GIS-Based Hydrologic Assessment (HESA) of the Watershed, Geohydrologic Framework, and Groundwater Resources of Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations (BFAS), Kane County, Utah: Phase 1 and Phase 2: HESA-Based Conceptual Site Model, Preliminary Water Budget, and Aquifer Storage Evaluation Authors: Dr. Kenneth E. Kolm, Hydrologic Systems Analysis, LLC., Golden, Colorado and Paul K.M. van der Heijde, Heath Hydrology, Inc., Boulder, Colorado FINAL REPORT Prepared For: Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations, Kane County, Utah September 30, 2019 Front Page: View of Best Friends Animal Sanctuary-Canyon Operations Entrance, central Kanab Creek in the Navajo/Kanab Creek hydrologic system near Kanab, Utah. In this area Kanab Creek is a perennial stream, downcut into the Navajo Aquifer (Hydrogeologic Unit). (Photo by BFAS, July 2019). Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY………………………………………………………………..… iv 1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………... 1 2. DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM OF THE BFAS SPRINGS AND WELLS (BFAS) STUDY AREA……………………...….. 2.1 Climate …………………………………………………………………….….... 2.2 Topography and Geomorphology …………………………………………….... 2.3 Surface Water Characteristics…………………………………………………... 2.4 Springs and Seeps………………………………………………………………. 2.5 Hydrogeologic Framework……………………………………………………… 2.5.1 Hydrogeologic Units of the BFAS Study Area.……………….……… 2.5.2 Hydro-structures of the BFAS Area…...……………………………… 2.6 Groundwater Flow Systems …………………………………………………….. 2.7 Groundwater System Conceptual Site Model of JNKC Hydrologic System….… 4 4 6 7 10 10 12 15 16 19 3. PRELIMINARY WATER BUDGET OF THE JURASSIC NAVAJO AQUIFER – KANAB CREEK (JNKC) HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM IN THE BFAS STUDY AREA…….. 3.1 Water Budget Logic Diagram…………………………………………………..… 3.2 Preliminary Water Budget for the JNKC Hydrologic System………………..….. 3.3 Approach to Preliminary Water Budget Calculations……………………..……... 3.4 Groundwater Recharge and Direct Runoff to Streams…………………..….……. 3.5 Groundwater Underflow …………………………………………………………. 3.6 Kanab Creek Surface Water Inflow and Outflow………………………………... 3.7 Consumptive Use by Riparian Vegetation……………………………………….. 3.8 Lake Evaporation (including Three Lakes and Big Lake).………………….…… 3.9 BFAS Consumptive Use and City of Kanab Municipal Use………………….…. 3.10 Leakance into or from Jnl in Kanab Creek Fracture Zone and through Jk Confining Unit……………………………………………………………. 3.11 PWB and the JNKC Hydrologic System: Discussion of Uncertainty………….. 4. PRELIMINARY GROUNDWATER STORAGE CALCULATIONS FOR THE JNKC HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM IN THE PWB STUDY AREA………………………..………… 4.1 Groundwater Storage Quantification….………………………………………….. 4.2 Approach and Calculation of Groundwater Storage for the JNKC Hydrologic System………………………………………………………….…………….. 4.3 Storage and the JNKC Hydrologic System: Discussion of Uncertainty………... 29 30 31 33 34 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 40 40 41 42 5. RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………………….. 43 6. REFERENCES ……………………………………………….….……………………….. 47 Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page i List of Tables Table 1 Average monthly and annual maximum and minimum temperature and precipitation for Kanab station (COOP 424508) for period 1981-2010…….….. 5 Yearly discharge of Kanab Creek at USGS gage 09403600 at Kanab Creek bridge, near Kanab, Kane County, Utah for the period 2001-2018…………….. 9 Monthly discharge of Kanab Creek at USGS gage 09403600 at Kanab Creek bridge, near Kanab, Kane County, Utah for the period 2001-2018…………….. 9 Table 3 Correlation of geological and hydrogeologic units in the BFAS study area …... 13 Table 4 Preliminary pre-development water budget estimates for Jn/Qal in PWB area .. 36 Table 2a Table 2b List of Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Topographic map of the Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations (BFAS) and the Jurassic Navajo Aquifer – Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system showing the Preliminary Water Budget (PWB) area discussed in Section 3…………..……………………………………….…………………… 1 View of the regional setting of the Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations (BFAS) near Kanab, Utah………………………………………….. 2 The spatial distribution of the average annual precipitation for the period 19812010 in the BFAS study area…………………………………………………… 6 Location of perennial and ephemeral stream segments, lakes, (sub-)watersheds, and springs in the BFAS study area.………………………………..…… 8 Map showing the hydrogeologic units and hydro-structures in the BFAS study area………………………………………………………………………………. 12 Plan view of the shallow groundwater flow system directions on top of the hydrogeologic units of the BFAS study area…………………………………… 18 Plan view of the location of wells, springs, source protection zones, and streams on top of the hydrogeologic units of the BFAS study area…………….. 19 Figure 8 Map showing the locations of the cross-sections representative for the Conceptual Site Model in the BFAS study area on top of hydrogeologic units and hydro-structures……………………………………………………….…… 22 Figure 9a Schematic pre-development east-west cross-sectional view of West Fork Three Lakes part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the BFAS study area (cross-section A-A’).………………………………………… Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI 23 page ii Figure 9b Schematic post-development east-west cross-sectional view of West Fork Three Lakes part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the BFAS study area (cross-section A-A’). Red Sands mining well is located in the Jn aquifer………………………………………………………………… 24 Schematic post-development east-west cross-sectional view of West Fork Three Lakes part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the BFAS study area (cross-section A-A’). Red Sands mining well is located in the Jnl aquifer …………………………………………………………...…… 24 Figure 10a Schematic pre-development east-west cross-sectional view of part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the vicinity of Big Lake and Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area (cross-section B-B’)..…………. 25 Figure 10b Schematic post-development east-west cross-sectional view of part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the vicinity of Big Lake and Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area (cross-section B-B’). Red Sands mining well is located in the Jn or Jnl aquifer ……………………….…………. 26 Figure 9c Figure 11 Schematic north-south cross-sectional view of part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system along Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area (cross-section C-C’)……………………………….………………………. 27 Figure 12 Generalized hydrologic system components and processes…….…………….... 30 Figure 13 Map showing the location of the preliminary water budget (PWB) area of the JNKC hydrologic system on top of the hydrogeologic units of the BFAS study area…………………………………………………………………………….... 32 Map showing the location of the Preliminary Water Budget (PWB) area with boundary conditions, and well and spring locations, and source protection zones…………………………………………………………………………….. 33 Simplified diagram of inflows and outflows for the JNKC hydrologic system in the PWB area……………………………………………………………………. 34 Map showing the location of the Preliminary Water Budget (PWB) area and the hydro zones of the JNKC hydrologic system……………………………….. 35 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Appendices Appendix A Recharge, consumptive use by riparian vegetation, and storage calculations for hydro zones in the PWB area of the JNKC hydrologic system ..………. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI 49 page iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report presents the findings of Phase 1 and Phase 2 of a 3-phase project focused on improving the understanding of the hydrogeological setting of the water supply sources for the Best Friends Animal Society – Canyon Operations (BFAS), the quantification of the water resources available to BFAS, and updating the BFAS springs and wells protection against mining activities with regards to water supply and contamination. In Phase 1, a Hydrologic and Environmental System Analysis (HESA) of the central Kanab Creek watersheds was completed to identify the hydrological systems of specific importance to the sustainability of the BFAS springs and wells as water supply for the Canyon Operations. It was concluded that the BFAS water supply was mainly dependent on the hydrologic system formed by the central Kanab Creek Watershed and the Upper Navajo aquifer underlying the surrounding region, including Red Knoll. This hydrologic system, referred to as the Jurassic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system, was chosen in Phase 2 of the project as the setting for the quantification of the water resources available to BFAS, resulting in a preliminary global water budget (PWB) of the area in the JNKC hydrologic system affecting the BFAS water supply. It is a preliminary water budget as there are many uncertainties with respect to the determination of the individual components given the sparseness of relevant published data. The Jurassic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system is a complex mix of fractured and faulted Navajo Sandstone rock, Eolian (wind-deposited) and Pedogenic Sand, Alluvium, and hydro-structures (fault and fracture zones that are either conductive or a barrier to groundwater flow). The Upper Navajo Sandstone bedrock (Jn) has both matrix flow and fracture flow. As the hydraulic conductivity of the matrix (Kmh) is significant less than the hydraulic conductivity of the fracture zones (Kfh), fracture flow will dominate travel times and will be most important for contaminant studies and well/spring protections, as well as estimating groundwater storage and recharge rates. Recharge to the Upper Navajo aquifer in the JNKC hydrologic system is by infiltration of precipitation (snow and rain) directly into bedrock, or through the eolian sand cover on the surface of the uplands and interfluve tops; by north-south and east-west trending fracturecontrolled ephemeral stream channels, and by losing reaches of flowing streams. Groundwater flow in the Upper Navajo aquifer is strongly fracture controlled, and moves from the drainage divides in the same direction as the stream with various stream reaches being gaining or losing depending on topography, bedrock hydrogeology, hydrostructures, and saturated thickness of the bedrock. Most of the streams are French drains where groundwater flows parallel to the surface feature, and discharges into the gaining streams. The sub-regional groundwater flow direction is from west to east around and near Red Knoll, and east to west from the Johnson Wash groundwater divide. The High K Zone flow systems of Kanab Creek, West Fork Three Lakes drainage, and Cave Creek drainage collect most of the groundwater flow system which ultimately ends in the Kanab Creek main channel system. Groundwater then discharges out of the JNKC hydrologic system in three notable places due to the hydrogeology and the complex hydrostructures: 1) The Kanab Creek fracture zone/French drain that receives groundwater to various springs and seeps along its path including the Red Canyon upper Kanab Creek springs where the perennial Kanab Creek begins, and at the BFAS springs along the central parts of the canyon including Big Lake near the BFAS Headquarters; 2) The Three Lakes discharge zone in Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page iv Three Lakes Canyon; and 3) The West Fork Three Lakes discharge zone that delivers groundwater to the City of Kanab. Detailed cross-sections are provided to illustrate potential groundwater pathways and potential changes in aquifer function due to the proposed Red Sands mining and groundwater extraction sites. Regardless of whether the Red Sands wells are located in the Upper Navajo aquifer, or the Lamb Point Tongue aquifer, or a combination of both aquifers, the impacts to the Town of Kanab wells, and BFAS wells and springs are significant. The West Fork Three Lakes perennial stream and spring dries up. There is a potential decline in the productivity of the Town of Kanab and BFAS wells. There is a reduction in the phreatophytes (habitat destruction). There is a water level decline notable along the groundwater flow paths down gradient of the mine and well site causing a decline in the springs at Big Lake and Three Lakes Canyons, a decline in lake levels and lake habitat, a decline in the BFAS springs in Kanab Canyon, and ultimately a reduction of surface water flow in Kanab Creek. The removal of eolian sand at the mine site will reduce the groundwater infiltration and increase the evapotranspiration significantly resulting in further declines in water tables downgradient. The HESA completed in phase 1 showed that the JNKC hydrologic system is a welldefined system for which the boundary conditions and internal surface water−groundwater interactions are relatively well-understood and quantifiable to various degrees of accuracy. In order to estimate the upper bounds of the water resources present in the JNKC hydrologic system, a preliminary (global) water budget (PWB) has been developed for the JNKC hydrologic system, focused on the external inputs (inflows) and outputs (outflows). In addition, an analysis was made of the storage capacity of the Jurassic Navajo aquifer in the PWB area. The delineation of the PWB area is based on the location of BFAS springs and wells including Big Lake and Three Lakes, the location of the stream gage in Kanab Creek, and the natural boundaries of the JNKC hydrologic system, and covers almost the entire JNKC hydrologic system as determined in the HESA of Phase 1. The PWB area is bounded by the low permeability Sevier Fault to the west, the groundwater divides to the southwest, north, east, and southeast, and the Jn bedrock exposures to the south, and includes additional outcrop exposures of Jurassic Lambs Point Tongue of the Navajo Formation and Kanab Creek alluvium to the south so that the Kanab Creek gage could be used in the water budget. There is one distinct time period evaluated in the JNKC hydrologic system water budget: pre-mine development which is present-day. Phase 3 will evaluate the projected water use postdevelopment, which are future projections to determine the impacts of sand mining on water supply, groundwater recharge changes, and potential groundwater/surface water contamination. Pre-mine development or current use has limited municipal, domestic and irrigation demand and kept most of the JNKC hydrologic system of the Red Knoll recharge region in its natural state, a period that in this report is referred to as the pre-mine development present day phase. Starting as early as 2020, the start of the mining of frack sands in the Red Knoll area, together with the initiation of a steady increase in mining water use at some specified rate, well location, and well depth, and the removal of the sands and vegetation, which are part of the JNKC recharge units and function, will represent a significant increase in the anthropogenic withdrawals from the JNKC hydrologic system that could continue up to 50 years. This latter period will be evaluated Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page v as Phase 3, and will be referred to as the projected-development phase. A preliminary water budget (PWB) has been developed for the pre-development time period. The significant inputs of the PWB are: 1) groundwater inflow (i.e., underflow) at western boundary from recharge in area between the PWB boundary and the first closed hydrostructure of the Sevier Fault zone; 2) recharge by infiltration of precipitation (rain and snow) across the entire PWB area using the concept of hydro zones explained later in this report; 3) direct surface runoff from precipitation to streams; 4) Kanab Creek inflow at Northern PWB boundary from nearby springs; and 5) groundwater leakage from Jnl through Kanab Creek French drain towards Kanab Creek. The outputs of the PWB are: 1) consumptive use by riparian vegetation; 2) evaporation from open water (Big Lake and Three Lakes); 3) consumptive use BFAS wells and springs (production minus return flow); 4) municipal use (Kanab City wells and springs); 5) domestic consumptive use (non-BFAS private wells); 6) Kanab Creek outflow at Southern boundary (at USGS gage near highway bridge); and 7) groundwater underflow at Southern boundary (in Qal in Kanab Creek canyon).The post-development JNKC water budget of Phase 3 will have the same type of inputs as the pre-development water budget, but has an additional outflow term, the mining operation water use (developed wells for mining water supply). The closing term or balancing term in the pre-mine development PWB is formed by direct runoff to streams from precipitation. That term, adjusted for changes in average precipitation, will then used as an input for the Phase 3 preliminary post-development water budget, in which the closing term is a deficit inflow assigned to water released from aquifer storage. Using the precipitation data sets for 1981-2010 for the Kanab, Utah area, a series of potential recharge and consumptive use by riparian vegetation scenarios have been evaluated based on detailed knowledge of the hydrogeology and landscape characteristics. The calculation of the recharge term in the PWB for the Jn aquifer and the Jnl aquifer can be summarized as follows: 1) the low estimate for recharge in the Jn aquifer is 4940 ac-ft/yr, the high estimate is 9881 ac-ft/yr, and the “best” estimate used in the PWB is 7587 ac-ft/yr; 2) the low estimate for (direct) recharge in the Jnl aquifer (in the central-south part of the PWB area) is 125 ac-ft/yr, the high estimate is 250 ac-ft/yr, and the “best” estimate used in the PWB is 188 ac-ft/yr . The “best” estimate for recharge in both the Jn and Jnl aquifers amounts to about 15 % of overall precipitation in the PWB area or 2.3 inches/yr. a, The average consumptive use by riparian vegetation was estimated at 3817 ac-ft/yr. Direct runoff to streams was calculated at 3905 acft/yr, and the Kanab Creek outflow determined by gage data was 6820 ac-ft/yr . Many of the components of the PWB calculations include large uncertainties. The most reliable data are the USGS stream flow data at Kanab Creek at the Kanab Creek bridge below the BFAS operations, the springs and wells production data from the City of Kanab and BFAS, and the precipitation data from NOAA used to develop various recharge scenarios. All other data sets provide a “snap shot” of a particular variable in time as they were gathered at various, noncomparable moments in time and should be considered a first estimate, subject to refining by further field studies. Another area where significant cost-effective improvements to the PWB can be made is more detailed and frequent monitoring of the Kanab Creek and Three Lakes surface Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page vi water system (both the lakes region, and the West Fork of Three Lakes Canyon tributary, specifically in the vicinity of the Town of Kanab and BFAS wells and springs and above and below the area where the Town of Kanab and BFAS source protection zone intercedes with projected mining areas and water supply reductions due to mine pumping. Finally, more detailed monitoring of selected, “representative” springs, in the BFAS area, should be initiated to obtain an indication of the relationships over time between spring discharge, climate variations, and Kanab Creek runoff, as well as an insight in the resilience of the JNKC hydrologic system to external stresses. The Upper Navajo (Jn) groundwater system is mostly unconfined, i.e., having a readily fluctuating water table, and the aquifer storativity is characterized by so-called specific yield. The Upper Navajo aquifer has both matrix specific yield (small) and fracture specific yield (large). The matrix specific yield estimates range from 5 – 10 %; the fracture flow specific yield estimates range from 10 – 20% As there is a significant presence of fracture zones in the JNKC system, fractures are the dominant feature in determining available groundwater storage. The results of GIS-based calculations show that the JNKC groundwater system has a storage minimum of about 43,462 ac-ft, and a storage maximum of about 114,188ac-ft, indicating significant uncertainty in the actual storage available in the JNKC groundwater system. Areas along the groundwater flow paths that directly affect the yields and water quality of the BFAS wells and springs, and the City of Kanab wells at the West Fork Three Lakes Canyon, Main Fork Three Lakes Canyon, Cave Creek Canyon, and Kanab Creek, have the largest amount of storage. The current BFAS source protection plans identify these hydro zones as critical, and the effects of the proposed mining and related well extraction on these protection zones will be evaluated in Phase 3 of this project. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page vii 1 INTRODUCTION Under an agreement with Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations, Kane County, Utah (BFAS) of March 25, 2019 for evaluation of the potential effects of nearby siting of a planned surface sand mine and accompanying industrial well on BFAS’s water supply both in terms of quantity and quality, and on the water rights of BFAS (see Figure 1), Hydrologic Systems Analysis LLC (HSA) of Golden, Colorado, in conjunction with Heath Hydrology, Inc. (HHI) of Boulder, Colorado, was tasked to: 1) perform a Hydrologic and Environmental System Analysis (HESA) of the area detailing the characteristics of the surface water and groundwater systems and their interactions; 2) collect climate, hydrological, hydrogeological and other data necessary to construct a water budget for the BFAS site, delineate the area for which the water budget will be developed, and prepare an as-accurate-as-possible water budget for the Site; and 3) evaluate the nearby siting of planned surface sand mine and accompanying industrial well that potentially affect the BFAS site using the HESA and water budget results. The approximate study area is shown in Figure 1 and is based, in part, on the extent of the hydrogeological systems present. Each of these tasks constitutes a phase of the project. This report contains the results of Phase 1, Hydrologic and Environmental System Analysis (HESA), and Phase 2, developing a preliminary water budget (PWB) for the part of the hydrologic system affecting the BFAS site, in this report referred to as the BFAS study area. Figure 1. Topographic map of the Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations (BFAS) and the Jurassic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system showing the Preliminary Water Budget (PWB) area discussed in Section 3. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 1 The study area is located between the White Cliffs to the north, the East Fork Virgin River watershed and Sevier Fault to the west, Johnson Wash watershed to the east, and the Vermillion Cliffs above the Town of Kanab to the south (Figures 1 and 2). The delineation of the study area is based on the nature and extent of the major hydrogeological systems present, the surface hydrology of the area, and water resources related land use considerations. The area covers the central Kanab Creek watershed as delineated in the GIS files downloaded from the data portal of the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS, 2019). The study distinguishes between three hydrologic entities: 1) East Fork Virgin River watershed and groundwater subsystems referred to in Heilweil and Freethey (1992) as the Zion Block; 2) Central Kanab Creek watershed and groundwater subsystems referred to in Heilweil and Freethey (1992) as the western and central part of the Kanab Block; and 3) Johnson Wash Watershed and groundwater subsystems referred to in Heilweil and Freethey (1992) as the eastern part of the Kanab Block. The combined central Kanab Creek Watershed and Jurassic Navajo Sandstone aquifer underlying the central Kanab Creek region, referred to as the Jurasic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system, will be the setting for the water budget to be developed in Phase 2 of this study. Figure 2. View of the regional setting of the Best Friends Animal Society-Canyon Operations (BFAS) near Kanab, Utah. (Source: Google Earth, imagery date July 2015). The HESA of the surface water and groundwater systems in the BFAS study area makes extensive use of existing GIS databases and maps of geologic, hydrogeologic and hydrologic characteristics, collected specifically for this study. Additional data layers and evaluations were needed to illustrate the HESA – particularly with respect to the hydrogeological characteristics of the rock types present and the significance of hydrostructures. The results of the HESA of the JNKN hydrologic system are documented in Section 2 of this report. These results provide the base the water budget quantification of Phase 2 described in Section 3 of this report. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 2 In conducting this study and preparing this report, extensive use has been made from data layers collected in a Geographical Information System (GIS) using the ESRI® ArcMapTM software. The data sources included Utah AGRC (Automated Geographic Reference Center), Utah Division of Water Rights (UDWR), Utah Division of Environmental Quality (Utah DEQ), Utah Geological Survey (UGS), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, and others. In addition, HSA/HHI has prepared a number of data layers specifically for this report through interpretation of existing data sets and field reconnaissance. It should be noted that that this report will not obviate the need for additional hydrogeologic analysis on a site-specific/parcel-specific basis by mine site developers and/or BFAS, or in any water right, water supply, geotechnical, or environmental study requiring due diligence. The information in this report is intended to be used as indicator only, as part of a multi-step resource evaluation and land use decision-making process, and to provide a starting point for further study of the sustainability and vulnerability of the BFAS's surface water and groundwater resources. The information provided in this report, together with the data base developed for Phase 1 and 2, constitutes the base for the Phase 3 study. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 3 2 DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM OF THE BFAS SPRINGS AND WELLS (BFAS) STUDY AREA HESA is an approach used to conceptualize and characterize relevant features of hydrologic and environmental systems, integrating aspects of climate, topography, geomorphology, groundwater and surface water hydrology, geology, ecosystem structure and function, and the human activities associated with these systems into a holistic, threedimensional dynamic conceptual site model (CSM). This watershed-based, hierarchical approach is described by Kolm and others (1996) and codified in ASTM D5979 Standard Guide for Conceptualization and Characterization of Ground Water Systems (ASTM 1996(2014)). The CSM of the BFAS study area covers elements of climate, topography, soils and geomorphology, surface water characteristics, hydrogeologic framework, hydrology, and anthropogenic activity as related to the surface water and groundwater systems in the study area. Based on field surveys and a preliminary HESA, a number of hydrogeologic subsystems were identified in the vicinity of the BFAS study area. Each of these subsystems has a unique hydrogeologic setting and groundwater flow system and the most relevant subsystem, the JNKC hydrologic system, is described in detail in forthcoming sections of the report. Current anthropogenic modifications of the natural hydrologic features in these subsystems are minimal, and are primarily related to municipal and domestic water use (Town of Kanab, and BFAS wells and septic systems), and agricultural practices and irrigation (surface water diversions and irrigation return flow). A brief discussion of potential modification of natural flow patterns and impacts on water budgets and water quality, particularly salinity, from agricultural, urbanization and mining activities is included. 2.1 Climate The climate in the study area has both local and regional components and includes effects of elevation and slope aspect (i.e., steepness and orientation with respect to the prevailing winds and sun exposure). The climate in the study area would be semi-arid to arid in its entirety if not for the presence of the White Cliffs to the north. These cliffs and the region beyond, rising more than 1000ft above the BFAS operations and proposed Red Sands Mine site, capture significant moisture from passing storm systems in the form of rain and snow. The relevant Western Regional Climate Center weather station for the study area is KANAB, UT (COOP 424508) for Period 1981-2010 (WRCC 2019). These data will be used in the water budget analysis and potential effects of climate change in a later phase of this study (Table 1). Data from the NWS COOP network, the NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) SNOTEL network, and local, state, regional, and federal networks were used to prepare a map of spatially distributed precipitation corrected for elevation using PRISM (Parameter elevation Regression on Independent Slopes Model) developed by Oregon State University for the NRCS (Figure 3). As these data sources show, there is a gradual precipitation gradient from about 15 inches annually at Kanab, UT in the far southern boundary of the BFAS study area to about 17 inches near the White Cliffs. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 4 Table 1. Average monthly and annual maximum and minimum temperature and precipitation for KANAB station (COOP 424508) for period 1981-2010. (Source: Western Regional Climate Center (WRCC 2019). Precipitation type (rainfall versus snowfall), amount, and temporal and spatial distribution are important for determining the amount of recharge that a groundwater system may receive, particularly when it consists of the thick unconsolidated materials or shallow, permeable bedrock under unconfined conditions. The distribution of average annual precipitation is an important indicator of the climate of a particular area, and in the case of the BFAS study area, the climate is semi-arid. There is a natural recharge potential in the topographically level to gently undulating uplands, mostly from rain and some snow throughout the late fall, winter, and spring, and a moderate to large natural recharge potential from both rain and snow in the fracturecontrolled drainages, for example West Fork Three Lakes and Red Canyon drainages, and Kanab Creek canyon. The summer months are characterized by high evaporation rates and are too desiccated for significant groundwater infiltration and recharge in the valley floors and rims, with the exception of an occasional localized intense summer storm, especially on irrigated (high soil moisture content) lands and in the channels of the drainages. Thus, most of the natural groundwater recharge in the near-surface aquifers in the uplands occurs during only in the late fall, winter and early spring (October to April). It should be noted that the entire study area has groundwater recharge potential; even the driest areas probably receive approximately 1-2 inches of recharge annually. This is important when considering the ultimate groundwater system flow directions and areas of groundwater recharge, and for calculating water budgets. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 5 Figure 3. The spatial distribution of the average annual precipitation for the period 1981-2010 in the BFAS study area. (Source: NRCS, 2019). 2.2 Topography and Geomorphology The BFAS Canyon Operations complex is located in the Colorado Plateau physiographic province, and is geographically known as the Wygaret terrace (Freethey, 1988). The surface elevation in the JNKC study area ranges from about 1,500 m (≈5,000 ft) in the Vermillion Cliffs to about 1,800 m (≈6,000 ft) at the base of the White Cliffs (Figures 1 and 2). This landscape is characterized between the White Cliffs and Kanab as topographically flat-to gently rolling terraces dissected locally by deep canyons of Kanab Creek and its tributaries resulting in locally discontinuous terrain. The result is for surface water and shallow groundwater systems to be localized (i.e., non-regional) within this area. Where Kanab Creek has not penetrated the various aquifers, underlying regional groundwater systems, such as the Jurassic Navajo Lambs Tongue (Jnl) and the northern part of the Jurassic Navajo (Jn) aquifers, they are non-dissected and maintain a regional flow system. The topography of the study area has three distinct terrains: 1) gently sloping, poorly dissected, eolian and pedogenic deposits (such as proposed for mining) on continuous widespread terrace tops and flat areas, for example in the Red Knoll region, in the northern, western, and eastern areas of the study area, and on the tops of mesa areas between the drainages; 2) greatly dissected, connected, and continuous fractured bedrock features (stream drainages) with cliffs, hillslope fans and mass wasting features (particularly sand deposits and fans along and below these rimlands); and 3) continuous alluvial valley bottoms, mostly sandy materials, associated with the principal drainage of Kanab Creek and tributaries (Figures 1 and Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 6 2). The non-dissected uplands promote localized groundwater system continuity. The fractured uplands promote discontinuity in groundwater systems resulting in discharge zones in the form of springs and seeps to the surface water systems. The continuous alluvial valleys promote continuity between the streams and the alluvial materials. The deeper bedrock groundwater systems, if not topographically dissected by the surficial processes or affected by regional geologic structure and uplift activity, will be continuous and regional in nature. However, all of the deeper bedrock groundwater systems are affected by the regional geologic structure, and there is no continuity in the deeper bedrock systems east-west across the region at this location (to be discussed in later sections of the report), but, there is continuity in the deeper bedrock systems north-south. Therefore, these deeper bedrock systems in the BFAS study area do receive regional groundwater recharge and are recharged by, or are discharging into, the local shallow groundwater systems depending on the geomorphic geometry. Most of the alluvial terraces, fans, and river bottoms in the study area are connected, but are isolated topographically from the rest of the region. This results in discrete and localized groundwater systems and can result in discrete and localized springs and connections to surface water systems. This concept is important in identifying various segments of the water budget. The topographic gradients in the BFAS study area can be divided into three types: 1) steep gradient bedrock slopes (greater than 2% slope) mostly in the dissected bedrock regions (dissected Wygaret plateau) and flanks of the surrounding rimlands (White Cliffs); 2) steep gradient unconsolidated materials slopes (greater than 2%) including the talus and alluvial fans forming beneath the rimlands of Kanab Creek and tributaries and along the exposed bedrock of the White Cliffs to the north; and 3) low gradient (less than 2% slope) fan, terrace levels, and alluvial valley bottoms associated with the uplands and valley bottoms of Kanab Creek (Figures 1 and 2), and eolian and pedogenic soils atop undissected bedrock plateaus (Red Knoll for example). The topographic gradient is useful in estimating the surface of the water table, for estimating the amounts of infiltration versus overland flow and interflow (rapid, shallow subsurface runoff), and for estimating residence times for subsurface water to be in contact with bedrock that may supply salt resulting in declining water quality. 2.3 Surface Water Characteristics The BFAS study area contains one prominent local watershed draining to the Colorado River via Kanab Creek (Figure 1). Streams can be gaining flow (from groundwater, rapid surface runoff, and interflow), or losing flow (to groundwater, diversions or evaporation through phreatophyte vegetation), dependent on local hydrology, hydrogeology, irrigation practices, and time of year. Central Kanab Creek, in the study area, is mostly dependent on groundwater interactions either as gaining or losing stream reaches, or surface water events originating locally, or regionally in the Pink Cliffs and White Cliffs regions (Figure 4). The Central Kanab Creek drainage originates in three regions: Pink Cliffs, White Cliffs, or locally as groundwater discharge in the form of springs and gaining reaches of streams (Freethey, 1988) (Figure 4). Kanab Creek drainage area enters the study area as an ephemeral channel except for two types of events: snow melt runoff and/or a precipitation event causes Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 7 surface water to flow into the central Kanab Creek system from the north. Groundwater infiltration from the stream bed occurs during these events resulting in channelized groundwater recharge into the stream alluvium and the underlying bedrock. The central and lower parts of Kanab Creek is perennial where stream flow originates from spring flow and groundwater discharge from the stream bed and bedrock into the stream channel. Groundwater is also discharged by phreatophytes along these gaining stream reaches. Figure 4. Location of perennial and ephemeral stream segments, lakes, (sub-)watersheds, and springs in the BFAS study area. (Sources: NRCS 2019; Utah AGRC 2019). The gaining and losing dynamics of these streams are influenced by seasonal events, with bank full conditions occurring during the spring runoff, and low water conditions occurring during the rest of the year. In addition, some storm events of various durations and amounts can affect the yearly and seasonal flows. USGS Gage 09403600, located on Kanab Creek north of the Town of Kanab and just south of the BFAS entrance, has recorded yearly and monthly flow data, and Table 2a and 2b illustrate these daily, seasonal, and annual events for Kanab Creek at that location. Table 2a shows that during the period 2001-2018, the average yearly discharge at that location was 9.4 cubic feet per second (6,805 acre-ft/yr), and that the range 5.97 – 19.4 cubic feet per second (4,322 – 14,045 acre-ft/yr) was highly variable. There was no significant trend for wetter versus drier years in that short period of time. Table 2b shows that during the period 2001-2018, the monthly discharge was also highly variable, with the winter/spring months of February, March, April, and May having the highest flows due to events or snowmelt runoff, and the summer months having the lowest flows. It should be noted that on occasion, a major precipitation event or snowmelt runoff event could occur that not only boosts the recorded flows, but also could be responsible for a major groundwater recharge event. Five such flows occurred during the period 2001 – 2018, four in the winter: 1) March 2008: 40.1 cubic ft/sec; 2) December Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 8 2010: 57.4 cubic ft/sec; 3) March 2011: 50.1 cubic ft/sec; and 4) February 2017: 66.7 cubic ft/sec; and one at the end of the summer period 5) September 2014: 49.4 cubic ft/sec. Table 2a. Yearly discharge of Kanab Creek at USGS Gage 09403600 at Kanab Creek bridge, near Kanab, Kane County, Utah for the period 2001-2018. (Source: USGS-NWIS, 2019). Table 2b. Monthly discharge of Kanab Creek at USGS gage 09403600 at Kanab Creek bridge, near Kanab, Kane County, Utah for the period 2001 - 2018. (Source: USGS-NWIS, 2019). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 9 2.4 Springs and Seeps Springs and seeps indicate places where water flows naturally from a rock or the soil onto the land surface or into a body of surface water. These features represent the contact between (saturated) groundwater and the land surface at that location. Springs usually emerge from a single point and result in a visible and measurable flow of water, or contribute measurably to the flow of a stream or the volume of a reservoir or pond. Seeps tend to be smaller than springs, have a more distributed character, and often show no visible runoff, especially in this semiarid climate where, in many cases, the water emerging in seeps is lost to evapotranspiration. In semiarid climates like the BFAS study area, springs and seeps may be identified by the presence of phreatophyte vegetation away from streams. Springs and seeps may be expressions of discharge of shallow groundwater from an unconfined aquifer, or of discharge from deeper aquifers at the contact between (more) permeable and (nearly) impermeable formations at or near the land surface, in fracture zones, or through karst conduits. The BFAS study area contains a number of springs, seeps, and gaining reaches of streams as identified by previous publications, Google Earth analysis, field reconnaissance, and analysis of information from the State of Utah Water Rights Database (Figure 4). Most of the smaller springs and gaining reaches of streams are found in the upper reaches of Kanab Creek and its tributaries, and the larger springs are located in bedrock along the margins of Kanab Creek Canyon (Figure 4). Of particular interest to this study are West Fork springs, Three Lakes springs, Kanab Creek springs, Cave Lakes Canyon springs, Big Lake springs, and Red Canyon springs (Figure 4), which are mostly located at the Jn/Jkt contact in bedrock above and near the Kanab Creek and tributaries downgradient from the proposed Red Sands mine (Figure 4). A detailed discussion of springs and seeps in the JNKC area and their relationship with the local groundwater systems is presented in section 2.5. 2.5 Hydrogeologic Framework Bedrock and unconsolidated materials have traditionally been classified as either aquifers or aquitards based upon being able to provide sufficient water for irrigation and industrial and municipal consumption. In this context, an aquifer is a permeable body of rock that is saturated with water and is capable of yielding economically significant quantities of water to wells (human and agricultural use) and springs (human and ecological use). A low-permeability formation overlying an aquifer is often called an aquitard or confining unit. As the terms “aquifer” and “aquitard” are rather ambiguous (e.g., what are economically significant quantities? or how confining is a low-permeability unit with respect to the transport of contaminants?), the use of these terms may be replaced by that of the term hydro-stratigraphic unit or hydrogeologic unit, in combination with terms qualifying the permeability and/or saturation of the unit (e.g., saturated, high-permeable hydrogeologic unit). A hydrogeologic unit is a geologic formation, part of a formation, or a group of formations with similar hydrologic characteristics (e.g., similar permeability characteristics and storage capacity). It should be noted that hydrogeologic units may not equate to geological units such as formations, formation members, and formation groups due to the frequently encountered variability of the flow characteristics of such geologic units. The term aquifer in this report is used to indicate a Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 10 significant source of water supply from hydrogeologic units, and may include the qualifier potential (i.e., potential aquifer) when parameter uncertainty exists, especially with respect to average saturated thickness and water table fluctuations. From a groundwater flow and water supply perspective, the most important property of rocks is the incorporated pore space and related permeability. The pore space, which defines the amount of water storage within a hydrogeologic unit, may be contemporaneous with the rock formation (primary or matrix porosity), or due to secondary geological processes, such as fracturing, faulting, chemical solution, and weathering (secondary porosity, fracture/karst porosity). The degree of connectivity and the size of the pore openings define the permeability of the rock, that is, the ease with which fluid can move through the rock. As with porosity, permeability may be primarily matrix based (matrix permeability), fracture and/or karst based (fracture/karst permeability), or may be a combination of both. Unconsolidated sediments and clastic materials, as found in the BFAS study area, and observed on the pedogenic and eolian deposits, mass wasting colluvium and talus, and alluvial floodplains in Kanab Creek and its tributaries, are geologically very young and consist primarily of clays, silts, sands, and gravels. They are generally very porous and permeable, but can be quite variable in their thickness, continuity, and hydraulic properties. For example, field observations revealed that the thickness of the unconsolidated sediments in the BFAS study area ranges from less than 1 ft to greater than 100 ft. (Spangler and others, 1993). Estimates of hydraulic conductivity (K) of these unconsolidated materials range from 0.1-10 ft/day (Qal) and from 1 to 100 ft per day (Qes) (Heath, 1983). These hydrogeologic units, if found in large quantities would most likely contain the greatest amount of groundwater. In the BFAS study area, these units are either localized in small areas (stream bottoms), or are observed in large quantities in the upland areas as unsaturated sand dunes and pedogenic deposits (which are proposed to be mined). Consolidated sedimentary rock, by comparison, is often quite porous, but variable in permeability. Most fine-grained detrital rocks like shale, claystone, and siltstone may have relatively high matrix porosities, but very low permeabilities (Davis and DeWiest, 1966). These fine-grained bedrock hydrogeologic units are the dominant confining layers of sedimentary groundwater systems, with small hydraulic conductivity values typically less than 0.01 ft per day. Coarser-grained sedimentary rock, such as sandstone, can pair relatively high matrix porosity with significant permeability, and may contain significant amounts of groundwater. The hydraulic properties of sedimentary rock may be largely enhanced when fractures and faults are present (Davis and DeWiest, 1966). As a case in point, the sandstones rocks in and near the BFAS study area that are affiliated with the entrenched drainages have enhanced permeability due to fracture and fault density and connectivity along these drainages. Significant secondary porosity and permeability are developed through faulting, fracturing, and weathering of the sedimentary rock, especially in association with active faults, fracture zones, and nearsurface stress-release. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 11 2.5.1 Hydrogeologic Units of the BFAS Study Area There are two significant groups of hydrogeologic units in the BFAS study area: 1) Quaternary unconsolidated clastic materials (Figure 5; Table 3), which are predominantly Stream Alluvium (Qal) and Eolian Sand (Qes); overlying 2) Mesozoic bedrock units (Figure 5; Table 3), including the following potentially water-bearing units: fractured and matrix Upper Navajo Formation (Jn), and fractured and matrix Lamb Point Tongue of the Navajo Formation (Jnl). Table 3 and Appendix A lists the hydrologic characteristics of these units, and show that most of these units have low matrix hydrologic conductivity and have springs with variable well yields. By comparison, the Carmel Formation (Jc), Tenney Canyon Tongue of the Kayenta Formation (Jkt), and Kayenta Formation main body (Jk) may act as thick, poorly transmissive confining layers (Freethey, 1988; Heilweil and Freethey, 1992). Figure 5. Map showing the hydrogeologic units and hydro-structures in the BFAS study area. From a water supply perspective, the unconsolidated clastic sediments, specifically when composed of larger size particles (>2.5 mm or 0.1 in) and observed to have sufficient saturated thickness and horizontal continuity, provide a significant and accessible water supply. The water supply function of bedrock units is largely dependent on rock type, large-scale structure and degree of fracturing, layer geometry and orientation, and the spatially variable hydrologic inputs and outputs, and may vary significantly dependent on location. The focus of this HESA was on the deeper bedrock units that have been tapped for water supplies in areas where the shallow unconsolidated aquifers cannot supply adequate quantities of water for the landowners or are the source of major springs for BFAS and Town of Kanab water supplies, and the relations of these hydrologic systems to the surface water systems of Kanab Creek and its tributaries. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 12 Table 3. Correlation of geological and hydrogeologic units in the BFAS study area. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 13 Additionally, water quality is also an issue that is addressed, both in discerning the nature of the shallow and deeper groundwater systems, the nature of the interactions between these two types of groundwater systems with Kanab Creek, Three Lakes, and Big Lake, and in the assessment of water protection of springs and water wells for the BFAS water supply. The Quaternary unconsolidated clastic units (Qes and Qal in Table 3 and Figure 5) are a mixture of fine and medium sand sized materials in the eolian deposits, and are predominantly a mix of coarse, medium, and fine sand sized materials with some gravels in the larger channels of the alluvial deposits. The eolian units, which are moderately to highly permeable, are recharged by infiltration from precipitation that is non-uniformly distributed due to the slope steepness, slope aspect, and to position in the landscape; and the alluvial units, which are also highly permeable, by flow in ephemeral stream channels and losing streams in perennial reaches where favorable. The eolian unconsolidated units are primarily unsaturated or seasonally saturated, and the alluvial units are variably to fully saturated, based on spatial location and seasonal precipitation events. There is lateral and vertical groundwater flow connection between the unconsolidated materials and the underlying bedrock formations that is critical for understanding the hydrologic systems and water quality of the BFAS study area. The thickness and surface distribution of the eolian sediments is variable, and ranges from less than 1 ft to greater than 100 ft in the northern and central part of the BFAS study area (Figure 5). The thicknesses of the unconsolidated alluvial material in Kanab Creek is also variable, and commonly ranges from 1 – 100 ft. The subsurface distribution of alluvial thickness is indicative of the faulting and fracturing associated with Kanab Creek and its tributaries with subsequent erosion and filling of fault and fracture zones with sands and gravels. The Mesozoic bedrock units (Figure 5; Table 3) includes the following potentially waterbearing units: fractured and matrix Upper Navajo Formation (Jn), and fractured and matrix Lamb Point Tongue (Jnl). Table 3 and Appendix A lists the hydrologic characteristics of these units, and show that most of these units have low matrix hydrologic conductivity and have springs with variable well yields. The Upper Navajo Formation has a saturated thickness in the study area of 200-250 feet as observed in the Town of Kanab wells (Heilweil and Freethey, 1992). The Lamb Point Tongue has a thickness of about 100 ft between the Sevier Fault and Kanab Creek (Heilweil and Freethey, 1992). The Upper Navajo Sandstone bedrock (Jn) has both matrix flow and fracture flow. The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the matrix (Khm) ranges are in the range of 0.1 – 6.0 ft/day, while vertical hydraulic conductivity of the matrix (Kvm) are in the range of 0.01 – 5.0 ft/day, whereas the horizontal fracture flow is estimated to have a hydraulic conductivity (Khf) of 7.55 ft/day, and the vertical fracture flow is estimated to have a hydraulic conductivity (Kvf) of 0.5 ft/day (Heilweil and Freethey; 1992). In other studies of the Navajo aquifer, the fracture flow has ranges estimated from 5.0 -20.0 ft/day (from Freethey, 1988; Freethey and Cordy, 1991). The Lamb Point Tongue has similar ranges and values: Kh estimated at 0.002 – 4.2 ft/day; Kv estimated at 0.005 – 2.2 ft/day (Freethey, 1988). By comparison, the Tenney Canyon Tongue (Jkt) confining unit has considerably lower ranges and values: Kv estimated at 0.005 – 0.42 ft/day (Freethey, 1988). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 14 2.5.2 Hydro-structures of the BFAS Area Geologic faults and fracture zones, sometimes expressed at the surface as lineaments or linear drainage segments, may influence the hydrogeology and hydrologic systems of the BFAS study area, including Kanab Creek and its tributaries (Figure 5). These hydrostructures underlie the drainages in the bedrock systems, primarily the Upper Navajo aquifer (Jn) and Lambs Tongue aquifer (Jnl), and are most likely associated with preferential groundwater flow along fault and fracture zones that are observed or hypothesized to transmit groundwater either vertically or laterally along the fault or fracture planes or zones. These structures may serve as distinct hydrogeologic units, may enhance the permeability of sections of bedrock hydrogeologic units, may connect multiple hydrogeologic units together, or may restrict the thickness and flow of overlying unconsolidated deposits resulting in springs and groundwater discharge areas. These hydro-structures, if “open”, may also result in connectivity between deeper groundwater systems and the streams, which may be a concern if future water well drilling or surface water diversion occurs. Each fault and fracture zone should be evaluated for the following characteristics: 1) fault and fracture plane geometry, including the vertical or horizontal nature of the fault/fracture plane and the relations of rock types and geometry on both sides of the structure; and 2) the transmissive nature of the fault/fracture plane or fault/fracture zone, including the nature of fault gouge, if any (clay, gravel), and tectonic setting of fault/fracture plane or zone (extension or compression). The fault/fracture plane geometry is important to evaluate if groundwater can move horizontally across the zone from one transmissive unit to another, or whether the groundwater is forced to move vertically upward to the surface, in many cases, or downward into a different hydrogeologic unit, or laterally parallel to the fault and fracture zone like a geotechnical French drain. The tectonic setting helps determine whether the fault/fracture plane is “open”—able to easily move water (extension), or “closed”—not able to easily move water (compression). Hydrostructures, which are defined by folds, faults and fracture zones, control the location of Kanab Creek and the accompanying tributaries, including Red Canyon, Big Lake Canyon, West Fork Three Lakes Creek, Three Lakes Creek, Cave Creek, John R Canyon, Brown Canyon, and Hog Canyon among others. These hydrostructures can exist sub-regionally and regionally if structural and topographic continuity exist (Figures 5). The main regional fault and fracture zone structures are the Sevier Fault, the Kanab Creek fracture zone, and the Johnson Wash fault zone (Figure 5). These features dip almost vertically and strike from the north to south (Figure 5). The Sevier fault zone, which dissects the Upper Navajo hydrogeologic unit, forms a closed hydrogeologic and hydrologic system boundary along the west side of the BFAS study area due to the discontinuity of hydrogeologic units across the feature. This hydrostructure is a hydrologic block that prevents most shallow groundwater in the Upper Navajo aquifer from flowing across east to west near Red Knoll. The other two north-south hydrostructures: the Kanab Creek fracture zone with accompanying faults; and the Johnsons Wash fault zone function as French drains (high K zones with groundwater storage) where groundwater moves both vertically and horizontally along the axis of the structure. In the northern part of the BFAS study area, the Kanab Creek fracture zone is open and a French drain that moves groundwater vertically down into the Upper Navajo aquifer and deeper Lambs Tongue aquifer as a recharge Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 15 zone. From Red Canyon to below the confluence with John R and Brown Canyons, the Kanab Creek French drain (high K zone with groundwater storage) is open, but serves as a vertical collector of Upper Navajo aquifer water discharged to Kanab Creek (gaining stream) and a horizontal conduit for shallow groundwater flow to the south. Finally, the Kanab Creek fracture zone (high K zone with groundwater storage) is open south of the Big Lake confluence to the Kanab Creek bridge and Three Lakes Canyon confluence where the groundwater is vertically transmitted to/from the Lambs Tongue as recharge/discharge, and a horizontal conduit for shallow groundwater to the south. By comparison, the fault splay off of the Kanab Creek fracture zone, which is the Three Lakes Creek fault zone and drainage, serves as a partial barrier to ground water flow that has resulted in the formation of the Three Lakes (Figure 5). However, groundwater at that location continues to flow eastward across that feature to daylight as springs in the BFAS part of the Kanab Creek French Drain (Figure 5). The Johnson Wash fault zone functions as a French drain (Figure 5) and serves as a collector for shallow groundwater from the Upper Navajo aquifer. That drainage, however, is in a different groundwater system and watershed than the BFAS study area. An east-west trending fracture set that serves as hydro-structures occurs in the BFAS study area (Figure 5). These features, including West Fork Three Lakes Creek, Cave Creek, Hog Canyon, and Big Lake, are open and function as French drains (high K zones with groundwater storage) that allow groundwater in the shallow Upper Navajo aquifer to travel to the fractures, and then travel along the fractures to discharge zones. 2.6 Groundwater Flow Systems Groundwater flow is the movement of water from the earth’s surface into the subsurface (groundwater infiltration and recharge), through the subsurface materials (groundwater flow and storage), and from the subsurface back to the Earth’s surface (groundwater discharge), expressed in terms of flow directions, patterns and velocities. The driving force for groundwater flow is a difference in piezometric “head” or groundwater levels, as expressed, for example, by the slope of the water table. The general Conceptual Site Model (CSM) of the groundwater flow system consists of 1) water inputs (recharge); 2) storage in and movement through subsurface hydrogeologic units (groundwater flow); and 3) water outputs (discharge). The general Conceptual Site Model (CSM) is helpful to determine the water balance of the groundwater flow system, which is the quantitative balance of the water inputs with the water outputs. Natural recharge is based on climate and soils resulting in infiltration of precipitation and snowmelt. Groundwater interaction with streams, vegetation (evapotranspiration), and human activity (irrigation, urbanization, wells and individual sewage disposal systems, reservoirs and ponds, oil and gas activity, mining, dewatering) will affect groundwater movement to varying degrees. The CSM also incorporates topography (steepness, slope aspect, degree of landscape dissection), geomorphology, and soil and rock properties. Because of the time-space variance of these inputs and outputs, a groundwater system often shows significant variations in water levels, water storage, flow velocities, and flow patterns. Some of the variations are seasonal; others may be Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 16 related to multi-year periods of above-average or below-average precipitation. This results in variations in the availability of water from these hydrogeologic units. Based on the HESA approach (Kolm and others, 1996), and previously collected supporting data, the regional, sub-regional, and local scale groundwater flow systems are delineated. The broad hydrologic system inputs include: 1) infiltration of precipitation as rain and snowmelt; 2) areas of losing perennial and ephemeral streams (for example, reaches of the Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area, reaches of ephemeral streams on the sides of the White Cliffs and Johnson Wash/Kanab Creek divide); 3) infiltration and runoff from water bodies (Three Lakes, Big Lake); and 4) horizontal and/or vertical inter-aquifer transfer of groundwater between unconsolidated materials and bedrock systems (for example between the Kanab Creek alluvium and the Upper Navajo bedrock). The general hydrologic flow subsystems, including the undissected uplands terrace level, hillslope, and valley bottom type geomorphic systems, consist of a combination of, among others, the following hydrologic processes: 1) surface runoff (channel and/or overland flow) and rapid near-surface runoff (interflow or shallow throughflow); 2) saturated groundwater flow in parts of the bedrock units and alluvial valley bottoms; 3) groundwater discharge to springs and seeps, and directly to gaining streams; 4) groundwater recharge from losing streams; 5) discharge by plants as evapotranspiration; and 6) discharge by pumping wells. In general, shallow groundwater flow in these systems is with topography away from upland tops, along the axis of the upland tops, and/or towards the valley bottoms, perpendicular to the major streams. Where permeable bedrock units underlie the uplands, hill slopes, and valley bottoms, recharge by groundwater moving from unconsolidated hydrogeologic units into the bedrock hydrogeologic units may force the groundwater into a more regional or sub-regional pattern determined by geological structure, independent from local topography and hydrography. However, the groundwater subsystems of the BFAS study area are a complex mix of bedrock aquifers, and predominantly shallow unsaturated upland top and hillslope eolian and colluvial systems, and valley bottom alluvial aquifer systems underlain by either bedrock aquifers, or more confining hydrogeologic units. Locally and sub-regionally, various hydrostructures may influence interconnectivities of the shallow units with deeper bedrock systems, and there is a regional system underneath due to hydrogeologic, structural, and geomorphologic (including topographic) connectivity. The Jurassic Navajo Kanab Creek hydrologic system (JNKC), located in the core of the BFAS study area (Figure 6), is a complex mix of fractured and faulted Navajo Sandstone (Jn), Eolian Sand (Qes), Sandy alluvium (Qal), Sandy Miscellaneous Unconsolidated deposits (colluvium, eolian, alluvium mixture), and hydro-structures which form the robust groundwater system and surface water system that is directly connected to the BFAS and Town of Kanab springs and wells (Figures 4, 5 and 6). This hydrologic system is hydraulically connected to the Kanab Creek Lower Alluvium system and to the Jurassic Navajo Lamb Tongue regional hydrologic system down valley and underneath (discussed in forthcoming paragraphs). As springs are discharge points of groundwater flow systems, their presence in the BFAS study area provide clues about these groundwater flow systems, including the role of the hydrogeological units, hydro-structures, and the effects of natural and anthropogenic recharge on flow and water quality. The location of springs and seeps in the BFAS study area were identified using topographic maps and the Utah State water rights records, augmented by field Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 17 reconnaissance. The locations of these springs are discussed in Section 2.3 (Figure 4). The springs are plotted with the distribution of the hydrogeologic units to determine the hydrologic systems relationships (Figure 7). Figure 6. Plan view of the shallow groundwater flow system directions on top of the hydrogeologic units of the BFAS study area. The small arrows are local groundwater flow directions. The larger blue arrows show groundwater flow direction along major hydro-structures. There are three spatial distributions of springs, based on spring location with respect to hydrogeologic location, that are informative for the analysis of the surface water and groundwater systems in the BFAS study area. The first type of springs is located in the alluvium in the Kanab Creek and tributary channels, including the springs by Red Canyon, John R. Canyon, and Brown Canyons, and in the alluvium of West Fork Three Lakes near the proposed mine site (Figure 7). These springs emanate from the Upper Navajo bedrock system (Jn), and represent the culmination of the groundwater flow in that part of the Jn hydrologic system and the beginning of flow in the Quaternary alluvium of Kanab Creek and tributaries. These springs are also the beginning of the tributaries of the Kanab Creek surface water systems, which will affect the entire JNKC hydrologic system. The second group of springs is observed throughout the BFAS area at the contact between the Upper Navajo aquifer (Jn) and the Tenney Canyon Tongue (Jkt) confining unit. These include the BFAS springs in Kanab Canyon on both sides of the stream, springs in Hog Canyon, and in Cave Lakes Canyon (Figure 7). These springs are bedrock discharge areas where the Upper Navajo aquifer (Jn) is deeply fractured or faulted and the groundwater finds a preferential flow path from the bedrock to the surface enhancing the surface water flow regimes (gaining streams). Downgradient of these springs, the surface water may eventually return to a different groundwater system as recharge. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 18 Figure 7. Plan View of the location of wells, springs, source protection zones, and streams on top of the hydrogeologic units of the BFAS study area. The third group of springs, which include the largest groups of lakes: three Lakes, is located in bedrock along the margin of Three Lakes Canyon (Figure 7). These major springs are groundwater discharge areas where the Upper Navajo aquifer (Jn), due to blocking hydrostructures, force groundwater to daylight to the surface enhancing the surface water flow regimes at that location (Figure 7). Downgradient of these major springs, the surface water quickly flows back into the Jn bedrock system as groundwater recharge. The groundwater then flows to the BFAS springs and wells in the Kanab Creek Canyon (Figures 6 and 7). 2.7 Groundwater System Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC Hydrologic System The Jurassic Navajo Kanab Creek Hydrologic system (JNKC) is a complex mix of fractured and faulted Navajo Sandstone (Jn), Eolian Sand (Qes), sandy Stream Alluvium (Qal), sandy miscellaneous unconsolidated deposits (colluvium, eolian, alluvium mixture), and hydrostructures (fault and fracture zones) forming the robust groundwater system and surface water system that is directly connected to the BFAS and Town of Kanab springs and wells (Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7). This hydrologic system is hydraulically connected to the Kanab Creek Lower Alluvium system and to the Jurassic Navajo Lamb Tongue regional hydrologic system down valley and underneath. As stated in Section 2.5.1, there are two significant groups of hydrogeologic units in the BFAS study area: 1) Quaternary unconsolidated clastic materials (Figure 5; Table 3), which are predominantly Stream Alluvium (Qal) and Eolian Sand (Qes); overlying 2) Mesozoic bedrock Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 19 units (Figure 5; Table 3), including the following potentially water-bearing units: fractured and matrix Upper Navajo Formation (Jn), and fractured and matrix Lamb Point Tongue (Jnl). Table 3 and Appendix A lists the hydrologic characteristics of these units, and show that most of these units have low matrix hydrologic conductivity and have springs with variable well yields. By comparison, the Carmel (Jc), Tenney Canyon Tongue (Jkt), and Kayenta (Jk) units may act as thick, poorly transmissive confining layers (Freethey, 1988). As stated in Section 2.5.2, the main regional fault and fracture zone structures are the Sevier Fault, the Kanab Creek fracture zone, and the Johnson Wash fault zone (Figure 5), which dip almost vertically and strike from the north to south (Figure 5). The Sevier fault zone, which dissects the Upper Navajo hydrogeologic unit, forms a closed hydrogeologic and hydrologic system boundary along the west side of the BFAS study area due to the discontinuity of hydrogeologic units across the feature. The other two north-south hydrostructures: the Kanab Creek fracture zone with accompanying faults; and the Johnson Wash fault zone are open and function as French drains (high K zones with groundwater storage) where groundwater moves both vertically and horizontally along the axis of the structure depending on location. By comparison, the fault splay off of the Kanab Creek fracture zone, which is the Three Lakes Creek fault zone and drainage, serves as a partial barrier to ground water flow that has resulted in the formation of the Three Lakes (Figure 5). However, groundwater at that location continues to flow eastward across that feature to daylight as springs in the BFAS part of the Kanab Creek French drain (Figure 5). The Johnson Wash Fault Zone functions as a French drain (Figure 5) and serves as a collector for shallow groundwater from the Upper Navajo aquifer. The east-west trending fracture set including West Fork Three Lakes Creek, Cave Creek, Hog Canyon, and Big Lake, are open and function as French drains (high K zones with groundwater storage) that allow groundwater in the shallow Upper Navajo aquifer to travel to the fractures, and then travel along the fractures to discharge zones. The shallow Quaternary unconsolidated materials in this subsystem are located in two strategic locations: directly along the main channels of streams (Qal) and as deposits of various thickness on the uplands (Qes) (Figure 5 and Table 3). These highly-permeable deposits are homogeneous, mostly fine to medium grained sand, and locally derived from the weathering and eolian deposits of the Upper Navajo (Jn) bedrock. As stated in section 2.5.1. the Upper Navajo Sandstone bedrock (Jn) has both matrix flow and fracture flow. As the fracture permeability is significant higher than the matrix permeability, fracture flow will dominate travel times and will be most important for contaminant studies and well/spring protections, as well as estimating groundwater storage and recharge rates. The general aspects of groundwater flow in the Quaternary unconsolidated materials have been discussed in Section 2.5. Specifically, the presence of Eolian Sand (Qes) facilitates enhanced groundwater recharge by infiltration of precipitation (snow and rain) to the bedrock underneath. The Quaternary Stream Alluvium (Qal) in the Kanab Creek channel and tributaries is closely aligned with the stream levels except where the stream is gaining, in which case the groundwater levels may be higher reflecting water moving from the bedrock into the stream. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 20 Recharge to the Upper Navajo Sandstone in the JNKC hydrologic system is by infiltration of precipitation (snow and rain) directly into bedrock, or through the eolian sand cover on the surface of the uplands and interfluve tops; by north-south and east-west trending fracture-controlled ephemeral stream channels, and by losing reaches of flowing streams (Figure 6). These ephemeral channels include upper Kanab Creek, upper Brown and John R. drainage, and upper Red Canyon drainage (Figure 6). Groundwater flow in the Upper Navajo aquifer is strongly fracture controlled, and moves from the drainage divides in the same direction as the stream with various stream reaches being gaining or losing depending on topography, bedrock hydrogeology, hydro-structures, and saturated thickness of the bedrock. Most of the streams are French drains where groundwater flows parallel to the surface feature, and discharges into the gaining streams. There is also groundwater discharge from the bedrock locally mostly by phreatophytes. The sub-regional groundwater flow direction is from west to east around and near Red Knoll, and east to west from the Johnson Wash groundwater divide (Figure 6). The High K Zone flow systems of Kanab Creek, West Fork Three Lakes drainage, and Cave Creek drainage collect most of the groundwater flow system which ultimately ends in the Kanab Creek main channel system (Figure 6). The connectivity and interactions of Kanab Creek, and the Town of Kanab and BFAS wells and springs, with the groundwater flow paths of the JNKC hydrologic system, that may be impacted by the Red Sands Mine in the western parts of the study area, are extremely complex, and warrant detailed illustration. A map showing the locations of a series of detailed hydrogeologic and hydrologic system cross-sections illustrating the groundwater movement and discharge of the lower JNKC hydrologic system and the relationship to the proposed Red Sands mining operation and water extraction from the JNKC aquifer is shown in Figure 8. They are based on the modified geologic cross-sections presented in Freethey (1988); Heilwall and Freethey (1992); and Spangler et al. (1993). These detailed cross-sections illustrate potential groundwater pathways and potential changes in aquifer function due to the proposed Red Sands mining and groundwater extraction sites (Figures 9a, 9b, 9c,10a, 10b, and 11). Groundwater discharges out of the JNKC hydrologic system in three notable places due to the hydrogeology and the complex hydrostructures: 1) The Kanab Creek fracture zone/French drain that receives groundwater to various springs and seeps along its path including the Red Canyon upper Kanab Creek springs where the perennial Kanab Creek begins, and at the BFAS springs along the central parts of the canyon including Big Lake near the BFAS Headquarters (Figure 6); 2) The Three Lakes discharge zone in Three Lakes Canyon; and 3) The West Fork Three Lakes discharge zone that delivers groundwater to the City of Kanab (Figure 6). At these locations, groundwater moves vertically upward onto the surface as discharge at springs, and the surface runoff from the springs flows over bedrock in channels down into the Kanab Creek surface water and alluvial aquifer system (Figures 9a, 9b, 9c,10a, 10b, and 11). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 21 Figure 8. Map showing the locations of the cross-sections representative for the Conceptual Site Model in the BFAS study area on top of hydrogeologic units and hydro-structures. Figure 9a specifically illustrates the groundwater flow path and connectivity of the groundwater system from the area of the proposed Red Sands mine and water well - prior to its operation - in the Upper Navajo aquifer along the fracture zone that contains the West Fork Three Lakes drainage to the Town of Kanab wells, and to the springs and wells at the BFAS site in Kanab Canyon. The West Fork Three Lakes fracture zone is illustrated as a French drain or “drain like structure”. The atmospheric water recharges the groundwater system at the proposed mine site by infiltration of precipitation through the bedrock directly, or through the eolian deposits (Qes), which enhances recharge to the bedrock system (Figure 9a). In the undisturbed state, groundwater then flows to the east preferentially in the West Fork Three Lakes fracture zone to discharge into the West Fork drainage as a perennial stream, or continue along the preferred groundwater zone through the hydro-structure. Groundwater is then consumed by phreatophytes as a discharge function. The Town of Kanab also has wells in this drainage, which is another form of groundwater discharge from the Upper Navajo aquifer (Figure 9a). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 22 Figure 9a. Schematic pre-development east-west cross-sectional view of West Fork Three Lakes part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the BFAS study area (cross-section A-A’ in Figure 8). The Three Lakes Canyon fault creates a partial block to groundwater flow, and groundwater is discharged into Three Lakes Canyon creating the three surface water bodies (Figure 9a). Groundwater may also be traveling vertically in the Three Lakes Canyon fault zone to connect with the deeper Lamb Point Tongue aquifer (Figure 9a). The remainder of the groundwater in the Upper Navajo Aquifer travels east to discharge as springs or by wells in Kanab Canyon at the BFAS site. Figure 9b and 9c illustrate the potential disruption of well pumping at the Red Sands mine site. Figure 9b illustrates a well located in the Upper Navajo aquifer where pumping creates a cone of depression that travels preferentially along the West Fork Three Lakes Creek. Note that the perennial stream dries up, there is a potential decline in the productivity of the Town of Kanab wells, there is a reduction in the phreatophytes (habitat destruction) and that the water levels decline down gradient causing a decline in the springs at Three Lakes Canyon, a decline in lake levels and lake habitat, and a decline in the BFAS springs at the west side in Kanab Canyon (Figure 9b). The removal of eolian sand at the mine site will reduce the groundwater infiltration and increase the evapotranspiration significantly resulting in further declines in water tables downgradient. Figure 9c illustrates a well located in the Lambs Point Tongue, a confined aquifer system located underneath the Upper Navajo aquifer and Tenney Canyon Tongue confining layer, and the potential disruption of water supply in the overlying Upper Navajo aquifer. Pumping of the Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 23 Figure 9b. Schematic post-development east-west cross-sectional view of West Fork Three Lakes part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the BFAS study area (cross-section A-A’ in Figure 8). Red Sands mining well is located in the Jn aquifer. Figure 9c. Schematic post-development east-west cross-sectional view of West Fork Three Lakes part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the BFAS study area (cross-section A-A’ in Figure 8). Red Sands mining well is located in the Jnl aquifer. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 24 Lambs Point Tongue aquifer will most likely result in groundwater “leaking” (leakance) from the Upper Navajo aquifer through the Tenney Canyon Tongue confining layer due to the increased pressure caused by well pumping. This will cause water level and head declines in both aquifer systems, and declines in spring discharge to the BFAS and Three Lakes Canyon springs, a decline in lake levels in Three Lakes Canyon, a decline in discharge to the stream (if not totally drying up the stream) in the West Fork Three Lakes Canyon, and a decline in groundwater discharge to the Town of Kanab wells and BFAS wells and springs. Most likely, the phreatophytes in the West Fork Three Lakes Canyon will decline and die. The most drastic case may have the Three Lakes in Three Lakes Canyon go dry, and the endangered species associated with these lakes may decline or vanish. Figure 10a specifically illustrates the groundwater flow path and connectivity of the groundwater system from the proposed Red Sands mine and water well in the Upper Navajo aquifer along the matrix and subsurface Big Lake fracture zone to the springs and wells at the Big Lake BFAS site in Kanab Canyon. The Big Lake fracture zone is illustrated as a French drain or “drain like structure”. The atmospheric water recharges the groundwater system at the mine site by infiltration of precipitation through the bedrock directly, or through the eolian deposits (Qes), which enhances recharge to the bedrock system (Figure 10a). In the undisturbed state, groundwater then flows to the east preferentially in the Big Lake fracture zone to discharge into the Big Lake valley as a perennial stream, or continues along the preferred groundwater Figure 10a. Schematic pre-development east-west cross-sectional view of part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the vicinity of Big Lake and Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area. (Cross Section B-B’ in Figure 8). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 25 zone through the hydrostructure. Groundwater is then consumed by phreatophytes or evaporated off the Big Lake surface as a discharge function. BFAS also has wells in this drainage, which is another form of groundwater discharge from the Upper Navajo aquifer (Figure 10a). The runoff from the groundwater discharge is to Kanab Creek, as is additional recharge to the Kanab Creek directly from the Jn aquifer upstream. Figure 10b illustrates the potential disruption of mining activities at the Red Sands mine site. Figure 10b illustrates a well located in the Upper Navajo aquifer where pumping creates a cone of depression that travels somewhat preferentially along the Big Lake fracture zone. Note that Big Lake springs and lake levels initially decline and Big Lake could eventually dry up, there is a potential decline in the productivity of the BFAS wells and Kanab Creek flow, and there is a reduction in the phreatophytes (habitat destruction) in the BFAS area as water levels decline (Figure 10b). The removal of eolian sand at the mine site with reduce the groundwater infiltration and increase the evapotranspiration significantly resulting in further declines in water tables downgradient in these same places. Figure 10b. Schematic post-development east-west cross-sectional view of part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system in the vicinity of Big Lake and Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area (Cross Section B-B’ in Figure 8). Red Sands mining well is located in the Jn or Jnl aquifer. Figure 11 specifically illustrates the groundwater flow path and connectivity of the Upper Navajo groundwater system to the Kanab Creek surface water system, and can be used to project the effects of the proposed Red Sands mine and water well in the Upper Navajo aquifer along the matrix and subsurface Red Canyon fracture zone to the springs in Kanab Canyon. The Kanab Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 26 Creek fracture zone is illustrated as a French drain or “drain like structure”. The atmospheric water recharges the groundwater system in the Kanab Creek area by infiltration of precipitation through the bedrock directly, through the eolian deposits (Qes), which enhances recharge to the bedrock system, and by focused linear recharge from the Kanab Creek stream bed to the aquifer in the northern ephemeral stream reaches during runoff events from intense precipitation episodes or snowpack runoff (Figure 11). In the undisturbed state, groundwater then flows to the north in the Jn regional system away from the BFAS study area, or flows south to discharge from Jn into the Kanab Creek alluvial aquifer (Qal). Some Jn groundwater potentially recharges the deeper Jnl aquifer vertically through the Kanab Creek French drain. The Qal Groundwater is then consumed by phreatophytes or discharges into the Kanab Creek as surface runoff (gaining stream). BFAS also has wells in this drainage, which is another form of groundwater discharge from the Upper Navajo aquifer (Figure 11). The runoff from the groundwater discharge is to Kanab Creek, as is additional recharge to the Kanab Creek directly from the Jn aquifer upstream. Below the Jkt hydrogeologic unit, Kanab Creek and the Qal aquifer are directly connected to the Jnl aquifer where either both gain water from Jnl discharge locally, or both provide recharge water to the Jnl regional aquifer system (Figure 11). Figure 11. Schematic north-south cross-sectional view of part of the Conceptual Site Model of the JNKC hydrologic system along Kanab Creek in the BFAS study area (C-C’ in Figure 8). The potential disruption of mining activities at the Red Sands mine site would be the decline of surface water flow in Kanab Creek directly in the north region, or/and decline of surface water flow in the central regions of Kanab Creek due to cascading effects of spring and lake level declines in the Three Lakes and Big Lake regions, and the decline of BFAS spring Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 27 runoff from spring discharge along the west side of Kanab Creek Canyon (Figures 9b, 9c, and10b). The removal of eolian sand at the mine site with reduce the groundwater infiltration and increase the evapotranspiration will significantly result in further declines in water tables downgradient in these same places, therefore affecting the Kanab Creek flow in the upper and central reaches of the BFAS study area. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 28 3 PRELIMINARY WATER BUDGET OF THE JURASSIC NAVAJO AQUIFER KANAB CREEK (JNKC) HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM IN THE BFAS STUDY AREA In section 2 of this report, the hydrogeology of the Jurassic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system in the BFAS study area and stream flows and the groundwater flow system have been discussed. In addition, precipitation data relevant for the BFAS study area have been collected in table and map format. Likewise, the major elements of the dynamics of the hydrogeologic system -- groundwater input or recharge areas, groundwater output or discharge areas, and the (internal) groundwater flow system -- have been determined. Well and spring data to quantify groundwater output have been collected from various sources. Published groundwater level data have enabled the determination of groundwater flow direction and amount of water storage in the groundwater system, which can be used to calculate groundwater flux and storage over time. In order to further understand how the JNKC hydrologic system works, and to determine quantitatively if the hydrologic system is properly analyzed, a water budget has been developed for the JNKC hydrologic system. The hydrologic system water budget, or water balance, is the quantitative listing of the surface water and groundwater inputs and outputs, and changes in internal storage over a particular period of time. In its most simple form, the period of time is chosen such that the internal storage changes are so small that they do not have to be taken into account. Considering climatic variability, often a multi-year period with averaged inputs and outputs is selected to determine the water budget for a particular hydrologic system. The water budget inputs should be equal to or "balance" the water budget outputs. The selection of the time period for which to calculate the water budget depends, among others, on the nature of the climatic variability, and the availability of climatic and hydrologic records. Frequently this is done for a one- or multi-year period to capture a full cycle of seasons, or multi-year trends. For shorter periods of time, such as the growing season, water budget calculations may involve estimating the release from or addition to internal storage. This may also be the case if there is a systematic dewatering of an aquifer involved for, for example, over-pumping (i.e., “mining” of groundwater). The change in storage could be seasonal changes in measured water tables, long term decline in groundwater levels, or changes in (surface water) reservoir water levels. The first step in determining a water budget for the JNKC hydrologic system is to determine the hydrologic system conceptual model using HESA. With HESA, individual components of the hydrologic system are analyzed, followed by evaluating the aggregate of components and their interactions, to locate and quantify relevant hydrologic subsystems. The results of the HESA for the JNKC hydrologic system are given in Section 2 of this report. Step 2 in determining the water budget is setting up a logic diagram based on the conceptual model to show all the significant hydrologic components and processes, including the external hydrologic system inputs, outputs, and internal components or storage areas, and exchanges between internal components. Step 3 is to subset the overall conceptual model area to a manageable area where quantification of the hydrologic system will be most practical and accurate given the available data and the landscape terrain measurability (i.e., estimates of inputs and outputs where engineering data is not available or not practical/cost-effective at this time). U Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 29 3.1 Water Budget Logic Diagram The diagram shown in Figure 12 shows the relevant generalized components and processes identified during the HESA of the JNKC hydrologic system. In this diagram, hydrologic and hydrogeologic units or storage components are represented by boxes and the hydrologic exchange processes or fluxes by arrows. Note that the processes internal to the hydrologic units, such as atmospheric flow, stream flow, and groundwater flow, are not included. The main hydrologic units are: 1) atmosphere; 2) surface water system (streams and lakes/reservoirs); 3) unsaturated zone (between ground surface and water table); 4) shallow groundwater zone (saturated valley-fill unconsolidated sediments); and 5) deep groundwater zone (bedrock hydrogeologic units and hydrostructures). Figure 12 also shows the process-type interactions between these hydrologic units. These processes can be quantified as fluxes or flow rates such as precipitation rates (L/T), groundwater recharge (L/T), spring discharge (L^3/T), groundwater discharge to/recharge from streams (L^3/T/L'), and well discharge (L^3/T). It should be noted that many of the processes are difficult to measure or estimate and introduce significant uncertainty in water budget calculations when used. Figure 12. Generalized hydrologic system components and processes. Often, to get a better understanding of the water budget components and reduce uncertainty, the complex set of hydrologic units and processes shown in Figure 12 is simplified Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 30 by reducing the number of units and processes based on HESA evaluated significance of, and data availability for each of these components. For example, a water budget may focus on surface water and its interaction with the atmosphere. In that case, the subsurface units and processes, depicted in Figure 12 as the unsaturated zone, the shallow groundwater zone, and deep groundwater zone, and related processes would be represented by a single gain or loss flux. In the same fashion, a focus on the groundwater system may replace the atmosphere, streams, and unsaturated zone by inputs and outputs only, and any change in storage would be limited to the shallow and deep aquifers. The Conceptual Site Model resulting from the HESA of the JNKC hydrologic system, together with the location of the Kanab Creek stream flow gage and other stream flow characteristics, provided guidance on how to delineate the water budget area and how to simplify the complex hydrologic system components and process illustrated in Figure 12 in preparation of a preliminary water budget for JNKC hydrologic system. 3.2 Preliminary Water Budget for the JNKC Hydrologic System A preliminary water budget (PWB) for the JNKC hydrologic system is calculated based upon the information collected and analyzed, and the HESA-based conceptual model of the JNKC hydrologic system determined in Phase 1 of this project as reported in Section 2. The selection of the area within the BFAS study area for which the water budget is determined, is based, in part, on 1) the locations of the USGS stream gage on Kanab Creek; 2) the watershed boundaries of Kanab Creek and tributaries (Figure 4); 3) the hydrogeologic and hydrostructural boundaries of the Navajo Aquifer as determined by HESA (Figure 5); and 4) the location of relevant anthropogenic activities (diversions, domestic, municipal and agricultural water use, planned Red Sands mining related withdrawal; Figure 7). The water budget area is outlined in Figures 1, 6 and 13. The surface and subsurface hydrologic systems or storage components and the hydrologic exchange processes or fluxes considered relevant for the PWB of the relevant section of the JNKC hydrologic system were derived from the conceptual model developed in the HESA as illustrated in Figure 13 (hydrogeological units) and Figure 14 (boundary conditions) and are shown in the diagram in Figure 15. The significant inputs of the PWB are: 1) groundwater inflow (i.e., underflow) at western boundary from recharge in area between the PWB boundary and the first closed hydrostructure of the Sevier Fault zone; 2) recharge by infiltration of precipitation (rain and snow) across the entire PWB area using the concept of hydro zones explained later in this report; 3) direct surface runoff from precipitation to streams; 4) Kanab Creek inflow at Northern PWB boundary from nearby springs; and 5) groundwater leakage from Jnl through Kanab Creek French drain towards Kanab Creek. Note that precipitation itself and evapotranspiration (ET) for the area not covered by riparian vegetation is not included in the PWB, but is discussed in following sections. The outputs of the PWB are: 1) consumptive use by riparian vegetation; 2) evaporation from open water (Big Lake and Three Lakes); 3) consumptive use BFAS wells and springs (production minus return flow); 4) municipal use (Kanab City wells and springs); 5) domestic Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 31 consumptive use (non-BFAS private wells); 6) Kanab Creek outflow at Southern boundary (at USGS gage near highway bridge); and 7) groundwater underflow at Southern boundary (in Qal in Kanab Creek canyon). Figure 15 shows a diagrammatic representation of these water budget components. It should be noted that the groundwater inflow components "irrigation return flow" and "septic tank leach field infiltration" shown in Figure 15 are considered small enough not to be taken into consideration for the PWB. Also, springs within the PWB area not included in consumptive use components are considered internal fluxes and are not incorporated in the global PWB. Each of these terms are discussed in detail in following sections. Figure 13. Map showing the location of the preliminary water budget (PWB) area of the JNKC hydrologic system on top of the hydrogeologic units of the BFAS study area. . Several sources of published data provided input into the PWB: 1) precipitation data from NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information and the Natural Resources Conservation Service provided long-term data and spatial distribution for calculation of recharge and direct runoff to streams; 2) USGS stream gage data collected at the highway bridge across Kanab Creek provided a long-term data set regarding stream flows; 3) adjudicated maximum spring and well use information culled from the State of Utah Division of Water Rights data base, together with spring and well data from BFAS and the City of Kanab, provided a first approximation of public and private consumptive use in the JNKC hydrologic system; and 4) Phreatophyte consumptive use measurements published by Muckel and Blaney (1945) provided data regarding outputs due to natural vegetation effects in the JNKC hydrologic system. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 32 Figure 14. Map showing the location of the Preliminary Water Budget (PWB) area with boundary conditions, and well and spring locations, and source protection zones. 3.3 Approach to Preliminary Water Budget Calculations The identified data sets mostly provide a “snap shot” of a particular variable in time and were gathered at various, non-compatible moments in time. The challenge in this project is to extrapolate from measured values where necessary and to estimate quantities from “soft” information. The starting point is the determination of the current annual averaged water budget components before any withdrawal is initiated at the Red Sands mining site, resulting in a “predevelopment” PWB (Table 4). The estimated pre-development direct runoff to streams (the “balance” or “closing” term), together with adjustments to some of the other water budget components, will be used in Phase III of this project for calculating post-development water budgets with the planned Red Sands withdrawal included. Because of uncertainties regarding the actual location and depth of the Red Sands well, two post-development scenarios will be developed in Phase III: 1) withdrawal in the Jn aquifer; and 2) withdrawal in the Jnl aquifer with leakage from the Jn aquifer above. In order to quantify some of the components of the preliminary water budget for the BFAS study area given the sparseness of published data, the JNKC hydrologic system was spatially categorized into 9 types of hydro zones based upon the hydrogeology and geomorphology, groundwater and surface water hydrology, and distribution of phreatophytes (Figures 14 and 16, Appendix A). Hydro Zone 1 is the phreatophyte zone with gaining stream reaches and phreatic consumptive use. Hydro Zone 2 is the riparian high-K (high permeability) fracture zone (i.e., French Drain) and is characterized by fractured canyon type recharge and Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 33 storage; note that this zone overlaps the phreatophyte discharge zone, but extends between opposite canyon walls beyond the riparian vegetation. Hydro Zone 3 covers the deep sand on Jn matrix (non-fractured) area and represents very slow recharge and small storage. Hydro Zone 4 is the thin sand on Jn matrix (non-fractured) area and also represents very slow recharge and small storage. Hydro Zone 5 is the dry wash high-K fracture zone having the same hydro functions as zone 2, but having insignificant phreatophyte discharge occurring in the same area. Hydro Zone 6 is the Qal in Lower Kanab Canyon/Upper Kanab Canyon zone with groundwater storage and losing stream sections in the lower canyon and gaining stream sections in the upper canyon. Hydro Zone 7 is the Jnl outcrop in Lower Kanab Creek canyon. Hydro Zone 8 is the recharge area for western boundary underflow and Hydro Zone 9 covers the open water evaporation. Fig 15. Simplified diagram of inflows and outflows for the JNKC hydrologic system in the PWB area. 3.4 Groundwater Recharge and Direct Runoff to Streams Average annual precipitation in the BFAS study area ranges from about 13 inches to about 19 inches (Figure 3). To evaluate recharge, three recharge scenarios have been evaluated as a function of the spatial distribution and amount of precipitation in each hydro zone: 1) low estimate using 10% of precipitation for all hydro zones; 2) a high estimate using 20% of Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 34 precipitation for all hydro zones; and 3) a “best” estimate using 15% of precipitation for all hydro zones. The average annual precipitation was calculated for each hydro sub-zone in both inches and acre-ft for the period 1981-2010 by overlaying the hydro zone GIS layer with the precipitation GIS layer. The calculations of the recharge term in the PWB for the Jn aquifer and the Jnl aquifer are listed in Appendix A and can be summarized as follows: 1) the low estimate for recharge in the Jn aquifer is 4940 ac-ft/yr, the high estimate is 9881 ac-ft/yr, and the “best” estimate used in the PWB is 7587 ac-ft/yr; 2) the low estimate for (direct) recharge in the Jnl aquifer (in the central-south part of the PWB area) is 125 ac-ft/yr, the high estimate is 250 acft/yr, and the “best” estimate used in the PWB is 188 ac-ft/yr (Table 4). Note that the “best” estimate for recharge in both the Jn and Jnl aquifers amounts to about 15 % of overall precipitation in the PWB area or 2.3 inches/yr. Note that groundwater recharge of 1-3 inches per year are common estimates in groundwater modeling and water budget studies for these types of environments. Figure 16. Map showing the location of the Preliminary Water Budget (PWB) area and the hydro zones of the JNKC hydrologic system. The Preliminary Water Budget closing term (i.e., balancing term) for the predevelopment scenario (Table 4) consists of direct runoff of precipitation to streams and amounts to 3905 ac-ft/yr. This term will be used in the post-development scenarios in Phase III where the closing term will be the release from groundwater storage (see also Section 3.12). Note that direct evapotranspiration (ET) in the PWB area (excluding riparian vegetation), calculated as precipitation minus groundwater recharge and direct runoff to streams, amounts to about 39,860 ac-ft/yr. All these numbers are based on 30-year averages for the climate period 1981-2010. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 35 Table 4. Preliminary pre-development water budget estimates for Jn/Qal in PWB area. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 36 3.5 Groundwater Underflow There are three sections of the PWB area border were cross-boundary underground flow or underflow may exist: 1) groundwater inflow at the northern boundary in Qal in Kanab Creek Canyon); 2) groundwater outflow at the southern boundary in Qal in Kanab Creek Canyon; and 3) groundwater inflow at the western boundary from recharge in area between PWB boundary and first closed hydrostructure of the Sevier Fault Zone. Underflow in Qal at the northern PWB boundary in Kanab Creek Canyon is minor as Kanab Creek is ephemeral from the PWB boundary on northwards. Water entering the subsurface in this part of Kanab Creek Canyon will move downwards to recharge the Jn aquifer which in this area has a northwards regional flow direction. The basis for the calculation of groundwater underflow at the southern boundary of the PWB area in Kanab Creek Canyon (Figure 14) is Darcy’s Law: Q = KIA; where Q is discharge per unit time; K is hydraulic conductivity of the fractured Hydrogeologic Unit; I is dH/dL or hydraulic gradient (change in head H over a distance L); and A is crosssectional area. Q will be the groundwater input/inflow into the water budget. K is determined by aquifer tests, which reveal a range of values with a high of 10 ft/day for shallow fractured bedrock in the PWB area (Heilweil and Freethey, 1992). Hydraulic gradient is determined using the topographic gradient (which is about equal to groundwater gradient) at the southern PWB area boundary of 0.004. As the K decreases with depth to a very low value at 200 ft or more, an effective depth of 100 ft (geomorphic estimate) is used; together with a width of 100 ft (measured with Google Earth), this results in a cross-sectional area of 10,000 sq.ft. Using the high value of K of 10 ft/day, this results in a conservative groundwater underflow flux estimate (outflow) of about 3 ac-ft/yr (Table 4). Underflow at the western PWB area boundary is derived from recharge to Jnl in the area between the Sevier Fault Zone and the western PWB area boundary and is estimated at 601 acft/yr (Table 4, Appendix A). 3.6 Kanab Creek Surface Water Inflow and Outflow By choosing watershed boundaries for most of the PWB area boundary, surface water inand outflow in the PWB is limited to Kanab Creek. The northern PWB boundary intersects Kanab Creek at the location where the southward flowing ephemeral creek becomes perennial from the discharge of local springs. These spring discharges determine the long term creek inflow at this boundary for an average of about 180 ac-ft/yr (UDWR 2019). The southern boundary of the PWB area intersects Kanab Creek at USGS gage 09403600 near the Highway 89 bridge (USGS NWIS, 2019). The average annual flow at this gage for the period 2001-2018 is 6820 ac-ft/yr (outflow) (Table 4). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 37 3.7 Consumptive Use by Riparian Vegetation Muckel and Blaney (1945), Mayboom (1964), and Gatewood and others (1950) determined that riparian vegetation (notably Cottonwoods, Willows, and Tamarisk) had consumptive use ranging from 40 – 93 in/year depending upon percentages of each species present, the healthiness or stress level of the vegetation, and the location in the ecosystem (seeps, springs, stream bottoms and floodplains). A recent study by Crowley (2004) on the Matheson Wetland Preserve located near the City of Moab, Utah inventoried the published data regarding consumptive use of riparian vegetation in the Moab, Utah area, and calculated consumptive use of vegetation at that location. For the purposes of calculating the preliminary water budget of the JNKC hydrologic system, Muckel and Blaney’s (1945) mixed riparian category of 60 – 92.7 in/year was used to calculate the Phreatic Consumptive Use Low estimates (60 in/yr) and the Phreatic Consumptive Use High estimates (92.7 in/yr) for the Hydro Zone Type 1 Phreatophyte areas as digitized from recent aerial photography. This resulted in a range of 3000-4635 ac-ft/yr. Taking the increased stresses on water availability for the riparian vegetation into consideration, the average value of 3817 ac-ft/yr is used in the PWB (Tables 4, Appendix A). 3.8 Lake Evaporation (including Three lakes and Big Lake) Open water (lakes) area is 10 acres. With an average annual evaporation of 54 inches and an average annual precipitation of 15.6 inches this amounts to a PWB loss of 33 ac-ft/yr (outflow) (Table 4, Appendix A). 3.9 BFAS Consumptive Use and City of Kanab Municipal Use The value for municipal use by the City of Kanab was culled from well and spring data provided by the City and indicate an average pre-development municipal use of about 1500 acft/yr (Table 4). Note that excess runoff from the City springs flowed directly into the Kanab Creek tributaries as an internal hydrologic system transfer from groundwater to surface water. Consumptive use (i.e., loss to the hydrologic system) data on BFAS wells and springs was derived from the UDWR water rights data base of about 120 ac.fy/yr , corrected for irrigation return flow and infiltration of grey water (septic systems) and checked against BFAS production data and amounts to about 100 ac-ft/yr (Table 4). With the very limited number of additional private wells and absence of additional irrigation in the PWB area additional domestic consumptive use has been considered minor. 3.10 Leakance into or from Jnl in Kanab Creek Fracture Zone and through Jk Confining Unit According to modeling results published by Heilweil and Freethey (1992) there is a discharge in the southern part of Kanab Creek Canyon in the PWB area from the Jnl aquifer into Kanab Creek. At this time, it is unknown how much acre-ft/yr this amounts to and further data collection and analysis is recommended. In addition, there may be downward leakage from the Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 38 Jn aquifer through the Jk confining unit into the Jnl aquifer in the entire area covered by the Jn aquifer. In the current version of the PWB this term is set at 0. Again, further data collection and analysis is recommended 3.11 PWB and the JNKC Hydrologic System: Discussion of Uncertainty There are many uncertainties in these preliminary calculations, so further data collection and analysis is needed and should be planned. The significance of the PWB is that it shows that the Jn aquifer is primarily recharged locally by precipitation within the PWB area and in the area between the western PWB boundary and the eastern edge of the Sevier Fault Zone. Many of the components of the PWB calculations include large uncertainties. The most reliable data are the USGS stream flow data in Kanab Creek at the highway crossing, the springs and wells production data from BFAS and the City of Kanab, and the precipitation data from NOAA used to develop various recharge scenarios. However, these data sets do not cover equal time periods. All other data sets provide a “snap shot” of a particular variable in time as they were gathered at various, non-comparable moments in time or were estimated and should be considered a first approximation, subject to refining by further field studies. Consumptive use by phreatophytes (riparian vegetation) is variable seasonally and annually by changes in species composition, species health, spatial distribution of vegetation, and length of growing season among other factors. An estimate of annual evapotranspiration for a water budget misses the seasonal effects of water usage and water availability, as well as multiyear natural or anthropogenic variations in water availability. However, for the cost and effort, it is difficult to improve on the studies that have been published. A possible follow-up study may focus on the changes over time in riparian vegetation coverage using historical aerial photography. Spring discharge measurements are based on State of Utah Water Rights data which allude to the available groundwater that is measured at the source when the water right was secured, often without consideration of seasonal and multi-year variability. The actual daily and seasonal flow of the springs is for the most part unmeasured and may fluctuate significantly. Improvements of the springs related PWB terms may be obtained by more regular measuring of the discharge of some of the larger springs, such as the ones at the northern boundary in Kanab Creek Canyon. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 39 4 PRELIMINARY GROUNDWATER STORAGE CALCULATIONS FOR THE JNKC HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM IN THE PWB STUDY AREA 4.1 Groundwater Storage Quantification Groundwater is potentially stored, either as part of the saturated zone of the aquifer or the unsaturated zone above the aquifer in the pore spaces between the sand grains of unconsolidated eolian, pedogenic, colluvial, or alluvial materials (Qes, Qae, or Qal), in the pore spaces of the sedimentary bedrock, or in the multiple-scale hydro-structures including fractures, fracture zones, bedding planes, faults, or fault zones. Groundwater that is stored in the pore spaces is considered matrix water and may be in considerable amounts in unconsolidated materials (such as the Kanab Creek alluvium) or may be in very small amounts in well consolidated bedrock (such as the non-fractured Upper Navajo aquifer). Groundwater that is stored in the hydrostructures may be in very small amounts in micro-fractures or may be in considerable amounts in large scale fracture and faults zones (for example, the West Fork Three Lakes Fracture Zone and the Kanab Creek Fracture Zone). Most of the unconsolidated materials that form the Eolian deposits and soils of the Red Knoll area, for example, are unsaturated and the amount of groundwater storage is small. By comparison, the unconsolidated materials in the bottom of the Kanab Creek gorge are saturated, and their storage is significant as indicated by the extensive phreatophyte vegetation that is observed. There are multiple descriptors of storage in aquifers. Storativity or the storage coefficient is the volume of water released from storage per unit decline in hydraulic head in the aquifer, per unit area of the aquifer. Storativity is a dimensionless quantity, and ranges between zero and the effective porosity of the aquifer, or the percentage of open space in a unit of rock from which water can be drained under gravity. For a confined aquifer or aquitard, storage is described by specific storage, i.e., the volume of water released from one unit volume of the aquifer under one unit decline in head. Specific storage is related to both the compressibility of the aquifer and the compressibility of the water itself. Volumetric specific storage (or volume specific storage) is the volume of water that an aquifer releases from storage, per volume of aquifer, per unit decline in hydraulic head (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). In hydrogeology, volumetric specific storage is much more commonly encountered than mass specific storage. Consequently, the term specific storage generally refers to volumetric specific storage. The compressibility terms relate a given change in stress to a change in volume. Specific yield, also known as the drainable porosity, is a ratio, less than or equal to the effective porosity, indicating the volumetric fraction of the bulk aquifer volume that a given aquifer will yield when all the water is allowed to drain out of it under the forces of gravity. Specific yield is primarily used for unconfined aquifers since the elastic storage component is relatively small and usually has an insignificant contribution. Specific yield can be close to effective porosity, but there are several subtle things which make this value more complicated than it seems. Some water always remains in the formation, even after drainage; it clings to the grains of sand and clay in the formation. Also, the value of specific yield may not be fully realized for a very long time, due to complications caused by unsaturated flow. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 40 4.2 Approach and Calculation of Groundwater Storage for the JNKC Hydrologic System The JNKC Hydrologic system is a complex mix of nonfractured, fractured and faulted Upper Navajo Sandstone (Jn), Eolian Sand (Qes), Alluvium (Qal), and hydrostructures (fault and fracture zones) which form the robust groundwater system. The Upper Navajo aquifer has both matrix flow and fracture flow. The matrix flow has ranges estimated from 0.1 – 5.0 ft/day (approximated from Freethey, 1988); and the fracture flow has ranges estimated from 5.0 -20.0 ft/day (from Freethey, 1988; Freethey and Cordy, 1991). Therefore, fracture flow will dominate travel times and will also be most important for estimating groundwater storage. The Upper Navajo aquifer and Alluvial aquifers are mostly unconfined or water table conditions and are characterized with specific yield estimates. The Upper Navajo bedrock has both matrix specific yield (small) estimates and fracture specific yield (large) estimates. The matrix specific yield estimates range from 5 – 10 %; the fracture flow specific yield estimates range from 10 – 20% (Appendix A). Therefore, fracture flow areas will be most important for estimating groundwater storage and will be the areas that need the most protection for water quality and water quantity. The Alluvial aquifers have matrix specific yield estimates ranging from 10 – 20% (Appendix A). The JNKC groundwater system is classified as five different hydro zone types of storage based on the hydrogeology and hydrostructures identified (see Figure 16 for hydro zone location): 1) Zone 2: Riparian Fracture Zone (High-K zone) Kanab Creek, fractured canyon storage, area variable, depth 300-500 feet, specific yield (Sy) range 10% – 20%; and Zone 2: Riparian Fracture Zone (High-K zone) Kanab Creek tributaries, fractured canyon storage, area variable, depth 200-300 feet, specific yield (Sy) range 10 – 20%; 2) Zone 3: Deep Sand on Jn Matrix, matrix storage, area variable, depth 200 - 250 feet, specific yield (Sy) range variable with area 5 - 10%; 3) Zone 4: Thin Sand on Jn Matrix, matrix storage, area variable, depth 200 - 250 feet, specific yield (Sy) range variable with area 5 - 10%; 4) Zone 5: Dry Wash, fractured canyon dry wash with Qal storage, area variable, depth ranges from 200 feet – 300 feet, specific yield (Sy) range 10% - 20%; and 5) Zone 6: Qal in Lower Kanab Canyon/Upper Kanab Canyon, area variable, depth ranges 50 – 100 feet, specific yield (Sy) range 10 – 20% (Appendix A). Low variable storage was estimated using low Sy percentages as a minimum, and high variable storage was estimated using the high Sy percentages as a maximum. Each hydro zone had an estimated volume (GIS area multiplied by depth), and the hydro zone volume was multiplied by the hydro zone Sy to yield a hydro zone storage value (Appendix A). The calculations show that the JNKC groundwater system has a variable storage low of 43,462 ac-ft, and a variable storage high of 114,188 ac-ft (Appendix A). Hydro zones 3, 4 and 5 (Figure 16) had the largest amount of storage with 9269/23,173 ac-ft , 26.015/65,038 ac-ft., and 5436/16,308 ac-ft respectively. These three hydro zones are located along the critical groundwater flow paths that directly affect the yields and water quality of the City of Kanab wells, and the BFAS Springs and Wells (Figures 5, 8, 9a, and 10a). The earlier Town of Kanab and BFAS Springs and Well Protection Plans previously identified these hydro zones as critical (Figure 7). It should be cautioned that the storage or underground reservoir is primarily a measure of how robust and sustainable the JNKC hydrologic system is under the current climatic and human Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 41 use conditions. If the reservoir is significantly reduced by aquifer development, the hydraulics of the system will be affected initially by stream flows (riparian habitat both aquatic and vegetation), and by a rapid reduction of spring flows and well yields. In addition, the effects of reduced recharge to the aquifer system by reduction of the sand cover or climate change will rapidly affect the recharge and storage functions of hydro zones 3 and 4, which are critical to the Town of Kanab wells, and BFAS wells and springs. 4.3 Storage and the JNKC Hydrologic System: Discussion of Uncertainty There are many uncertainties in these preliminary calculations, so further analysis is needed, benefitting from more rigorous and continuous data collection. The primary significance of the storage calculations is that there is a significant amount of groundwater stored in the JNKC hydrologic system, particularly in hydro zones 3, 4, and 5, that is directly connected to the Town of Kanab wells, and the BFAS wells and springs. This storage is accumulated by groundwater recharge from infiltration of precipitation enhanced by the Eolian sand cover, particularly in hydro zones 3 and 4. The largest uncertainties in the storage calculations is the correct delineation of each hydro zone area (volume), and the correct attribution of specific yield to each hydro zone. In order to reduce uncertainty, Specific yield ranges were assigned to each hydro zone based on published results of other studies, and hydrogeologic judgement by the investigators. Basically, the pre-development PWB represents a stable system that is equilibrated between inputs and outputs, and may have short-term deficits alleviated by decline in storage which in turn is replenished in wet years. With the advent of the Red Sands mining operation and its planned well, a long-term deficit is compensated by decline in various discharge components and a release from storage, which may not be compensated by extra recharge in wet years. It should be noted that the decline in storage is not equally distributed across the PWB area and may focus on the area of pronounced withdrawals. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 42 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This report presents the findings of Phase 1 and Phase 2 of a 3-phase project focused on improving the understanding of the hydrogeological setting of the water supply sources for the Best Friends Animal Society – Canyon Operations (BFAS), the quantification of the water resources available to BFAS, and updating the BFAS springs and wells protection against mining activities with regards to water supply and contamination. In Phase 1, a Hydrologic and Environmental System Analysis (HESA) of the central Kanab Creek watersheds was completed to identify the hydrological systems of specific importance to the sustainability of the BFAS springs and wells as water supply for the Canyon Operations. It was concluded that the BFAS water supply was mainly dependent on the hydrologic system formed by the central Kanab Creek Watershed and the Upper Navajo aquifer underlying the surrounding region, including Red Knoll. This hydrologic system, referred to as the Jurassic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system, was chosen in Phase 2 of the project as the setting for the quantification of the water resources available to BFAS, resulting in a preliminary global water budget (PWB) of the entire JNKC hydrologic system. The Jurassic Navajo Aquifer - Kanab Creek (JNKC) hydrologic system is a complex mix of fractured and faulted Navajo Sandstone rock, Eolian (wind-deposited) and Pedogenic Sand, Alluvium, and hydro-structures (fault and fracture zones that are either conductive or a barrier to groundwater flow). Fracture flow will dominate travel times and will be most important for contaminant studies and well/spring protections, as well as estimating groundwater storage and recharge rates. Recharge to the Upper Navajo aquifer in the JNKC hydrologic system is by infiltration of precipitation (snow and rain) directly into bedrock, or through the eolian sand cover on the surface of the uplands and interfluve tops; by north-south and east-west trending fracture-controlled ephemeral stream channels, and by losing reaches of flowing streams. Groundwater flow in the Upper Navajo aquifer is strongly fracture controlled, and moves from the drainage divides in the same direction as the stream with various stream reaches being gaining or losing depending on topography, bedrock hydrogeology, hydrostructures, and saturated thickness of the bedrock. Most of the streams are French drains where groundwater flows parallel to the surface feature, and discharges into the gaining streams. The sub-regional groundwater flow direction is from west to east around and near Red Knoll, and east to west from the Johnson Wash groundwater divide. The High K Zone flow systems of Kanab Creek, West Fork Three Lakes drainage, and Cave Creek drainage collect most of the groundwater flow system which ultimately ends in the Kanab Creek main channel system. Groundwater then discharges out of the JNKC hydrologic system into the Kanab Creek fracture zone/French drain that receives groundwater to various springs and seeps along its path including the Red Canyon upper Kanab Creek springs where the perennial Kanab Creek begins, and at the BFAS springs along the central parts of the canyon including Big Lake near the BFAS Headquarters, the Three Lakes discharge zone in Three Lakes Canyon, and the West Fork Three Lakes discharge zone that delivers groundwater to the City of Kanab. Detailed cross-sections are provided to illustrate potential groundwater pathways and potential changes in aquifer function due to the proposed Red Sands mining and groundwater extraction sites. Regardless of whether the Red Sands wells are located in the Upper Navajo aquifer, or the Lamb Point Tongue aquifer, or a combination of both aquifers, the impacts to the Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 43 Town of Kanab wells, and BFAS wells and springs are significant. The West Fork Three Lakes perennial stream and spring dries up. There is a potential decline in the productivity of the Town of Kanab and BFAS wells. There is a reduction in the phreatophytes (habitat destruction). There is a water level decline notable along the groundwater flow paths down gradient of the mine and well site causing a decline in the springs at Big Lake and Three Lakes Canyons, a decline in lake levels and lake habitat, a decline in the BFAS springs in Kanab Canyon, and ultimately a reduction of surface water flow in Kanab Creek. The removal of eolian sand at the mine site will reduce the groundwater infiltration and increase the evapotranspiration significantly resulting in further declines in water tables downgradient. The HESA completed in phase 1 showed that the JNKC hydrologic system is a welldefined system for which the boundary conditions and internal surface water−groundwater interactions are relatively well-understood and quantifiable to various degrees of accuracy. In order to estimate the upper bounds of the water resources present in the JNKC hydrologic system, a preliminary (global) water budget (PWB) has been developed for the JNKC hydrologic system, focused on the external inputs (inflows) and outputs (outflows). In addition, an analysis was made of the storage capacity of the Jurassic Navajo aquifer in the PWB area. The delineation of the PWB area is based on the location of BFAS springs and wells including Big Lake and Three Lakes, the location of the stream gage in Kanab Creek, and the natural boundaries of the JNKC hydrologic system, and covers almost the entire JNKC hydrologic system as determined in the HESA of Phase 1. The PWB area is bounded by the low permeability Sevier Fault to the west, the groundwater divides to the southwest, north, east, and southeast, and the Jn bedrock exposures to the south, and includes additional outcrop exposures of Jurassic Lambs Point Tongue of the Navajo Fm and Kanab Creek alluvium to the south so that the Kanab Creek gage could be used in the water budget. There is one distinct time period evaluated in the JNKC hydrologic system water budget: pre-mine development, which is present-day. The significant inputs of the PWB are: 1) groundwater inflow (i.e., underflow) at western boundary from recharge in area between the PWB boundary and the first closed hydrostructure of the Sevier Fault zone; 2) recharge by infiltration of precipitation (rain and snow) across the entire PWB area using the concept of hydro zones explained later in this report; 3) direct surface runoff from precipitation to streams; 4) Kanab Creek inflow at Northern PWB boundary from nearby springs; and 5) groundwater leakage from Jnl through Kanab Creek French drain towards Kanab Creek. The outputs of the PWB are: 1) consumptive use by riparian vegetation; 2) evaporation from open water (Big Lake and Three Lakes); 3) consumptive use BFAS wells and springs (production minus return flow); 4) municipal use (Kanab City wells and springs); 5) domestic consumptive use (non-BFAS private wells); 6) Kanab Creek outflow at Southern boundary (at USGS gage near highway bridge); and 7) groundwater underflow at Southern boundary (in Qal in Kanab Creek canyon).The post-development JNKC water budget of Phase 3 will have the same type of inputs as the pre-development water budget, but has an additional outflow term, the mining operation water use (developed wells for mining water supply). Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 44 Phase 3 will evaluate the projected water use post-development, which are future projections to determine the impacts of sand mining on water supply, groundwater recharge changes, and potential groundwater/surface water contamination. Pre-mine development or current use has limited municipal, domestic and irrigation demand and kept most of the JNKC hydrologic system of the Red Knoll recharge region in its natural state, a period that in this report is referred to as the pre-mine development present day phase. Starting as early as 2020, the start of the mining of frack sands in the Red Knoll area, together with the initiation of a steady increase in mining water use at some specified rate, well location, and well depth, and the removal of the sands and vegetation, which are part of the JNKC recharge units and function, will represent a significant increase in the anthropogenic withdrawals from the JNKC hydrologic system that could continue up to 50 years. This latter period will be evaluated as Phase 3, and will be referred to as the projected-development phase. Using the precipitation data sets for 1981-2010 for the Kanab, Utah area, a series of potential recharge and consumptive use by riparian vegetation scenarios have been evaluated based on detailed knowledge of the hydrogeology and landscape characteristics. The best recharge estimate for the Upper Navajo aquifer is 7587 ac-ft/yr, and the best recharge estimate for the Jnl aquifer (in the central-south part of the PWB area) is 188 ac-ft/yr., which amounts to 15 % of overall precipitation in the PWB area or 2.3 inches/yr. The average consumptive use by riparian vegetation was estimated at 3817 ac-ft/yr. Direct runoff to streams was calculated at 3905 ac-ft/yr, and the Kanab Creek outflow determined by gage data was 6820 ac-ft/yr . Many of the components of the PWB calculations include large uncertainties. The most reliable data are the USGS stream flow data at Kanab Creek at the Kanab Creek bridge below the BFAS operations, the springs and wells production data from the City of Kanab and BFAS, and the precipitation data from NOAA used to develop various recharge scenarios. All other data sets provide a “snap shot” of a particular variable in time as they were gathered at various, noncomparable moments in time and should be considered a first estimate, subject to refining by further field studies. Another area where significant cost-effective improvements to the PWB can be made is more detailed and frequent monitoring of the Kanab Creek and Three Lakes surface water system (both the lakes region, and the West Fork of Three Lakes Canyon tributary, specifically in the vicinity of the Town of Kanab and BFAS wells and springs and above and below the area where the Town of Kanab and BFAS source protection zone intercedes with projected mining areas and water supply reductions due to mine pumping. Finally, more detailed monitoring of selected, “representative” springs, in the BFAS area, should be initiated to obtain an indication of the relationships over time between spring discharge, climate variations, and Kanab Creek runoff, as well as an insight in the resilience of the JNKC hydrologic system to external stresses. The Upper Navajo (Jn) groundwater system is mostly unconfined, i.e., having a readily fluctuating water table, and the aquifer storativity is characterized by so-called specific yield. The Upper Navajo aquifer has both matrix specific yield (small) and fracture specific yield (large). The matrix specific yield estimates range from 5 – 10 %; the fracture flow specific yield estimates range from 10 – 20% As there is a significant presence of fracture zones in the JNKC system, fractures are the dominant feature in determining available groundwater storage. The results of GIS-based calculations show that the JNKC groundwater system has a storage Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 45 minimum of about 43,462 ac-ft, and a storage maximum of about 114,188ac-ft, indicating significant uncertainty in the actual storage available in the JNKC groundwater system. Areas along the groundwater flow paths that directly affect the yields and water quality of the BFAS wells and springs, and the City of Kanab wells at the West Fork Three Lakes Canyon, Main Fork Three Lakes Canyon, Cave Creek Canyon, and Kanab Creek, have the largest amount of storage. The current BFAS source protection plans identify these hydro zones as critical, and the effects of the proposed mining and related well extraction on these protection zones will be evaluated in Phase 3 of this project. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 46 6. REFERENCES ASTM Standard D5979, 1996 (2008)(2014). Standard Guide for Conceptualization and Characterization of Groundwater Systems. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, DOI: 10.1520/D5979-96R08. Crowley, E., 2004, Evapotranspiration and the Wetland Water Budget, Matheson Wetland Preserve, Moab, Utah. Appendix II. In: Gardner, P.M. and Solomon, D.K., 2004, Summary Report of Hydrologic Studies of the Scott M. Matheson Wetland Preserve, Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Davis, S. N. and R. J. M. DeWiest. 1966. Hydrogeology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 463p. Freethey, G.W. 1988. Geohydrology of the Western Kane, Southwestern Garfield, Southeastern Iron Counties, Utah. U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4040. Freethey, G.W., and G.E. Cordy. 1991. Geohydrology of Mesozoic Rocks in the Upper Colorado River Basin in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, Excluding the San Juan Basin. U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper 1411-C. Freeze, R.A., and J.A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Gatewood, J.S., Robinson, T.W., Colby, B.R., Hem, J.D., and Halpenny, L.C., 1950, Use of water by bottom-land vegetation in lower Safford Valley, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1103, 210 p. Heath, R.C. 1983. Basic Ground-Water Hydrology. U. S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2220, 86p. Heilweil, V. M., and Freethey, G.W. 1992. Simulation of Ground-water Flow and Water-Level Declines that could be caused by Proposed Withdrawals, Navajo Sandstone, Southwestern Utah and Northwestern Arizona. U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Resources Investigations Report 904105. Kolm, K.E., P K.M. van der Heijde, J.S. Downey, and E.D. Gutentag. 1996. Conceptualization and Characterization of Ground-Water Systems. In: Subsurface Fluid-Flow (Ground Water and Vadose Zone) Modeling, ASTM STP 1288, J. D. Ritchey and J. O. Rumbaugh, eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA Meyboom, P. 1964. Three Observations on Streamflow Depletion by Phreatophytes. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 248–261. Muckel, D. C., and H.F. Blaney. 1945. Utilization of the Waters of Lower San Luis Rey Valley, San Diego County, California. U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Division of Irrigation, Los Angeles, California. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 47 NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service), 2019. Geospatial Data Gateway, https://gdg.sc.egov.usda.gov/. Accessed at various dates in 2019. Spangler, L.E., Freethey, G.W, and Green, G.A. 1993. Physical Extent, Recharge Areas, Relative Potential for Recharge and Contamination, and Quality of Water in the Principal Aquifers, Western Kane County, Utah. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report. 92-4070. USGS_NWIS, 2019. U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Information System, http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis. Accessed at various dates in 2019. Utah AGRC, 2019. Utah Automated Geographic Reference Center. https://gis.utah.gov/data/#. Accessed at various dates in 2019. UDWR, 2019. Utah Division of Water Rights. Accessed through Utah AGRC (wrpod.zip file) and map search at various dates in 2019 at: https://maps.waterrights.utah.gov/EsriMap/map.asp. WRCC, 2019. Western Regional Climate Center, Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada. Accessed at various dates in 2019. Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II HSA/HHI page 48 APPENDIX A. RECHARGE, CONSUMPTIVE USE BY RIPARIAN VEGETATION, AND STORAGE CALCULATIONS FOR HYDRO ZONES IN THE PWB AREA OF THE JNKC HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM Hydro Zone Name Phreatophytes Riparian Fracture Zone (High-K Zone) Kanab Creek Riparian Fracture Zone (High-K Zone) Deep Sand on Jn Matrix Thin Sand on Jn Matrix Dry Wash Fracture Zone with Qal Hydro Zone Type Number 1 2 2 3 4 5 Qal in Lower Kanab Canyon/Upper Kanab Canyon Total Recharge in Jn Jnl Outcrop in Lower Kanab Creek Canyon Total Recharge Recharge Area for West Boundary Underflow Open Water (Lakes, Ponds) Net Total Total PWB acreage 34405 213893 Width [ft] 200 100 Area [Acres] 600 158 491 9269 26015 2718 Hydro Function(s) [Discharge or Recharge; Storage] GW Discharge GW Recharge/gaining stream reaches GW Recharge/gaining stream reaches GW Recharge/storage GW Recharge/storage GW Recharge/storage GW Storage/Losing Stream Reaches Lower Canyon, Gaining Stream Reaches Upper Canyon 6 646 7 GW Recharge from Precip, Qal and Kanab Creek to Jnl, 963 GW Losses to Underlying Aquifer 8 9 Total type 1 is subarea of type 2 type 8 is outside PWB area type 9 is subarea of zone 5 Partial Overlap of Type 6 and 7 Length [ft] 3084 Inflow 10 Eo 43954 600 3084 10 618 39642 38993 Sub-Category Hydro Functions Major, open Minor, open Average Annual Precipitation (GIS) 1981-2010 Inches 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 Average Annual Precipitation Phreatic (GIS) Consumptive 1981-2010 Use Acre-ft in/yr 780 60-92.7 205 638 12050 33820 3533 Depth ft 25-50 300-500 200-300 200-250 200-250 200-300 K ft/day Sy % 5-20 5-20 0.1-5.0 0.1-5.0 5-20 10-20 10-20 5-10 5-10 10-20 Recharge % of Precip 0 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-20 15.6 840 50-100 0.1-10 10-20 10-20 15.6 Open Pan Eo=54in/yr 15.6 15.6 1252 200 0.002-4.0 4009 13 57141 780 4009 13 803 51536 5-10 Recharge 1981-2010 Low Acre-ft/yr 0 0 0 1205 3382 353 Recharge 1981-2010 Recharge Best 1981-2010 Recharge Estimate High in Jnl Acre-ft/yr Acre-ft/yr [acre-ft/yr] 0 0 0 0 0 0 1807 2410 5073 6764 707 707 0 0 0 4940 7587 9881 Phreatic Phreatic Phreatic Consumptive Consumptive Consumptive Total Water Total Water Use Low Use Average Use High Content Low Content High Acre-ft/yr Acre-ft/yr Acre-ft/yr Acre-ft Acre-ft 3000 3817 4635 4739 15797 9821 29462 92690 231725 260150 650375 54360 163080 Variable Storage High Acre-ft 474 982 9269 26015 5436 1580 2946 23173 65038 16308 3230 12920 323 1292 10-20 125 188 250 9630 38520 963 3852 10-20 5065 401 -33 7775 601 -33 10131 802 -33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 434620 1141878 43462 114188 Recharge into Jnl through Jkt in Upper Kanab Creek French Drain 110 Best Friends Animal Society-Springs and Wells Study – Phase I and II Variable Storage Low Acre-ft HSA/HHI page 49