They are mostly working Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources, 30 exporters for the exporting companies. The scales they use, often with were registered with them as being involved in exporting the name of the exporting company on it, could be seen at a mica in the period 2015-2017. In that period, the four leading number of mining sites visited in the course of the research. exporting companies in the country by volume were Tri-H, These scales need to be approved by the ministry as well, but Radoran, Hnoor and Somida (in descending order of it was found that this is not always the case. There were importance). 66 reports of miners complaining of scales being tampered with to their disadvantage. 65 The rough estimate is based on dividing the official export volume in 2017 by productivity. There are no national production figures available. Therefore, official exports are taken as a proxy to national production. An uncertain amount of mica waste will not be exported so actual production will be higher than export. Productivity was calculated at 18 kilos for a person (working in a (family) unit) working 6 days a week and 4 months a year. The calculations and assumptions were based on information collected during interviews. 66 Anosy office, Ministry of Mining and Strategic Resources. 67 Total sorting worker estimate based on the available figures for volume exported for exporting companies registered with the Ministry of Mining and Strategic Resources in 2017. Based on these figures the average workforce per volume was calculated which was then multiplied by the UNComtrade reported export volume of 2017. 24 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Exporting companies are predominantly operating in the For instance, there are at least five mica quarries in operation Anosy region, many of them in its capital Fort Dauphin, and a in the Tranomaro area, and two in each of the Ambatoabo few are based in the Androy province. There are mica-export- and Ranopiso areas. ing companies like Tsaravintana that export other minerals, such as malachite and quartz, as well. Interviews and observations during the field research allowed us to identify some of the precise sourcing locations of a Shipping number of the leading exporting companies. Based on this The final stop for most mica before it leaves the country is information and that received from the ministry, it is clear the Ehoala port near Fort Dauphin (Tolagnaro). The port is that exporters source mica from overlapping mining sites the most important harbour for Malagasy mica exports, next and quarries. In 2017, for example, leading mica production to Tamatave (Toamasina) and Tulear (Toliara).68 The port sites such as Ranopiso were a sourcing area for six different terminal and its facilities were opened in 2009 and were companies, Tranomaro for five and Ambatoabo for four. originally built to export ilmenite from the nearby mine of QIT Based on their names, three exporting companies could be Madagascar Minerals. identified that own valid permits to exploit mica. This suggests that few exporters are supplied by mining locations of which they own the exploitation rights, if at all.69 Mining 3.3.1 LINKS BETWEEN EXPORTERS AND MINING LOCATIONS activities at Sakamasy, a site owned by mica exporting company Somida, for example, were reportedly stopped. By contrast, there is at least one exporting company that has a An important aim of this research is to ascertain the links licence to extract mica in an area where there is active between the different actors in the supply chain. In files exploitation. This company reportedly arranged with the received from the Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources, artisanal miners in their permit area to pay them the regular mica sourcing areas of the registered exporters are recorded price on condition that they sell it to them exclusively. as well. In the period 2015-2017, there were 11 different areas (see Table 2). Except for Andalatanosy and Beraketa, which are in the region of Androy, these are all in Anosy. The Anosy region is by far the most important area for sourcing ANOSY mica. Of the 27,000 tonnes of mica taxed by the ministry in 2017, at least 87 per cent was sourced in this area. The most ANDROY Ambatoabo Imanombo Ranopiso Andalatanosy Ankariera Maromby Tranomaro Beraketa Ranomafana Tsivory popular sourcing areas for mica in 2017 were Ranopiso (10,000 tonnes), Ambatoabo (8,000 tonnes) and Tranomaro (4,000 tonnes). Behara Strictly speaking, the areas referred to in Table 2 are the names of towns. These towns do not represent actual Table 2: Mica mining areas connected to registered mica mining locations but refer to one or several quarries in that exporters in Anosy and Androy town area. 68 Interview with Ministry of Mining. 69 Exporting companies may dispose of mining permits under different names such as those of the company owners. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 25 3.3.2 EXPORT DESTINATIONS China is by far the most important trading partner for the mica sector in Madagascar. The trade with China represents 87 per cent of all mica exports in volume and 81 per cent in value (UN Comtrade, 2019). Other important destination countries for mica exports are Estonia and India (Fig. 3). DESTINATIONS OF MICA FROM MADAGASCAR IN 2017 (IN TONNES) 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 FRANCE BELGIUM INDONESIA MAURITIUS REP. OF KOREA JAPAN RUSSIAN FEDERATION INDIA ESTONIA CHINA Figure 3: Destinations of mica from Madagascar in 2017. Measured in tonnes. Source SOMO based on Comtrade 2019. Illicit mica exports The volume of mica exports reported by Malagasy customs70 for 2017 (34,817 tonnes) is higher than the figure reported by the regional branch of the Ministry of Mines and Strategic Resources (27,252 tonnes) and Chinese customs (23,153 tonnes).71 This suggests that mica is exported from areas that do not fall under this regional office’s jurisdiction and/or that not all exports in this administrative region are adequately registered. The figures, however, do not immediately give rise to suspec­ ting illicit mica export flows, such as reported for sapphire for instance. If that were the case, higher figures would be expected at the producing (ministry) or receiving (Chinese market) end. Box 1: Illicit mica exports. 70 As reported in UN Comtrade (2019). 71 UN Comtrade (2019) 26 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR ll?. nun. 11.: . 3.3.3 VALUE DISTRIBUTION Solid information on prices for mica along the supply chain was available on three different levels (see Table 3) and shows marked differences. The average selling price of a kilo of mica at the mining site (US$ 0.05/kg)72 as reported by miners is about half the price (US$ 0.09/kg) exporters report to the Ministry of Mining for sourcing mica.73 In turn the free on board price (FOB) (US$ 0.09/kg), reported by Malagasy customs, is twice the sourcing for price exporters.74 It should be noted that the study could only obtain some gross prices and there is little reliable information on the costs incurred between the mine and free on board price (FOB) at the port. Exporters, for example, need to cover costs for transportation to collect the mica from the mining sites, which are reflected in their sourcing prices.75 During interviews one source claimed that the price for transporting mica is about Ar 1.25/km/kg (US$ 0.0003). If this is true, this would mean that, for collecting mica at the sites visited during the research, the transportation costs would range from half to twice the cost price at the mine. In addition, in between buying and selling the exporter incurs costs for sorting and transportation to the harbour. Another cost factor for the exporter at this stage is the reduction of the exportable volume. Part of the mica material includes soil and calcite that will not be sold but discarded after sorting. According to one source this non-exportable waste could amount to 30 per cent of the total volume.76 If this is true, net margins for exporters when sourcing good quality mica are probably very attractive, in which case there would theoretically be some space for miners and sorting workers to bargain for a better price.77 MINER Average price US$/kg EXPORTER Sell Buy Sell 0.05 0.09 0.21 Table 3: Mica prices along the supply chain in 2017. Source: SOMO based on field research, information received from the Ministry of Mining and UN Comtrade. The export figures from both Madagascar and India in the 10-year period from 2008 to 2017 also add an interesting perspective on the distribution of value in the mica supply chain (see Figures 4 and 5). Whereas the export volume of mica from Madagascar in 2017 is 30 times more than in 2008, the export revenue for mica has not grown proportionately. Its revenue is only 11 times more than it was in 2008. As a matter of fact, the price per metric tonne in Madagascar has gone down from US$ 482 to US$ 186, while prices for mica from India, the leading exporter of mica by value globally, have steadily increased on a higher price level. Therefore, the pronounced growth of exports of mica from Madagascar comes with a lower price. In the context of an increasing global demand for mica, this suggests that there are opportunities to reverse the declining price trend in Madagascar.78 72 Average kilo price reported in the field research. 73 Average kilo price calculated by SOMO based on information received from the Ministry of Mining detailing volumes and prices for mica sourcing by registered exporters. 74 Average kilo price calculated by SOMO based on FOB price in 2017 (UN Comtrade, 2019) 75 It is unknown which costs make up the sourcing price reported by exporters. Next to transportation there may also be costs incurred to pay for illegal taxes during transportation and the fee for mica traders. 76 PACT, Mica in Southern Madagascar, A review of findings from Pact’s March 2019 field trip. PowerPoint presentation, April 2019. 77 The average ratio of the not exported mica waste to the volumes sourced is the key uncertain factor here. Further research into this ratio is recommended to understand margins and estimates of the workforce 78 Further research into price formations in the global mica trade is recommended to understand the differences in price. 28 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 250.000 MICA EXPORT VOLUME (IN METRIC TONNES) 200.000 150.000 MADAGASCAR INDIA 100.000 50.000 0 2008 2013 2017 Figure 4: Mica export volume (in metric tonnes). Source: Data base UN Comtrade. MICA EXPORT PRICE DEVELOPMENT COMPARED (IN USD PER METRIC TONNES) 500 400 300 MADAGASCAR INDIA 200 100 0 2008 2013 2017 Figure 5: Mica export price development compared. Source: SOMO based on UN Comtrade (2019). CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 29 IMPACT The most labour-intensive phases in the Madagascar mica supply chain are mining and sorting. Although working conditions are harsh, the geology and the characteristics of the mineral itself allow for mica to be mined and sorted relatively simply and the skills needed can be learned on the job or by observation. 4. Socio-economic impact of mica production in Madagascar 30 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR ..Julu. - . ..- ?mm? . 32 4.1 LABOUR CONDITIONS IN MINING highest but they choose to work only four to six hours before noon. A considerable number of miners even prefer to work Mica mining in Madagascar essentially involves digging exclusively at night when temperatures are milder. They say holes in areas with mica deposits to a depth that mica is that working at night allows them to be more productive. found and then extracting it. Usually, (vertical) shafts of one However, miners who are really in need, work as much as to two metres wide are dug up to a depth of typically two to they can, whether it is during the day or at night. 15 metres (there are mica mines that go as deep as 60 In general, miners work from 7 a.m. to noon and from 1 to 5 metres). This shaft then allows for extraction of the mica p.m. (using crowbars and chisels) from the soil in the process of which horizontal tunnels and caves are formed. Shafts can The working and living environment around mica mines is give access to multiple tunnels, or caves, in different also very dusty. People who live and work in the mining directions and/or at different depths. In mica-rich areas, communities are exposed to fine particles of mica and sand. many shafts may be created close to each other and the The dust is blown into their eyes and lungs by the wind and/ different tunnels that run from each of them may even or because of sorting mica, moving bags and extracting mica connect. in the pits. Hence, in all the stages of the mica mining process, people may be exposed to the dust. Because of their physical strength, men and adolescent boys typically construct the mines (i.e. digging shafts and tunnels) Workers who extract the mica from the mines must use and do the actual extraction of mica in the mining pit. contortionist movements at suffocating depths. With lower Women generally do all the other work that is needed. They levels of oxygen, they have to keep up the pace to be able to hoist the extracted mica from the pit with the pulley, go back remove as much mica as possible. The deeper mines can be and forth in mines to gather mica collected by the men and particularly challenging, forcing miners to come back to the take the mica to be weighed. They also support the men surface periodically to get oxygen and regain strength. working in the pits by talking to them, and bringing them Bezaha is the only mica mining site visited for the research water and food. Women who do not have a relationship with where gas-fuelled pumps are used to keep mining pits dry. male miners because they are single, divorced or widowed, However, their use also causes frequent fainting of the do not participate in this type of activity. To ensure their own miners working underground because of the exhaustion needs and those of their children, if any, they may collect fumes. mica waste left near the pits and/or the mining area. With the exception of adolescent boys, children tend to do the same Work in mica mines may also require significant sacrifices type of work as women. They turn the pulley with buckets of including leaving behind family and making children work mica, transport mica from the mine to the collection point instead of them attending school. Also, generally, mining and collect mica waste that was spilt or left by others. The communities do not have access to safe drinking water or latter is even done by very young children because they are adequate sanitation and medical services. Despite these not allowed to enter the mines. difficult conditions, miners persevere because they have few other viable options that allow them to make a living: Work in and around mica mines is often physically demanding and takes place under harsh conditions, exacerbated by the climate and setting. The southern region of Madagascar is mostly arid with savannah and/or desert-like landscapes with vegetation consisting of shrubs, cacti and grasses and very few trees. Temperatures are typically high and the heat is even worse in the quarries because in many sites there is little vegetation that could provide shade. This aggravates “We have to work the mica mines even if it’s difficult because otherwise we do not eat. We do not know what else to do, we must suffer to eat”. (Young man,19, Ambia). working conditions because the strong heat, reinforced by the lack of shade, exhausts workers. Ironically, the lack of shade is to some extent due to vegetation being removed or damaged during the construction of mines. In Ambia, one of the mining sites included in the field research, temperatures are so high that many people do not “Because working with mica is physically too demanding, women who have the means prefer to have a small-scale retail business”. (Woman, 42, Ambia). work in the mines in the afternoon when temperatures are CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 33 However, the most serious and immediate risk of mining is Just like in the quarries, the work in the sorting facilities is the risk of death because of imploding mines or landslides. harsh. Workers often have back pain because of sitting on Among the serious mica accidents reported during the field the ground for hours on end. Because of the fine particles of research there were accounts of three casualties in mica and dust in the air they are exposed to, they often have Sakamasy, three in Ambia, as well as three in Ambatoabo. respiratory problems that are apparent from the frequent coughs. They also often have wounds on their feet and Most of the people working in mica mining do not work in the hands from the tools they use to clean or cleave the mica. quarries all year round. Mining work takes place in periods Those who sieve mica may also be affected by pain in arms outside the rainy season when there is enough water for and shoulders from shaking and holding the sieves. Just like agriculture. Respondents indicated that the dry period usually their colleagues in the mines, the sorters are exposed to high falls between April and September. The wettest months of temperatures. By contrast, the areas for sorting observed the year are from January to March. In the rainy season, during the field research provided cover from the sun in the most respondents prefer farming or other activities such as form of nets or (tin) roofs. 79 herding, collecting firewood and stall keeping over the back-breaking work of mining. During the rainy season, mining sites, pits and tunnels become less accessible and 4.3 INVOLVEMENT OF CHILDREN some are even forced to close. Mica absorbs water, making it heavier to transport and more difficult for miners to sell it to Madagascar has ratified all key international treaties on child the next party in the value chain. Only miners who have no labour, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child alternative livelihood strategy, such as farming, usually work (and its two Optional Protocols), ILO Convention 138 on in mica mining every day of the year and all year round. Minimum Age, and ILO Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour.80 The government’s laws and regulations are in line with these international standards.81 Madagascar’s 4.2 LABOUR CONDITIONS IN SORTING Labour Code sets the minimum working age at 15. It also states that the minimum age cannot be less than the age of Processing of mica takes places both on the mining sites as completion of compulsory education, effectively raising the well as further downstream at the processing companies. At minimum working age to 16. Malagasy law prohibits the quarries, processing consists of categorising the mica hazardous occupations and activities for children; children of according to its size as well as removing pieces of stones or both sexes under the age of 18 may not be employed in work visible calcites encrusted inside the mica sheets or attached exceeding their physical capacities, presenting danger, or to mica pieces. Occasionally, mica is also sieved. The sorting which by its nature and the condition under which it is of mica in exporting companies is more standardised in undertaken, is likely to harm their morals. order to meet certain standards before exporting products. Workers involved in sorting for these companies (mostly The Government has elaborated a National Action Plan to women and children but also men) systematically remove Combat Child Labour in Madagascar, in collaboration with - calcite, sieve and categorise mica pieces according to size among others – international employers’ and workers’ and colour. Also, for uniformity, pieces of mica may be organisations. The National Action Plan will be implemented further split into thinner or smaller pieces. over a period of 15 years. The Division for the Prevention, Abolition, and Monitoring of Child Labour (PACTE) of the Ministry of Civil Services and Labour is responsible for enforcing child labour laws. 79 World Data website, Climate for Anosy, (23 September 2019). 80 https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2018/Madagascar.pdf 81 Ibid. 34 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Convention on the rights of the child 82 The CRC has 54 articles and gives children a number of rights to protect them including: • The right to life, survival and development • The right to an identity and a nationality • The right to live with one’s parents and receive parental guidance • The right of non-discrimination. All rights apply to all children without exception • The right to play, rest and relax • The right to freedom of expression • The right to education • The child has the right to be protected from work that threatens his or her health, education or development • The right to be treated fairly • The right to adequate food • The right to a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development • The right to be protected against all forms of abuse – slavery, excisions, physical and moral violence • The right to be protected against armed conflict • The right of refugee children to protection and help • The right of disabled children to lead decent lives Box 2: Convention on the Rights of the Child82 For many Malagasy children, the rights stipulated by the CRC (see Box 2) remain unfulfilled. In the mining villages in particular, at the top of the list of unfulfilled rights are the rights to adequate food, to a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development and the right to go to school. Other rights, such as the right to play, rest and relax, to be cared for, and the right to life and dignity are also not fully respected. Moreover, child labour in mining is generally considered one of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (WFCL) by ILO convention definitions.83 Despite these normative frameworks, probably half of the conservatively estimated 20,000 people involved in mica mining, and half of the estimated 1,600 people working in mica sorting in Madagascar, are children.84 4.3.1 EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN IN MINING Mica mining is often a family affair. Families will be working as a unit. With the exception of teenagers, children will rarely be seen working alone. The involvement of children in mining work changes overtime as they grow up. Toddlers will just stay close to their mothers at the mines whereas teenagers are already full-fledged workers. As already noted, children are generally involved in the same type of work as the adult female workers. As they grow older, boys will gradually do more of the work that adult men are involved in – including digging mining shafts and extracting mica from the mines. Adults are able to express their problems in more detail than children. The children’s complaints are more general and expressed more visually. Indeed, the youngest respondents in this research, had trouble putting their condition in words and making cause-and-effect relationships between their mica work and their visible signs of poor health. Besides, sometimes gestures say more than words. 82 OHCHR, Convention on the Rights of the Child, and UNICEF, The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, (23 September 2019). 83 Dylan O’Driscoll, ‘Overview of child labour in the artisanal and small-scale mining sector in Asia and Africa’, K4D, 4 October 2017, (23 September 2019). 84 The estimate of the number of children involved is based on on-site observations and the typical family size in the region. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 35 Young children, for example, just showed their hands and In addition, the burdensome tasks they perform are the feet, which were marked by wounds from the work around same: carrying heavy loads, breaking, splitting and sieving the mica mines. Overall, many children are more or less mica involving repetitive movements, handling heavy and exposed to the same harsh working conditions and risks as sharp tools. Lack of a nutritional diet comes on top of all this. adults every day. They complain of back pain because they Children earn less than adults because their work pace is must bend to pick up mica from the ground or when they lower and payments are based on the number of kilos sorted. extract mica from the mines. They complain of headaches It was observed that, even if young children work as hard as because of the heat and the lack of water or oxygen. Children they can every day, their salary is not enough for them to report having muscle pain due to the repetitive and hard work afford enough food. carrying heavy loads, using crowbars and lifting hammers. Many children seem resigned to their harsh working condi- ‘We cannot always finish the job because we are too hungry’. tions and life. The children who we have interviewed justify (Girl, 10, sorting mica in an Amboasary company). the work because they have nothing to eat, because they are   poor, or because their parents do not have enough money to None of the children sorting mica who we interviewed can put them in school. In short, they need to work with their afford three meals a day. They only eat in the evening due to parents for the family to survive. Conditioned by routine, a a lack of money. Because the quality of the mica that they minority of the children even think their living and working process varies, their work does not ensure a stable income conditions are normal. either. When mica is very sturdy, it is more difficult to cleave and when there is a lot of calcite, it needs to be removed, 4.3.2 EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN IN SORTING COMPANIES which slows down the pace of work. Consequently, sometimes children may need two days to sort a single bag of low-quality mica85 and only get Ar 900 (US$ 0.24). On days Interviews with eight children working in a sorting company when they earn more, Ar 4,000 (US $1.08) for example, in Amboasary allowed a more in-depth understanding of the because the mica to be sorted is of good quality, they must harsh reality for children sorting mica in Malagasy export immediately think of less prosperous days and stock extra companies. Overall, it seemed that both children and adults supplies of rice. At the sorting facilities, sorted mica is paid at in sorting complained more about the difficult working the rate of about Ar 20 (US$ 0.005) per kilo. This is consid- conditions than their colleagues in the mining areas. The ered far too low by respondents. conditions at the workplace for children are the same as those for adults: hot and dusty. Frederic’s story Frederic is only 8 years old but he is Like his peers, the little boy’s appear- in the afternoon, according to the already working in a sorting company ance also shows signs of food school’s schedule. He explained that he like his big brother. He performs the insufficiency and a worrying state of comes from a very poor family. This is same sorting activities as the adult health that accompany his hard work why he is forced to work at the workers, with the same materials in the and life: thinness, a bloated belly and company, like the others, to be able to same environment. Similar to his young coughing. eat. Despite the difficulties in his life colleagues, his hands are marked by and that of his family, he hopes to be traces, wounds and scars of repetitive Just like two of his comrades, he works able to realise his dream of becoming a work to remove calcite. in the company either in the morning or teacher. Box 3: Frederic's story 85 In Madagacsar, mica is often packed and transported in secondhand woven polypropylene bags of 50 kilos. Typically, these bags were originally used to receive World Food Programme food aid or to import rice from India. 36 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR . 1. 1.. 9.. #1911?. 4.1.3frm- . .. ..Jv 1.1.549111149.>.m_.moqom qu. I . . 1.5.3.3111}. . . .. igl. . 0.- Fur-Half.-. a Felicia’s story Felicia is a 13-year-old girl who works “Sometimes, we hit the mica but it’s our in a sorting company in Amboasary. fingers that receive the blow” or “Every ‘If we do not have any food, we She lives with her mother and eight day we hit the mica and our nails are all only drink water’.   siblings. She explained that she has damaged”. never attended school. In the sorting company where she works, she does all Like the other children in the group, she As she does not go to school, she the sorting tasks adult workers engage is not in good health; she coughs a lot works from Monday to Sunday, without in as well. In addition, just like them, she and talks about her deplorable nutrition- a rest, from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. complains about the harshness of her al situation. Very often, she leaves early Felicia is conscious of the harsh reality tasks. to work at the company on an empty of her life and is aware of the fact that stomach and can only eat at night if things may never improve for her. From Felicia’s statements, it is clear she can find something to eat. During that accidently hurting oneself comes the day she drinks water to suppress with the job: the feeling of hunger: Box 4: Felicia's story 4.4 BROADER CONTEXT OF EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN The lack of respect for children’s rights in the mica sector takes place in a broader context of interrelated and mutually reinforcing problems. A number of these problems, such as migration and separation from parents, inaccessibility of for example, only two people make up the care team: a midwife and a trainee. ‘The materials we use here are old. Our premises are damaged, the roof leaks when it rains. We do not have chairs, mattresses, wardrobes or enough rooms for patients. education and health services and nutritional deficiencies are (Midwife, 3 years of service)’ linked to the high prevalence of child labour and (sexual) exploitation of children. This section provides a narrative of A lack of qualified medical staff means that unqualified staff the conditions as perceived by community members such as birth attendants or traditional healers look after interviewed and as observed during the field research. When those who seek medical care. A midwife in Tsilamaha a comparison is made between Androy, Anosy, Ihorombe explained: and national data, the MICS 2018 data were used86, with reference to Table 1. This Table shows that the three regions in the south perform far worse than average on a number of social indicators such as education, nutrition, child marria­ ges, fertility and child labour. Clearly, the inaccessibility of social services aggravates the situation and contributes to the inadequate fulfilment of children’s rights. ‘Here there is no hospital, I work for myself, I work at home. They (the inhabitants) come directly to my home when they are sick and when their condition is more serious, they must go to Antranomaro. There are also those who practice ancestral medicine’. (Midwife in Tsilamaha for 5 months) 4.4.1 INACCESSIBILITY OF BASIC SERVICES In these villages and communes, the main pathologies reported by health professionals are malaria, coughing, If there is any infrastructure for health and education services diarrhoea, vomiting and a virulent form of measles that has in the mining areas, it is often a marginal service. In the best caused many deaths in Madagascar. People in the mining case, there are basic health centres that are poorly endowed communities are more likely to die of such diseases due to a with equipment and health professionals. In Ambatoambo, lack of proper treatment and vaccination levels that are 86 Reference to Table 1 page 12, Multi Indicator Cluster Survey 2018 by UNICEF in collaboration with the Madagascar government and supported by the World Bank, USAID of US Department of Labor, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Madagascar. 38 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR among the lowest in the country (see section 2.4). While on a or wasting, prevails under 7 to 8 per cent of the children national level 41 per cent of children between 12 and 23 under age five in the three mica mining regions. Most people months have received the basic package of BCG, Polio3, in the mining community do not enjoy a diversified and good DTP3 and measles immunisation, Androy and Ihorombe quality diet and most miners skip breakfast. More people score 10 and 15 per cent points lower respectively. Anosy is have some form of lunch (leftovers from yesterday’s dinner, the only one of the three mining regions that has a slightly noodle soup) and most people will have at least some food better vaccination rate but it is still not half way towards the for dinner (cooked dried cassava, noodles or rice soup, rice, required 95 per cent coverage level that is required to obtain etc.). Cassava is the preferred staple as it is cheaper and full protection for the entire population. more widely available than rice, the national staple. ‘People have died of malaria and measles. Since January, there have been about eight deaths’. The climate, non-availability of water for irrigation and soil (Midwife in Tsilamaha). cannot be grown everywhere and are not available all year conditions in the mining areas often do not allow miners to be self-sufficient in food. Rice, cassava, fruit and vegetables round either. Cactus, by contrast is more abundant in this ‘Measles has hit more than 100 children. It was a difficult time because they cannot go to school or play with cold water’. (Village chief in Andranondambo) climate. The fruits of these plants are often on the miners’ menu. Poverty is generally so pronounced that, if people have poultry or livestock, it is not going to be for ordinary family consumption but rather for sale in order to get a little additional income. Indeed, villagers rarely consume animal For people in the mining communities without adequate proteins such as eggs, milk or meat. health facilities, accessing services in the surrounding ‘We do not eat, we are hungry’. communes can be exceedingly difficult. Even if they can arrange for enough money to afford care and transportation, (Girl, 7, Andranondambo) they may need to travel a long way and may be exposed to malaria by distributing mosquito nets do not always seem ‘A child cannot understand the difficulties for adults to find food. They cry to show that they are hungry but there is nothing we can give them’. very effective: mosquito nets are often used as high-quality (Man with two children, Ankazofotsy). banditry on the way. It was observed that initiatives to help communities fight rope for use with the pulleys and are an essential building material to construct huts. In addition, the presence of a public pump in the village does not always guarantee its 4.4.3 MIGRATION broad use for drinking water either. In the village of Bezaha, villagers prefer rainwater or river water because it is consi­ While some miners come alone, others migrate to the mining dered tastier. In other mica mining villages, such as Ambia sites with their families. The origin of migrant workers on the and Maro­mainty, there are no pumps at all, with the conse- mining sites as well as the length of their stay varies. quence that people drink open surface water. However, the children that (temporarily) migrated with their families reported being native to villages and towns within a 100 km radius. By contrast, some of the migratory miners 4.4.2 INSUFFICIENT AND INADEQUATE NUTRITION without a family, or who didn’t bring their family, sometimes reported coming from the most distant corners of the island, sometimes up to more than 2,000 kilometres away The lack of nutrition is an issue where poverty leaves its (Toamasina, Antsiranana, Mahajanga). For children who are most obvious footprint. Although food shortages affect still attending school, migration to the mining sites mainly many in the mica mining areas, their negative impact is takes place during school holidays and/or during the dry particularly harmful to the health and development of season. children. Habits and food consumption may vary from place to place, depending on the availability of food products and Most migrant workers will not relocate to the mining sites families’ financial possibilities. While chronic malnutrition permanently. Depending on the situation this will make the affects almost 4 out of 10 children under 5 years of age in population of mining communities grow. The village of Madagascar, the MICS 2018 shows that acute malnutrition, Andranondambo, for example, has expanded as more and CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 39 more migrants have arrived. According to the village chief, out of 2,200 people living in the village, there are about 300 migrants. This contrasts starkly with the composition of the population at the mica mining rush village Ambia. The number of migrants in this hamlet far outnumbers that of natives during the dry season when mica mining is at its peak. In those periods there may be only about 50 natives compared to more than 2,000 migrants.   Ten per cent of all children involved in mining who were interviewed had to leave their parents because of work. In the mining sites these children usually are chaperoned by another family member (uncle, grandfather or aunt). For the parents who send a child to work away from home it means one mouth less to feed. In addition, all children (and even adults) who are separated from their close family members (father, mother and/or sometimes grandparents) will send money from the mining site. Parents and chaperones may even think these children are better off this way. However, regardless of motivation, their action often does not lead to any improvement. As already noted, children often get insufficient and inadequate food in mining and sorting areas. Education may be hampered because schools are remote or non-existent. Addi­tional abuses of child rights manifest themselves in their work­places in the form of child labour, health and safety hazards and being away from their parents. In the mining sites, many children are like Julie (see Box 5), a migrant child, far away from her parents, stopped school, not eating her fill, working very hard at a young age to earn some money and losing her childhood. Indeed, child labour generally does not address but perpetuates a situation of poverty. Julie’s story Julie is a 13-year-old girl living in Ambia For Julie all days of the week are the Indeed, paying the family breakfast is but is originally from Ambovombe. Her same: in the morning, she leaves the the financial burden that is bestowed parents live separately. Her mother house with her grandfather to accom- on Julie. Her income is not more than a lives in Ambovombe, her father lives in pany him working in the mines and they meagre Ar 750 (US$ 0.20) a day on Antananarivo. She has four brothers do not return until the evening. In the average. However, she does try to save and sisters but her father does not mining area her job is to collect mica money to buy clothes. contribute at all to their needs. Knowing waste. She complains about the back her mother’s difficulties in raising her pains this work causes her. She also Her diet is marked by a great lack of children and the misery that plagues complains about the difficulty of diversity. At breakfast she has tea, her family, her maternal grandfather working in the overwhelming heat. bread or ampago (a popular broth decided to take Julie and one of her made from carbonated rice that may little sisters with him to the mines. In When home, she needs to do domestic form at the bottom of a pan when cook- Ambovombe, Julie went to school, chores such as cooking, washing ing rice), at midday rice with cactus thanks to the Fraternidad project that dishes, fetching water from the river, fruit, or pumpkin, and in the evening financed it. Now she lives with her cleaning and collecting wood. The little either rice or corn. In a life scarred by grandfather. She no longer goes to money Julie earns is mostly spent on unprotected children’s rights, Julie school but devotes herself exclusively food: dreams of becoming a shopkeeper. to mica work. Julie would have liked to continue going to school but she had to ‘I save my money to buy tea and stop while she was in second grade. In bread in the morning. When I do Ambia, there is no school. not have any, I have no breakfast either’. Box 5: Julie's story 40 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 4.4.4 EDUCATION A teacher in Andranondambo explained that parents do not stop moving from one mining area to another. In addition, at- Local authorities rarely have exact figures on population size tacks of dahalo, or fear thereof, make parents flee with their and composition, and the number of children going to children. Both of these factors hinder children from going to school. MICS data (Table 1) show that the three regions in school. the south achieve about half the national average when it comes to completing primary or secondary school. Inter- Children who do go to school are not educated under optimal views with the mining communities allowed the researchers conditions. There is a lack of furniture and teachers lack to gain a better understanding of how children and teachers educational materials such as books. There are also reports perceived the challenges of education in the mining areas. of criminals trashing schools. Young teachers are deserting their schools because of these problems. They reportedly For this research 81 children who work in mica mining were cannot cope with the lack of safety and means of communi- interviewed. Of these children, 31 did not go to school. The cation such as telephone or internet. eight children who had never gone to school explained this was due to a lack of means or parental support and/or a lack of schools altogether. The 23 children who left school reported this was due to a lack of means or parental support as well, but also referred to early marriage, illness and safety concerns (insecurity) as a reason. ‘Our school was wrecked by the dahalo, we no longer have chairs or book cases. The dahalo also destroyed all the books. There is little that remains [for] us to teach with now’. (Teacher, Talakifeno, Ambatoabo). Teachers in Andranondambo, Ambatoabo and Amboasary The lack of teachers and the large number of pupils per who were interviewed confirmed that dropping out of school teacher that are cramped into the schoolrooms cannot but is a common phenomenon in mining sites and especially in impact negatively on the quality of the education. Some- times when there is little food. To them, offering free lunch in times, there are so many students that there are six to eight the school canteen is the primary solution to make their children at each table. schools more attractive. It should be noted that the availability of schools in villages ‘People are hungry, sometimes parents want to educate their children but they cannot afford it so they have them leave school. Work in the mica sector is a common motive for stopping school. Parents also remove their children from school as soon as they are 13 or 14 years old; they push them to get married’. (Teacher, Talakifeno, Ambatoabo). does not automatically mean all village children will go to school. By contrast, in case there is no school in the village such as in Ambia and Maromainty, some children will be prepared to attend one in places further out if they are motivated to work and are encouraged by their families. There are even teenagers that combine school and mica work (see Box 5). Boys of 15 that still go to school are quite rare in the south of Madagascar. For children like him combining work and school is exhausting. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 41 Marc’s story Marc is 15 and lives in Ambatoabo with While Marc may produce 12 kilos of his mother, her partner and his siblings. mica a day, he will not be paid for this For years, Marc has been working when output specifically. This is because all need to dig into to extract mica is school is out. He is not only involved in the family’s mica production is pooled very hard and we have a lot of sores mica work, but also herds goats, helps together. Furthermore, income from farming rice or does household chores mica work is exclusively managed by such as collecting firewood and the adults. He receives between Ar 200 fetching drinking water. When Marc is and 3000 (US$ 0.05-0.80) of pocket With his busy schedule combining work working at the mica quarry, he does so money per month. Family income is with school as well as household from 7 a.m. to noon, weekends and mostly used to cover food expenses chores, Marc has little diversity in his during school holidays because the rest and is insufficient to give him more three meals a day: he always eats rice of the time he goes to college. At the than he receives. with, depending on the case, some fish, mining site, Marc always works with his ‘We are exposed to the sun that hits hard while we work. The soil we on our hands because of it’. beans or meat. Marc’s dream is to one family. His duties include digging pits He finds the working conditions very day be able to buy a bicycle and a as well as extracting and sorting mica. difficult: motorcycle. Box 6: Marc's story 4.4.5 COMMERCIAL SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN The traders may take advantage of their status and assets to sexually exploit poor girls on the mica sites and can even afford to choose who they want. Adolescent girls are under Prostitution is widespread in Madagascar (see Box 8). immense pressure to have sex with them, as the sum they Ascertaining it, however, is not always easy because of receive is relatively high and earned quickly compared to cultural specificities in terms of seduction and perception of working in mica mining. sexual practices. In some areas of southern Madagascar, for example, it is common for young men from one village to go In Tsilamaha, it was observed that girls attempted to attract out with girls from another village for money without the term the attention of ‘rich’ mica traders upon their arrival at the ‘prostitution’ being mentioned. This practice is so common weighing location in the centre of the village. A discussion that there was even a time that authorities asked that the with the village chief and other villagers confirmed that money given to the girls should not exceed a certain sum to commercial sexual exploitation of children happens regularly avoid insecurity problems. This is because young boys at such occasions. They referred to an incident involving one without money resort to theft and organised forms of of the girls that was just observed. Apparently, this girl of criminality such as banditry (dahalo) to be able to afford it. about 14 years old was offered Ar 50,000 (US$ 13) by a trader in exchange for sex. However, when another mica 42 In a number of mica mining sites, young girls were found to trader offered her Ar 60,000 (US$ 16) she went with him be sexually exploited. In the mining villages the traders and instead, which resulted in tensions. The village chief also their friends, or collaborators, are among the most important confirmed that young men resort to banditry because of the and wealthy people. high price of paid sex with minors. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR LABOUR IN :er . 4 74. :5 Jao’s story Jao, a 13-year-old boy, no longer goes Every day he needs to mine about He also offered to help arrange girls for to school but works in sapphire and 10-20 kg of mica to cover their the men in the research team. Jao finds mica mining. He lived in Amboasary expenses. He admits that he does not it difficult to work in the mica and with his mother but was forced to move work every day to spare himself sapphire business. Yet he never thinks to Andranondambo to be with his because he complains of being tired. To of stealing: father, who was working there with help his mother who divorced from his mica and sapphire. Because his father father, Jao occasionally sends her Ar is no longer able to work because of a 20,000 (US$ 5.35) when he earns serious illness, it is Jao who takes care enough money. of him now. ‘It’s not good to steal because it’s forbidden, and we risk being killed Jao is a lively boy who loves fashion Jao does not have a watch: he leaves and is looking for experiences. He for work at the beginning of the day and confessed that he also frequents prosti- returns when it starts to get cold tutes, spending Ar 2,000 (US$ 0.54) to (towards 5 p.m.). Ar 5,000 (US$ 1.34) on each occasion. by the commander’.87 Box 7: Jao's story 87 Referring to the then head of the security forces in the southern region. 44 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Studies on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and AIDS show that truck drivers are a risk group because they are among the loyal customers of prostitutes. The research team witnessed a case involving mica truck drivers and two girls of about 14 and 15 years old who were victims of commercial sexual exploitation in the village of Antanimora, a transit place for the transport of mica. At first, they were observed in the truck and later in a bar where discussion with the girls helped to understand more about their lives (see Box 6). Portrait of two sexually exploited children Nadine and Francine come from the In the bar where the research team was Because their mothers were aware of Amboasary region, about 97 km from able to talk to them, the two girls seem them having left with the driver, they Antanimora, the place where the team to be at ease and make it more say they do not have any reservations interviewed them. The girls told us they comfor­table for themselves by ordering about sleeping over in Antanimora. got into the truck because they wanted all kinds of foods and drinks. The driver, However, it is impossible to ascertain to ride a truck, so they came along with who is about 40 years old, also seems how the girls really feel and what the driver to collect mica. They do not at ease with the situation. He is pressures they might be under. A car know exactly for how long they will be explicitly showing off in front of the mechanic in the village told the joining him nor where they are going other young men in the bar, loudly research team that he had asked the exactly. Even the driver does not know encouraging the girls to order more youngest girl what it would cost to have yet. According to the trucker, his boss food and drinks as well as referring to sex with her. She told him Ar 50,000 (owner of a transport company the research team: “You can still add (US$ 13.38), saying that she is still a specialising in mica transport), only things if you want, do not feel re- virgin.  asked him to wait up for a trader in strained! They are our friends!” Antanimora who will show him the place to collect the mica. Box 6: Portrait of two sexually exploited children 4.5 CONTRIBUTION TO HOUSEHOLD BUDGET The available information did, however, allow researchers to understand the situation of income and expenses for mica People in the south live from hand to mouth. A large majority miners in Madagascar. The findings show that mining of people will work in mica mining during the dry season only. income varies considerably. An important factor in fluctua­ This is the time of year they have no options to provide food ting income is the mining location; some quarries as well as by farming. Therefore, while miners may need less income pits are more productive than others. Ownership of the pit is for food when they are not mining mica, the lion’s share of also an important factor: if it is your own, you get to keep all the mining income will be spent on food when they are. the income; if not, you have to share half of it with the owner. However, even when mining, many miners do not eat their fill, Weather conditions add to varying daily income levels as well skipping all but dinner each day. This shows that mica because rain negatively affects business. Finally, there is also mining income is meagre but essential for many people in competition: there will be less mica waste to collect if there the absence of other options to buy or grow food. are many other women or children collecting it. Interviews in mining communities did not allow researchers Income in mining sites may range from Ar 1,000 (US$ 0.27) to gather enough information for a comprehensive in-depth for collecting scrap mica to Ar 11,250 (US$ 3.01) for mining analysis of household budgets. per adult a day. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 45 If one considers that the international extreme poverty line of First of all, the population size of the most important mica US$ 1.90 a day equals Ar 7,100 in purchasing power parity production regions combined – Anosy (809,313), Androy in Madagascar, it is clear that income levels are sometimes (903,376) and Ihorombe (418,520) – is roughly 2.1 million extremely low. Indeed, the minimum wage in the non-agricul- people. Assuming the share of people involved in agriculture tural sector amounts to Ar 6,139 (US$ 1.64) for 8 hours a day. in these regions is similar to the national level of 80 per cent, Families or teams working together in their own pit may earn there are 1.6 million people involved in agriculture. This as much as Ar 45,000 (US$ 12.04). It may, however, be compares to an estimated minimum of 22,000 (miners, halved if production is in the lower range and lower (again) if sorters and traders) people being involved in the mica sector. their earnings need to be split with the owner, in which case This means that only a marginal one per cent of the people in earnings amount to only Ar 11,250 (US$ 3.01). these three provinces is working in the mica sector. However, 88 as noted, mica mining is mostly complementary to agriculIn general, families in Madagascar have many mouths to ture, allowing people to earn income in periods when working feed. Fertility rates are as high as eight in Androy and six in on, and living off the land, is not attractive or possible. Anosy. To illustrate, the cost of buying only the staples to 89 cook three meals a day for a family of nine amount to Ar Looking at a national perspective, the share of official export 3,400 (US$ 0.91) for manioc and Ar 8,100 (US$ 2.17) for rice. value per mica miner compares positively with two other key Calculations by WageIndicator show that Ar 20,579 (US$ artisanal and small-scale mining sectors in Madagascar: gold 5.51) is the daily income needed to cover the necessary living and sapphire.91 Gold is by far the greatest export earner costs of a typical family in Madagascar. Adolescents among the three minerals however; its workforce is estimat- making Ar 1,000 (US$ 0.27) to Ar 1,500 (US$ 0.41) on their ed to be twenty times larger than the mica workforce.92 The own account collecting scrap mica may spend Ar 1,000 on estimated number of people mining sapphire is about three meals alone. This leaves them little or nothing to set aside. times that of the people mining mica however; illicit exports For comparison, children of four years old collecting scrap are estimated to be worth US$ 150 million.93 This makes mica will only contribute Ar 150 (US$ 0.04) to family income. taxable sapphire export revenue much lower, even lower than 90 that for mica.94 4.6 CONTRIBUTION TO LOCAL ECONOMY 4.7 CONFLICT MINERALS It is difficult to estimate the contribution of the mica sector to the local economy as comprehensive and basic information There are no clear criteria to define whether a specific on economies on the regional scale is unavailable. Moreover, mineral (trade) can be characterised as a conflict mineral as this research shows, it is quite a challenge to collect the (trade). The term ‘conflict minerals’ is used to designate trade necessary information to be able to understand the econo­ in minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas that mic dimensions of the mica sector itself. Nevertheless, some finance armed groups, fuel human rights abuses and/or of the characteristics and aspects of other (locally) important corruption and money laundering.95 sectors allow researchers to put the contribution of the mica sector into a better economic perspective. 88 Salary Converter webiste, (23 September 2019). 89 INSTAT/UNICEF. 90 Wage indicator website, (23 September 2019). A typical family consists of two parents with 4.5 children, of which 1.9 are working. 91 The comparison of ratios is for analytical purposes only. Mica miners receive only a small share of the export price and estimates of workforces are very rough. 92 Estimate based on the average reported by two different sources: IISD, Rapport d’évaluation de Madagascar, March 2015, (23 September 2019); The Guardian, ‘A million artisanal gold miners in Madagascar wait to come out of the shadows’, 15 November 2016, (23 September 2019) 93 The estimate was based on the average of the number of people involved in mining in a current sapphire rush region and former one: The Guardian, ‘Sapphire rush’ threatens rainforests of Madagascar, 2 April 2017, (23 September 2019). 94 Transparency International Initiative Madagascar, Fascicule sur le secteur minier artisanal à Madagascar, Or et Saphir, December 2016, (23 September 2019). 95 European Commission website, Conflict minerals, ‘The regulation explained’, (23 September 2019). 46 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation The most probable, and important, reason for this is that and Development (OECD) Due Diligence Guidance for revenue in the mica sector is relatively low. Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas,96 high-risk areas are “often character- Prices for mica hardly compare to those for gold or sapphire. ised by political instability or repression, institutional weak- Sheet mica costs US$ 0.03-0.05 per kilo at the mine and ness, insecurity, collapse of civil infrastructure, widespread scrap mica only US$ 0.01, whereas sapphires may cost violence and violations of national or international law”. The hundreds or even thousands of dollars for a small stone. Low guidance describes conflict-affected areas as “identified by prices for mica mean that mica miners and communities do the presence of armed conflict, widespread violence, not get rich from mica (as is also amply illustrated in the including violence generated by criminal networks, or other preceding sections in this chapter). As a result, mica miners, risks of serious and widespread harm to people”. mines, communities and other actors, with the exception of perhaps mica traders that are reportedly occasionally Many elements in these international notions and definitions targeted, are generally of no special interest to criminals or are characteristic of the situation in the mica mining regions organised crime. Whereas owners of mica exporting in the south of Madagascar (see further below). Nonetheless, companies may (also) have substantial income, their it is argued here that mica is not a clear case of a conflict companies are usually located in towns where it is more mineral. This is mainly because its impact, manifested in the safe. Finally, while the number of people involved in the mica number of people working in it as well as the income they sector is considerable, their number is much lower than the generate, is still relatively limited compared to a number of half million people that are conservatively estimated to be other minerals such as sapphire and gold. working in the gold and sapphire sector alone. From this perspective, the contribution of mica to fuelling human rights The problems defined in these international definitions play abuses is relatively limited as well. out on a much larger scale than the areas where the mica sector is concentrated. Political instability, insecurity, armed However, the hardship of the mica mining communities is violence, corruption, human rights abuses such as child exacerbated substantially by the constant fear and threat of labour, weak institutions and infrastructure are characteristic bandit attacks. When attacks are feared, many people flee of the whole country. Although, the south of Madagascar is the mining quarries to try their luck elsewhere and/or to more impacted by a number of these problems than other return at a later date. areas of the country, it is unlikely that the mica sector plays a significant role in contributing to, or perpetuating, these problems even in this more confined area of the country. 96 OECD, OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas, 20 March 2013, (23 September 2019). CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 47 GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAINS This chapter focuses on the downstream supply chain of mica coming from Madagascar. The aim is to establish the itinerary of the transformation of mica into parts and products and identify their key industrial users and overseas clients. In the previous study by Terre des Hommes/SOMO in 2018 it was already revealed that Madagascar produces sheet mica which is especially in high demand for the electronics, automotive and energy industries. The first phase of this study identified that most of the mica is exported to China. For this reason, the research identified China as the first entry point to further trace the mica downstream. 5. Mica from Madagascar in global supply chains CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 49 To map the downstream supply chain from the Malagasy ports to the factories, the research initially intended to focus solely on sheet mica (HS code 252510), which is almost exclusively exported to China. However, the available information from Chinese customs on shipments that specific companies in this country receive does not distinguish between different grades of mica. It was therefore not possible to specifically focus on the use of sheet mica at this level. This study therefore follows all imported mica from Madagascar into China and makes an effort to identify the type of clients that source mica products. 5.1 MICA EXPORTS FROM MADAGASCAR TO CHINA In 2017, the mica exports97 from Madagascar totalled 34,800 tonnes, worth US$ 6.5 million. The exports are composed as follows: • ‘mica: crude and rifted into sheets or splittings’ (HS Code 252510): 66 per cent • ‘mica waste’ (HS Code 252530): 33 per cent • ‘mica powder’ (HS Code 252520): 1 per cent Of the total mica export from Madagascar, 87 per cent in volume was exported to China in 2017.98 Of the mica grade ‘crude and rifted into sheets and splittings’, 95 per cent was exported to China in 2017. This grade of sheet mica and splittings is especially used for products in the electronics and automotive industries, such as capacitors, resistors and insulators, which are small components that are mounted on printed circuit boards.99 The total value of sheet mica to China is almost US$ 4 million (see also Table 4). Mica ‘waste’ (or scrap mica) is the basis for many different mica products including mica flakes, mica powder and mica paper. Scrap mica is a by-product of sheet mica mining and processing. It can, however, also be recovered as a by-product from beneficiation of other minerals such as feldspar and quartz.100 Mica flakes, mica powder and mica paper products are used in paints and coatings, cosmetics, construction and in the automotive and electronics industries. In 2017, 71 per cent of the scrap mica exported from Madagascar was shipped to China. The remaining scrap mica was exported to Estonia (18%), Russia (5%), Japan (2%) and India (1%) and some small amounts to four other countries.101 97 It would be more logical to refer to imports here but there is a much greater level of detail in the export figures from Madagascar than in the import figures from China in the UN Comtrade database. 98 UN Comtrade. 99 SOMO and Terre des Hommes (2018), p. 42. ‘TMR reports that sheet mica is not being used by the paints and coatings, cosmetics or construction sectors’. 100 SOMO and Terre des Hommes (2018), p. 19. 101 UN Comtrade. 50 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR HS CODE TOTAL MICA EXPORT FROM MADAGASCAR IN TONNES (AND VALUE IN US$) MICA EXPORT FROM MADAGASCAR TO CHINA IN TONNES PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL EXPORTED TO CHINA (AND VALUE IN US$) 252510 - mica: crude and rifted into sheets or splittings 22,805 (US$ 4,390,451) 21,606 (US$ 3,973,442) 95% 252530 - mica scrap 11,563 (US$ 1,949,585) 8,222 (US$ 1,164,849) 71% 252520 - mica powder 448 (US$ 123,232) 448 (US$ 123,232) 100% 2525 - mica including crude, sheet and splittings, powder and mica waste 34,816 (US$ 6,463,269) 30,276 (US$ 5,261,524) 87% Table 4: Mica export from Madagascar in 2017. Source: SOMO, based on UN Comtrade database.102 The exports of mica from Madagascar to China increased more than four-fold between 2013 and 2017 from almost 7,000 tonnes to more than 30,000 metric tonnes (see Table 5). Mica export from Madagascar to China in tonnes, HS Code 2525 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 6,782 9,426 14,195 18,153 30,276 Table 5: Mica export from Madagascar to China in the period 2013-2017. Source: SOMO, based on UN Comtrade database. 102 UN Comtrade database. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 51 5.2 IMPORTING COMPANIES Based on data obtained from Chinese customs, 18 different importers of Malagasy mica could be identified for 2017 alone. Together these companies received 79 shipments of mica from Madagascar for a total value of US$ 6,144,487 in 2017.103 In Table 6, four of the 18 identified exporters over 2017 are listed.104 IMPORTING COMPANY NUMBER OF SHIPMENTS VALUE (US$) Ningbo Ram Electric Material Ltd. 8 1,345,646 Dongguan City Non Cloud Mines Ltd. 10 1,082,745 Electrical Industrial Co., Ltd. Hubei Ping 10 1,042,639 China National Township Enterprises Corporation1 5 788,320 Unknown (10 shipments of unknown importers) 10 588,305 Table 6: Top five importers in China of Malagasy mica in 2017. Source: SOMO, based on information retrieved from the Panjiva database. In 2017, the share of the imports of the top four largest importers combined was US$ 4.2 million (or 69 per cent of total imports). The top four is followed by a group of importers for which the names are unknown with 10 shipments in total, representing a value of US$ 588,305. This means that for almost 10 per cent of the total import value of mica from Madagascar, only the destination (Hunan Province) is known. The remaining 14 Chinese importers account for 21 per cent of the total import value. Shipments in the first quarter of 2018 (no customs data was available after this date at the time of the research) were also reviewed and revealed six additional companies as well as the 18 companies already identified for 2017. Hence 24 importing companies in total were the starting point for further mapping the supply chain to the factories. China also imports mica from a range of other countries. When looking at all the shipments to China in 2017, the following countries are among the top 5: India (387 shipments), Madagascar (79 shipments), Nigeria (28), Japan (21) and Canada (12). The high number of shipments from Nigeria is noteworthy as it suggests that this country is apparently a much more significant mica exporter than was known from the previous research by SOMO.105 5.2.1 TYPES OF MICA IMPORTERS Based on the research on the importers, three different types of importers can be distinguished: 1. Import by manufacturers 2. Import agencies 3. Import for traders and manufacturers by state-owned enterprises In Table 7, a selection of the 24 importers that could be identified as importers of mica from Madagascar are presented by type. The total number of companies identified for each category is noted in brackets.106 103 It is common that different sources report somewhat different trade statistics. 104 These four importers were approached for review to limit the number of companies in the review process (see introduction). Not all 18 importers are listed in the report but they are known to Terre des Hommes. 105 SOMO and Terre des Hommes (2018), p. 19. 106 The commissioners of this research dispose of a complete list. 52 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR IMPORT BY MANUFACTURERS (13) Dongguan City Non Cloud Mines Ltd. Ningbo Ram Electric Material Ltd. IMPORT AGENCIES (10) IMPORT FOR TRADERS / MANUFACTURERS (1) Hunan Xingfeichang International Trade Co., Ltd (Xingfeichang) China National Township Enterprise Corporation Shanghai Xianghu International Trade Co., Ltd (Xianghu) Pamica Electric Material (Hubei) Co. Pingjiang VPI Mica Insulating Materials Pingjiang Xingke Mica Products Co., Ltd. Table 7: Selection of Chinese mica importers identified by type. Source: SOMO, based on information retrieved from the Panjiva database. Import by manufacturers The largest group of Chinese mica importers are manufacturing companies. While they all import mica from Madagascar for their own factories, some will also import for other companies. For instance, Pamica Electric Material (Pamica), a leading Chinese mica product company, is only importing mica for its own products, just like Pingjiang VPI Mica Insulating Materials. Ningbo Ram Electric Material, on the other hand, imports mica not only for its own production but also for other manufactu­ rers (e.g. Xiangbei).107 Almost all manufacturers are also importing mica from other countries as well as Madagascar. India is the most important sourcing country.108 Import agencies Import agencies represent a smaller group of Chinese mica importers. These mica trading companies supply mica to manufacturers in China. For example, Shanghai Xianghu has close relations with the mica companies in Pingjiang county (Hunan). Most of these import agencies are also importing from India; and in some cases, from a third or fourth country as well. Import for traders/manufacturers China National Township Enterprises Corporation is a category on its own as it is the only state-owned enterprise importing mica from Madagascar. The company is supplying mica traders as well as mica manufacturers. It has a local reputation for being the largest importer of Malagasy mica in China. In 2017, however, it was the fourth largest importer of mica from this country. China National Township Enterprises Corporation also imports mica from India.109 It was indicated during the field research that in reality there are more importers than those listed by customs. Because not all importers have a legal import status as a company, they are making use of the status of other importers. This means that the listed importers, to some extent at least, may be importing on paper only while other importers are actually involved in it. 107 Interviews field research. 108 Also importing from India: Dongguan City Non Cloud Mines, Ningbo Ram Electric Material Ltd. (and from Nigeria); PAMICA (and from Nigeria): Pingjiang Xingke Mica Products; Source Panjiva database, visited 29 July 2019. 109 Panjiva database. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 53 5.2.2 GRADES AND PRODUCTS OF MICA As noted above, China mainly imports sheet and scrap mica from Madagascar. According to previous reports, sheet mica is used for built-up mica and fabricated mica products. The latter are pieces of sheet mica that are cut and punched according to different specifications.110 However, according to a Chinese industry analysis (2017),111 mica paper – which can be made from sheet as well as scrap mica – is gradually replacing these more traditional mica products made of sheet mica and is becoming the primary insulating material. This is because the production process of mica paper is less labour-intensive than cutting and punching sheet mica into the required shapes and therefore production costs are lower overall. Together with scrap mica, sheet mica is also used for various other mica products such as mica spacer, mica plate, mica tape, mica tube, mica foil and fabricated mica.112 It is mainly in the form of these products that mica finds its way into electrical appliances and motors, wires and cables (see Figure 6). MICA TYPE MICA GRADE MICA PRODUCTS Mica sheet APPLICATIONS Mica spacer Mica plate Electric motor / appliance Phlogopite mica Mica tape Mica scrap Mica paper Mica foil Mica tube Electric wire / cable Figure 6: Mica products made of Malagasy mica. Source: Created by research organisation in China. Mica powder and flakes that are based on scrap mica also have a very wide range of uses. In addition to electrical insulation, mica powder can be used in weldments and products made of ceramic and rubber. Moreover, mica powder can be used as a pearlescent raw material as well for related products such as plastics, paints, inks and cosmetics. However, as this research focuses mainly on the use of sheet and scrap mica from Madagascar, the use of mica powder by manufacturers in China is not further investigated. 5.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MALAGASY MICA IN THE CHINESE MICA SUPPLY CHAIN In 2017, Yueyang Port was the most important entry point for mica from Madagascar in China. Hunan, the province in which the port is located, was also the most important importing province in the country. Other importing provinces and cities are (in decreasing order of importance): Hubei (Wuhan), Fujian, Zhejiang, Guangdong (Shenzhen), Jiangsu, Guangxi, Hebei, Jiangxi and Sichuan.113 The mica from Yueyang is mainly supplied to the neighbouring counties of Pingjiang and Tongcheng, where most of the mica paper production in China is concentrated (see Figure 7). The mica product producers in this region in turn supply mainly companies in the Yangtze River Delta region with cities such as Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang. 110 SOMO and Terre des Hommes (2018), p. 19. 111 ‘Three questions about mica insulation materials’, China Powder Industry. NO.3, 2017. 112 For an explanation of the different types of mica-based products see for example: C.L. Roongta website, Fabricated Mica, (23 September 2019) 113 Information based on: 2018-2023 China Mica Market Prospect Analysis and Investment and Financing Strategy Research Report’, issued by the China Business Research Institute, (27 August 2019). 54 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR End-product manufacturers in this region are involved in many fields such as electric wires and cables, electric motors and appliances. Wuhan is the capital of Hubei Province. The city hosts some of the largest mica product manufacturers such as Hubei Zhongtian Mica Products Co., Ltd. (Wuhan) and Pamica Electric Material (Hubei) Co. Shenzhen is one of the core cities in the Pearl River Delta region. Mica imported here is mainly supplied to enterprises producing home appliances and electrical equipment in Guangdong Province, which includes cities such as Shenzhen, Dongguan and Shantou. SOURCING COUNTRY IMPORT LOCATION MICA-PRODUCT AREAS FINISHED-PRODUCT AREAS Shanghai Pingjiang (Hunan) Yueyang Tongcheng (Hubei) Wuhan Electric motor Yangtze River Delta Jiangsu Baoying County Electric wire / cable Wuhan Zheijiang Madagascar Shenzhen END-USE Shenzhen, Dongguan, etc. Pearl River Delta Guangdong Electric appliance Others Figure 7: The distribution areas of Malagasy mica in the Chinese supply chain. Source: Graphic made by SOMO partner in China. Pingjiang County plays a particularly important role in China’s mica supply chain. In the past 30 years, the annual output of mica paper in the county has accounted for 80 per cent of the national market.114 The local government of Pingjiang has adopted the mica industry as its leading industry and aims to build an industrial cluster for high-end insulating materials, with a series of mica products mainly composed of mica paper, mica tape, mica plate and mica shaped pieces. For this purpose, the Pingjiang Special Industrial Zone has been established, which is attracting more and more new mica product manufactu­ rers. There is also a Pingjiang Mica Insulation Material Association. Some of the largest mica paper companies in Pingjiang include Xiangbei and VPI.115 Examples of smaller companies are Xingke and Shengying, which have been operating for 10-20 years or more. 114 Yueyang Bureau of Industry and Information Technology, (30 July 2019). 115 Interview with the Secretary of Pingjiang Mica Insulation Material Association. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 55 5.4 COMPANY LINKS FROM PORT TO BRAND As already noted above, Yueyang is the main port for the import of Malagasy mica in China, and Pingjiang is the main location for the production of mica products. The field research in this county allowed researchers to ascertain a number of relationships between companies supplying and sourcing mica along the supply chain from port to brand manufacturer. Some of these company links along the supply chain are shown in Figure 7 and are further discussed below. SUPPLIERS (MADAGASCAR) IMPORTERS / TRADERS MANUFACTURERS Pingjiang Xiangbei Insulation Material Tri-H Ningbo Ram Electric Material S-school Shanghai Xianghu International Trade LAXmica ? ? Xingfeichang International Trade (i.e. Xingke Mica Products) Pingjiang Xingke Mica Products (In Shanghai?) Pingjiang VPI Mica Insulting Materials ? Pingjiang Shengying Mica Industry APPLICATIONS Zheijang Rongtai Electric Material (Glory Mica) FOREIGN BUYERS Panasonic, Fuijitsu, etc. Electric motors / appliances Yes Electric wires / cables Yes High-end motors Von Roll USA Inc., Isovolta India Beijing Yitianlingyun Technology Baosheng Cable Group Jiangsu Shangshang Cable Group Harbin Electric Machinery Company Sichuan EM Technology Co. LTD China Xidian Group CRRC ZhuZhou Motor Co. LTD Figure 8: The flow of Malagasy mica through the supply chain. Source: Graphic made by SOMO partner in China based on desk and field research.116 Pingjiang Xiangbei Insulation Material cluster Two mica exporters in Madagascar that were identified as supplying Chinese companies are Tri-H and S-school.117 The Chinese importers of this mica are the manufacturing company Ningbo Ram Electric Material Ltd. and the import agency Shanghai Xianghu International Trade Co., Ltd.118 The mica product manufacturer Pingjiang Xiangbei Insulation Material Co., Ltd (Xiangbei) in turn mainly relies on these importers for its mica supply. Xiangbei also directly imports mica from Madagascar itself. However, this import only accounts for about 10 per cent of the needed volume.119 116 While S-school and LAXmica were identified as Malagasy exporters during the research in China, no further information could be found about these companies. 117 Ibid. 118 Interviews during the field research. 119 Ibid. 56 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Further down the supply chain, Xiangbei supplies mica paper Pingjiang VPI Mica Insulating cluster to Glory Mica Co. Glory Mica is a subsidiary of Zhejiang About half of the mica used by Pingjiang VPI Mica Insulating Rongtai Electric Material Co., Ltd.120 Glory Mica is one of the Co., Ltd (VPI) is sourced in Madagascar. Currently, VPI relies leading insulating material companies in China. It produces much on import agencies, some of which are based in various mica products such as mica paper, mica tape, mica Shanghai.128 VPI’s mica products are mainly used in the plate and mica tubes. Glory Mica not only purchases mica electromechanical sector. End customers of VPI include paper from Xiangbei but also from at least two other Harbin Electric Machinery, Sichuan EM Technology, China companies that are identified as sourcing mica in Madagas- Xidian Group and CRRC Zhuzhou Motor. VPI exports its mica car, namely Shengying and VPI. products to other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and Japan as well. Two overseas clients of VPI are Von Roll USA One of Glory Mica’s clients is Panasonic (Japan). Panasonic Inc. and Isovolta India.129 The ultimate parent of Von Roll USA is known to have sent a third-party audit company to is Von Roll Holding AG (Switzerland). Von Roll sells mica tape Xiangbei to conduct a responsible supply chain audit for its for electrical insulation and thermal insulation for use in mica products. 121 Other international clients include Fujitsu, electrical machines and equipment but also for the insulation of cables.130 Isovolta Ag (Switzerland) also sells mica tape.131 Murata, Danyo, Galanz and Midea.122 Mica products from both Von Roll and Isovolta can contain Pingjiang Xingke Mica Products cluster mica from Madagascar through their supplier relationship Pingjiang Xingke Mica Products Co., Ltd (Xingke) is another with VPI. manufacturing company that imports its own mica from Madagascar. Between July 2014 and July 2018, Xingke Large integrated mica companies: Pamica received 26 shipments of mica from Madagascar and two Compared with most of the other mica product companies from India. This means that most of the mica imported by based in Pingjiang, integrated companies such as Pamica Xingke (93 per cent) is sourced in Madagascar.123 Xingke have a larger scale of production and profit from supply produces mainly mica paper, mostly used for wires and chain integration advantages. This type of company is called cables. Buyers of Xingke include Shangshang Cable and an integrated company because they ‘integrate’ two or more Baosheng High Voltage Cable Co., Ltd. 124 and others. 125 levels of the supply chain in one company. Such companies Baosheng High Voltage Cable was formerly known as usually import raw materials independently, carry out Prysmian Baosheng Cable Co. The Prysmian Group divested technology development and have production lines of both its 67 per cent share in the company in November 2016.126 simpler products as well as more processed products. Through the field research and desk research for this study, High-voltage cables are used for electric power transmission researchers identified two integrated companies that import over long distances. These high-voltage cables are used by mica from Madagascar. One of them is Pamica (see Figure the energy industry, including the renewable energy industry 9). (e.g. for wind and solar energy), but also in many other industries such as oil and telecommunications.127 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 Glory Mica website, (23 September 2019). Interview field research. China.cn, Zhejiang Rongtai Electric Material Co., Ltd., Company Information, (30 July 2019). Panjiva database. Formerly known as Prysmian Baosheng Cable Co., Ltd., (30 July 2019). Interview field research. Prysmian Group website, ; Prysmian bought a HV cables factory in China previously operated by Shen Huan Cable Technologies: Prysmian Group website, (30 July 2019). Allied Market Research website, (30 July 2019). Interview field research. Panjiva database. Von Roll focuses on products and systems for electrical power generation, power transmission and industrial applications. Von Roll Insulation offers electrical insulation products, systems and services for generators, high- and low-voltage motors, transformers and other applications. Von Roll, Insulating Systems for the Motor Repair Industry, (30 July 2019). Isovolta group website, ‘Energy’, (30 July 2019). CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 57 MADAGASCAR Crude mica INTEGRATED PRODUCTION COMPANY APPLICATIONS Hubei Pamica Electric Co. LTD Export DOWNSTREAM COMPANY Nexans, General Cable Electric wire / cable Shangshang Cable, Boasheng Cable Far East Cable, etc. Electric appliance Gree, Midea, Galanz, etc. Electric motor / aerospace Crrc Corporation, China aerospace Casic Figure 9: Supply chain map of integrated mica production company Pamica. Source: Graphic made by SOMO partner in China. Pamica132 reports being the largest mica product manufacturer in Asia. The company produces mica-based insulation products such as mica paper, mica tape, mica plate, mica sheets, mica silicon crystal electric heating film and fabricated mica. The company’s products are used for special wires and cables, household appliances, electronics, rail transportation, metallurgy, machinery, shipbuilding, aviation, aerospace, nuclear energy, wind energy and other industries. With imports worth US$ 0.4 million, Pamica was the seventh largest China-based importer of mica from Madagascar in 2017 by value. As well as importing mica from Madagascar, the company also imports mica from other countries – 69 per cent of all shipments come from India, 24 per cent from Madagascar and the remaining imports come from Nigeria, Sudan, Iran and Sri Lanka.133 Pamica has a large client base, which includes many companies active in various industries.134 Company clients include: 1. Electric cable companies, such as Shangshang, Far East, Baosheng, etc. 2. Electric appliance companies, such as Gree, Midea, Galanz, etc. 3. Electric motor companies, such as CRRC, China Aerospace. 4. Manufacturers of diverse mica products: Axim Mica (USA),135 Asheville Schoonmaker (USA). One of Pamica’s many international customers in the electronics sector is Fujikura (Japan). In turn, Fujikura has a wide client base in the energy, telecommunication, transportation, aerospace, shipbuilding, automotive and electronics industries. For the automotive sector, it produces wire harnesses, automotive wires, main fuse boxes, relay connectors, seat belt sensors and capacitive sensors, among other products. Fujikura’s products for the electronics sector include flexible printed circuit boards (FPCs), membrane switches, cables, coaxial cables and connectors.136 132 Pamica website, (30 July 2019). 133 Panjiva database. There were 101 shipments in total over the period January 2013 to January 2018. 134 For an overview of Pamica’s clients, see Pamica website, ‘Mica partners’, (30 July 2019). 135 Axim mica is supplied by various mica companies that are sourcing mica in Madagascar: Zhejiang Rongtai Electric Material, Pamica Electric Material (Hubei) and Ninbo Ram Electric Material; Panjiva database (30 July 2019). 136 Fujikura website, (30 July 2019). 58 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 5.5 TRACEABILITY OF MICA IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN IN CHINA It was not possible to assess how products including mica from Madagascar are used in products made by different international (brand) manufacturing companies. For example, It was possible to identify 24 different Chinese companies it is not clear how mica paper is further processed in car that were importing mica from Madagascar during the period parts or electronics components. What the research did January 2017 until March 2018. Yueyang (Hunan) is the main show, however, is that products including mica from Mada- port used by the identified mica importers and neighbouring gascar are extensively used to produce electric wires and Pingjiang county is the country’s main production location of cables as well as electric motors and appliances. The client mica products. Other important locations are Tongcheng, base of companies such as Glory Mica, VPI and Pamica also Wuhan and Shenzhen. The main products made of Malagasy shows that these products are used extensively by large mica that were identified by the field research through international electronics and cable production companies, as researching the clients of the Chinese importers are mica well as manufacturers of mica products in the European paper, mica spacers, mica plate, mica tape, mica tube and Union and the USA.138 mica foil. Therefore, the conclusion can be drawn that In response to the request to review this study’s information companies sourcing these mica products from the on the company, Fujikura claims that it only buys mica tape above-mentioned mica production areas are highly likely to from Pamica.139 Fujikura also sent a statement that it be buying products containing Malagasy mica and therefore requested Pamica to draft a response to the questions they should undertake due diligence efforts to address the included in this research.140 The statement suggests that the possible human rights violations in their supply chain. mica tape it sells to Fujikura is not made of mica from It must be noted here that the identified Chinese importers of Madagascar. However, there is no information on how Malagasy mica also import mica from India, Nigeria, Sri Pamica is able to make such a claim. Fujikura also expresses Lanka, Sudan and Brazil. In addition, mica mined domesti­ its commitment to further address human rights impacts in cally may also be sourced by Chinese mica trading and its supply chains should they become aware of them, in line manufacturing companies. With the exception of Nigeria, with their company’s sourcing policy. Fujitsu is the only other which was not identified as a mica producing country in company that responded to this study’s review request.141 In previous research, all these countries (including China) were its response, it asks for more information on how they would classified as high-risk mica production countries in terms of be using mica from Madagascar. Pending this answer, they child rights violations. could not agree to being mentioned explicitly in the report. 137 Fujitsu did not respond after having received the more detailed information they requested. 137 SOMO and Terre des Hommes, (2018). As already noted, Nigeria was not identified as a significant exporter of mica hitherto this research. Further research into mica mining in this country is recommended. 138 International clients of companies were identified through interviews, the Panjiva database and company websites. 139 Fujikura, email, 6 September 2019. 140 Fujikura, email, 20 September 2019. 141 Fujitsu, email, 6 September 2019. CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 59 PERSPECTIVES The last chapter of this report presents a summary of the findings, a concluding discussion and offers some recommendations. The concluding discussion elaborates on some of the most important findings in the research and analyses (potentially) hindering and enabling factors that affect socio-economic conditions in the mica supply chain in Madagascar in relation to these findings. The third section presents recommendations for different key actors on possible contributions to improve socio-economic conditions in Madagascar. The study concludes with recommendations for further research. 6. Perspectives for improving socio-economic conditions 60 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR HG ?Show; m.m (30 July 2019) 143 OECD, OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, 2011 Edition, (30 July 2019) 64 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR The UN Guiding Principles on Businesses and Human Rights Approaches could also include a focus on improving the promote constructive engagement and the enabling of export price of mica, as prices per volume of the mineral responsible trade in high-risk areas.144 In addition, (interna- from Madagascar are relatively low compared to the tional) civil society organisations (CSOs) aiming to improve international competition. All-important stakeholder groups living and working conditions in the south of Madagascar – the national government, international brand manufactu­ and its mica sector can use this research information to rers and national and international CSOs – can play a role engage with international brand manufacturers to this end. here. At the same time, however, the problems that the mica sector 6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS is creating as an income strategy need to be addressed. This includes perpetuating poverty because children are being This study aims to ascertain and analyse the social and kept away from school. Tackling these underlying issues economic characteristics of the mica supply chain in means addressing unsafe and unhealthy working conditions, Madagascar – from mica mine to consumer product line. child labour and environmental degradation. At this level, the Therefore, advice on concrete and coherent approaches for government has the obligation to improve the enforcement improvement-oriented interventions to address the proble­ of regulations, meaning more capacity is needed to monitor matic conditions in the mica sector are beyond this study’s and inspect working and living conditions in mining and scope. However, this study concludes by proposing a number sorting. Other important stakeholder groups, such as of directions such approaches could take, as well as some of international brand manufacturers and national and interna- the elements they could focus on for different public and tional CSOs, can play a role here. They could, for example, private actors. For a more detailed discussion of the general lobby the government to urge it to more action to formalise responsibilities and possibilities of different important mining in this respect. CSOs could also advise the govern- stakeholder groups, refer to recommendations included in ment on the proportionality and effectiveness of different the research by SOMO and Terre des Hommes on the global kinds of enforcement and formalisation. Merely preventing mica industry.145 The study ends with recommendations for children to work without alternatives and without adequate further research. access to basic education, if pursued at all, is likely to only exacerbate conditions in the mining communities. The same may be true in relation to stopping unlicensed mining. 6.3.1 ADDRESSING MULTIDIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS There is a clear need to improve access to health care, sanitation, drinking water and education in mica mining and Concerted, informed and coherent efforts involving different sorting communities in Madagascar. To this end, invest- important stakeholders and duty bearers are required to ments in staff and infrastructure are required but also address the many and complex problems plaguing mica min- flanking policies such as awareness raising and making ing and sorting communities in Madagascar. One of the key school more attractive by providing meals. It is the state’s suggested targets of interventions for addressing problema­ duty to protect human rights. In the underlying case this tic conditions in the mica sector would be activities helping means providing access to basic needs. However, other miners and sorters to gain more income from their work. important stakeholder groups – importing country govern- This would help them raise their standard of living and may ments, international brand manufacturers and national and allow them to send their children to school instead of work. international CSOs – can and are advised to take action and Such interventions could include elements such as organi­ more responsibility in this respect. sing miners to have more bargaining power with traders and exporters and creating private or public mechanisms to increase the prices for crude mica and wages in sorting. 144 For a more elaborate discussion on how companies can scale up their responsible business conduct due diligence efforts see SOMO and Terre des Hommes, (2018). 145 SOMO and Terre des Hommes, (2018). CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR 65 The widespread insecurity in the mica regions of Madagas- International organisations, the United Nations and CSOs can car needs to be contained as well because, alongside the play a role in raising awareness of the problems with the instability and lawlessness that it creates, it generates fear government and private sectors. To increase the chances of and forces people to relocate. Crime is also negatively more effective and rapid approaches, it is recommended that impacting on education in the region as it prevents teachers CSOs become active in advocating, designing and imple- from teaching and discourages children from going to menting remedial approaches as a matter of urgency. school. These factors all add further to the vulnerability of mica sector communities that are already incredibly vulne­ rable. The national government is responsible for security and the rule of law, and while large-scale activities to curb the 6.3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH insecurity are ongoing with support from the UN, it is recommended to step up efforts to address crime in the Further research is needed to better understand price southern mica producing regions in a way that does not formation on the global level. It is not sufficiently clear what further infringe on human rights. Other important stakeholder factors are playing a role in keeping average prices for groups, such as international brand manufacturers and Malagasy mica so low compared to other markets. national and international CSOs, can play a role here as well. Further research is required into wider distribution of They could urge the government to take more responsibility Madagascar mica to countries such as Estonia and its use for containing crime, as well as monitoring the role of the downstream. government in addressing this issue. Further research into value distribution in the supply chain in Madagascar is also recommended. This should include a To fund investment in improvement approaches and sector better understanding of important factors that play a role in oversight, higher taxes could be levied on exports by the it, such as the ratio of unexported mica sorting waste to actu- government. Furthermore, funds could be raised to this end al volume exported and prices for different qualities of mica. by CSOs and businesses all along the supply chain. For To better understand the scale of human rights risk in mica instance, responsible mica sourcing mechanisms could be supply chains, more research is recommended on the designed that create incentives for the mining sector actors technical aspects of the manufacturing process of mica to invest in better facilities in communities as well as products. To this end, more information is needed on how respectful conduct. factors such as price, grade and origin of mica affect usage in semi-finished and consumer products. Further research is Finally, possibilities should also be considered for mining also needed from companies in the Netherlands and Europe sector communities to diversify their income. To this end, on their supply chain upstream to identify the specific private and/or public programmes for reforestation and semi-finished products containing mica they source. Mica restoration of unproductive mines and quarries could, for that ends up in the consumer products, that are widely used example, be developed. That way, the mining sector commu- in the public domain, in machinery and by consumers. nities can potentially contribute to improving the local climate To develop initiatives and fine-tune strategies to improve instead of furthering environmental degradation. conditions in mica mining communities in Madagascar, it is recommended to study and review approaches that have In all of these approaches, the government in Madagascar is been implemented in other artisanal and small-scale mineral the principal duty bearer. However, companies sourcing mica mining sectors. This includes gold and gemstone sectors as from Madagascar, directly or indirectly through the mi- well as mica mining in India. ca-based products they source, have a responsibility to address the problematic situation in mica mining as well as sorting. 66 CHILD LABOUR IN MADAGASCAR’S MICA SECTOR Em terre des hommes stops child exploitation Stichting Onderzoek Multinationale Ondernemingen Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations