95-906 GOV CRS Report for Congress Shutdown of the Federal Government: Effects on the 'Federal Workforce And Other Sectors James P. McGrath Analyst in American National Government Government Division Updated September 25, 1997 I CRS Congressional Research Service? The Libraxy of Congre3S 1111//11111111111111111111/11//111111111 SHUTDOWN OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: EFFECTS ON THE FEDERAL WORKFORCE AND OTHER SECTORS SUMMARY The longest partial shutdown of the federal government began on December 16, 1995, furloughed an estimated 260,000 federal employees, and ended on January 6, 1996, after the White House and Congress agreed on a new resolution to fund the government through January 26, 1996. It was the second shutdown in 1995-1996. On January 2,1996, the estimate of furloughed federal employees increased to 284,000. Another 475,000 federal employees, rated "essential," continued to work in a "non-pay" status. The shutdown was triggered by the expiration of a continuing funding resolution, H.J.Res. 122 (P.L. 104-56), enacted on November 20, which funded the government through December 15, 1995. There were several short-term continuing resolutions between January 6,1996, and April 26, 1996, when P.L. 104-134 was enacted to fund, through fiscal 1996, any agencies or programs not yet funded. The earlier shutdown (November 14-19, 1995) furloughed an estimated 800,000 federal employees. It was caused by the expiration of a continuing funding resolution (P.L. 104-31) agreed to on September 30, 1995, and by President Clinton's veto of a second continuing resolution (H.J.Res. 115) and a debt limit extension bill (H.R. 2586). The most immediate and critical shutdown effect is the furloughing of federal employees. Exempted from furloughs are presidential appointees, Members of Congress, uniformed military personnel, and federal employees rated "essential." "Essential" employees are those performing duties vital to national defense, public health and safety, or other crucial operations, who are required to work during a shutdown. The Administration reviewed presidential shutdown authority, guided by an August 16 memorandum prepared by Assistant Attorney General Walter Dellinger. Legislation proposed would eliminate future shutdowns by ensuring automatic government funding in the event of an appropriations impasse. Such a proposal has not been signed into law. As the close of FY1997 approaches, Congress is working to complete action on the 13 appropriations bills. As of September 25, 1997, three conference reports (military construction, legislative branch, and defense) have been agreed to and will be sent to the President. The status of the others ranges from being in conference to requiring floor action on initial passage. CRS INTENTIONALLY BLANK CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 THE FIRST SHUTDOWN 4 THE SECOND SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 FEDERAL SHUTDOWN IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Shutdown Effects on Federal Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Shutdown Effects on Service to the Public Shutdown Effects on the District of Columbia 6 6 8 14 FEDERAL SHUTDOWN: CAUSE AND PROCESS Appropriations Lapse: The Legal and Policy Issues Proposals to Avoid Shutdowns: Automatic Continuing Resolutions Debt Ceiling Impasse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Shutdown Process 16 16 20 21 22 ESSENTIAL SERVICES AND PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 FEDERAL FURLOUGHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 RECENT SHUTDOWN EXPERIENCES 27 COSTS OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SHUTDOWNS 28 APPENDIX Table 1. Furloughed and Excepted-From-Furlough Federal Employees as of January 4, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Table 2. Appropriations Funding Gaps: Fiscal Years 1977-1996 31 32 34 CRS INTENTIONALLY BLANK SHUTDOWN OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: EFFECTS ON THE FEDERAL WORKFORCE AND OTHER SECTORS INTRODUCTION On January 6, 1996, President Clinton signed into law H.J.Res. 134 (P.L. 104-94; 110 Stat. 25) a continuing funding resolution, which ended the partial federal government shutdown that began on December 16, 1995. The resolution funded the federal government through January 26, 1996, and returned all federal employees to work as scheduled on Monday morning, January 8, 1996. Ironically, a severe blizzard, which struck on January 6, kept a great many federal employees at home in the eastern United States, including the Washington, D.C. area, on January 8. The Office of Personnel Management ordered the government closed in those areas on that date, and on three subsequent days that week. P.L. 104-94 also guaranteed retroactive payment for all furloughed federal employees from December 16, 1995, through January 6, 1996. Agreement to end the shutdown met conditions set by Congress that the President would submit a budget proposal that would balance the budget over seven years, using budget estimates certified by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). P.L. 104-94 provided full funding for the government through January 26, 1996. It extended the provisions ofP.L. 104-56 (H.J.Res. 122), the prior funding resolution that ended the first federal shutdown, funded the government through December 15, and retroactively paid federal employees for furloughed days. Two other continuing resolutions (P.L. 104-91 and 104-92 1), also enacted on January 6, provided funding through September for only selected programs such as medicaid and for the National Institutes of Health, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Drug Enforcement Administration, services to the elderly, child welfare programs, national park and museum visitor services, passport and visa services, and veterans' programs, among others. P .L. 104-92 restricted funding through March 15, 1996, for two categories ofprograms: family support payments to states and payments to states for foster care and adoption assistance. On January 26, after reaching agreement with congressional leaders, President Clinton signed into law H.R. 2880 (P.L. 104-99; 110 Stat. 26), the further continuing appropriations bill, which kept the federal government running through March 15. Enactment of this measure averted an impending third partial government shutdown scheduled to begin after midnight on January 26, 1996. Funding through March 15 for affected agencies was set at the FY1996 conference levels or at the lowest of the House-passed, Senate- 1 P.L. 104-91; 110 Stat. 7 (H.R. 1358); P.L. 104-92; 110 Stat. 16 (H.R. 1643). CRS-2 passed or 1995 level. However, P .L. 104-99 funded many federal programs at a lower level through September 30, 1996. Funding for selected federal programs ranged from FY1995 levels to 75% of FY1995 levels. In addition, a number of smaller programs were terminated outright, including: o o o o o o o o o o Child Development Associate Scholarships; Dependent Care Planning and Development; Law Related Education; Dropout Prevention Demonstrations; Aid for Institutional Development (Endowment Grants); Aid for Institutional Development (Evaluation); Native Hawaiian and Alaska Native Cultural Arts; Innovative Projects in Community Service; Cooperative Education; and Douglas Teacher Scholarships.2 FY1996 was more than half over before final agreement ending the federal government's funding crisis was reached on April 25, 1996. Earlier, the impasse between the Republican congressional leadership and the Administration had deepened, and efforts to reach a budget agreement remained stalled. The situation was complicated by several factors, including the expiration of government funding on March 15, an impending third partial federal government shutdown absent new spending legislation to avert it, a need to raise the federal debt ceiling to avoid default by March 22, a need to prepare for FY1997 budget deliberations, and pressures to adjourn early for campaigning in an election year. As a consequence, the quest for a balanced budget agreement in 1996 had to be set aside in favor of far more limited spending-reduction goals and enactment of an omnibus spending measure for the remainder of FY1996. To that end, P.L. 104-134 served as a substitute for the remaining appropriations bills not enacted. Earlier, differences over spending cuts urged by Republican congressional leaders and demands by the White House to restore funding for certain programs had stalled negotiations on passage of the omnibus bill. The outlook for settlement improved when both sides expressed opposition to a third partial federal government shutdown. An indication of further accommodation took place when congressional leaders proposed a one- or two-week extension of the temporary spending resolution to keep the government running beyond March 15 to facilitate a compromise with the Administration on a final spending measure. On March 14, P.L. 104-116 (H.J.Res. 163; 110 Stat. 826), which extended temporary funding for the government through March 22, was enacted. On March 22, 1996, H.J.Res. 165 (P.L. 104-118; 109 Stat. 961) was enacted, which extended federal government funding through March 29, 1996, On March 29, 1996, H.J.Res. 170 (P.L. 104-122; 110 Stat. 876) was enacted, which funded the 2 U.S. Congress. House. House Appropriations Committee. Balanced Budget Downpayment Act. News Release, Jan. 25, 1996, p. 2. CRS-3 government through April 24, 1996. On April 24, H.J.Res. 175 (P.L. 104-131; 110 Stat. 1213), the thirteenth short-term spending bill since the federal shutdown crisis began, was enacted, which funded the government for an additional 24-hour period through midnight, April 25. On April 25, Congress and the White House announced agreement on H.R. 3019, the Omnibus Appropriations Act for FY1996, a measure funding the government for the remainder of FY1996, and Congress approved the bill the same day. On April 26, the President signed the bill into law (P.L. 104-134; 110 Stat. 1321). The key ingredient and catalyst for a federal shutdown is violation of a provision of federal law which holds that agencies are prohibited from spending money, not otherwise authorized by law, during a lapse in appropriations. However, the term "shutdown of the federal government" is a significant misnomer, since, as the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, has pointed out "... a majority of current expenditures occur under multi-year, permanent or indefinite appropriations that do not lapse on the expiration of the current fiscal year."3 This, taken together with the large number of federal employees rated "essential" in a federal shutdown action, also means that a majority of federal employees continue to work. The stakes are high in any federal government shutdown situation, considering the size, scope, pay, and benefits of the federal workforce. The federal government is by far the largest single employer in the United States. In March 1997 (latest published figure), for instance, there were an estimated 2,807,077 federal employees. 4 For FY1998, federal pay costs are an estimated $127 billion; federal benefits costs are an estimated $40 billion; total compensation (pay and benefits) costs are an estimated $167 billion. 5 These figures, of course, do not include the armed forces, which include an additional 1,432,445 uniformed military personnel 6, whose total compensation is an estimated $67 billion for FY1998. 7 In the 105th Congress, legislation has been introduced to eliminate future government shutdowns. The measure would create an automatic continuing 3 U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Budget. Effects ofPotential Government Shutdown. Joint Hearings Before the Committee on the Budget, U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives Committee on the Budget. 104th Cong., 1st Sess. Sept. 19, 1995. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1995, p. 20. [Hereafter cited as Effects of Potential Government Shutdown. Joint Hearings] 4U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Office of Workforce Information. Statistical Analysis and Services Division. Federal Civilian Workforce Statistics. Employment and Trends as of March 1997. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., March 1997, p. 14. 5 U.S. Office of Management and Budget. Budget of the United States Government. FY1998. Analytical Perspectives. Federal Employment Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Feb. 6, 1997, p. 209. [Hereafter cited as U.S. Budget, Federal Employment] 6 U.S. Department of Defense. Office of Assistant Secretary for Public Mfairs. Military Strength Figures for May 31, 1997, Summarized by DOD. Press Release 336-97. 7 U.S. Budget, Federal Employment, p. 209. CRS-4 resolution to fund the government in the event of an impasse between the White House and Congress over enactment of agency appropriations bills after the start of the fiscal year. (See "Proposals to Avoid Shutdowns: Automatic Continuing Resolutions.") This report examines the cause of federal shutdowns in general and the two recent federal shutdowns in particular. Information is provided on their implementation, their effects, the number of federal employees affected, and some federal shutdown cost estimates. It describes the basic authority for closing down the federal government, presents some background on "lapses in appropriations" history, and discusses past and present Justice Department legal opinions critical to enforcing federal shutdowns. Definitions of"essential" versus "non-essential" federal services and personnel during a shutdown, crucial in determining who reports for work and who does not, are included. The impact on federal compensation and the rules governing shutdown furloughs are explained. In the appendix, Table 1 shows, by agency, the number of furloughed and nonfurloughed employees affected in unfunded agencies as of January 4, 1996. Table 2 shows the periods of funding gaps since 1977. Until November 20, 1981, the federal government had never experienced a partial shutdown. On that date, for the first time, federal employees were sent home as a result of a budgetary impasse between the President and Congress. The shutdown lasted half a day. For over two hundred years prior to that date, even during the Civil War, the federal government had never experienced such a phenomenon. THE FIRST SHUTDOWN The first partial shutdown of the federal government began at 12:01 AM on November 14, 1995, and ended at midnight on November 19, 1995. It lasted six days, and furloughed an estimated 800,000 federal employees deemed "nonessential" by their agencies. Furloughed employees were listed by name and function in agency contingency shutdown plans, submitted earlier and approved by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). The furlough action was due to the expiration of continuing resolution (P.L. 104-31), enacted on September 30,1995, which funded the government through November 13, and by President Clinton's veto of two measures. The first was a second continuing resolution (H.J.Res. 115)8, and the second was a debt limit extension bill (H.R. 2586)9, which would have raised the Treasury's borrowing limit through December 12, 8 Second Continuing Resolution for Fiscal Year 1996--Veto Message From the President of the United States (H. Doc. No. 104-134). Congressional Record, v. 141, No. 180, Nov. 14, 1995. p. H12238. 9Temporary Increase in the Statutory Debt Limit--Veto Message from the President ofthe United States (H Doc. No. 104-132). Congressional Record, v. 141, No. 179, Nov. 13, 1995. p. H12150. CRS-5 1995. The impasse arose because of disagreements with the congressional Republican majority over provisions in the bills. On Monday, November 13, the President instructed agencies to begin closedown operations. Setting the stage for the November 14 shutdown was the large number of federal agencies still unfunded as of October 1, 1995, the beginning of FY1996, which ended on September 30, 1996. Of thirteen federal agency appropriations bills to fund agencies from October 1, 1995, to September 30, 1996, only four were enacted, and the remainder either pending, vetoed, or under threat of veto by the President. 10 On November 19, the White House and Republican congressional leaders announced jointly that agreement had been reached to end the partial shutdown of the federal government. Pursuant to enactment of a continuing funding resolution (H.J.Res. 122; P.L. 104-56), furloughed federal employees returned to work on Monday, November 20, 1995. Agreement ending the impasse occurred when both sides agreed to balance the federal budget on a seven-year timetable or by 2002. P.L. 104-56 extended government funding through December 15, 1995, and guaranteed retroactive payment for furloughed days. THE SECOND SHUTDOWN The second partial shutdown of the federal government began at 12:01 a.m. on December 16, 1995, and ended on January 6, 1996. It lasted 21 days and initially furloughed an estimated 260,00011 federal employees. It was by far the longest federal shutdown action to date (see Table 2) and the second such action to take place in 1995. Estimates released by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) on January 2, 1996, show that the number of those furloughed had increased to an estimated 284,000 federal employees, at a daily estimated payroll cost of $44 million. 12 The immediate cause of the second partial shutdown of the federal government was the expiration of P.L. 104-56, which funded the government through December 15, 1995. Although the second shutdown lasted 21 days, the number of furloughed federal employees was greatly reduced because several agency appropriations bills had been enacted in the interim. Other federal employees affected include an estimated 475,000 rated "essential," who continued to work but in a "non-pay" status. 13 An additional large but unspecified number of contract employees, working pursuant to contracts let by the federal government, were also furloughed or laid off without 10 Congressional Quarterly. Weekly Report. November 18, 1995, Vol. 53, No. 45, p. 3573. 11 Figure supplied to CRS by the Office of Budget Review, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), December 18, 1995. 12 Ibid., January 2, 1996. 13 Ibid. CRS-6 pay as a result of contracts suspended because of the partial federal shutdown. Meetings between the White House and congressional leaders to reach a compromise on averting a second partial shutdown ended without resolution of the impasse on December 15. Disagreements about health care issues, especially Medicare and Medicaid, reportedly played a key role in the budget dispute leading to both partial shutdowns. The second shutdown ended when on January 6, 1996, President Clinton signed into law H.J.Res. 134 (P.L. 104-94; 110 Stat. 25), a continuing funding resolution, which ended the partial federal government shutdown that began on December 16, 1995. The resolution funded the federal government through January 26, 1996, and returned all furloughed federal employees to work. FEDERAL SHUTDOWN IMPACT Federal shutdown effects vary greatly in direct proportion to length of time and numbers of federal personnel involved. Federal shutdowns prior to those in 1995-1996 were generally of short duration, some lasting less than a day, and were seen as having relatively modest effects, especially when they occurred over a weekend period. The 1995-1996 shutdowns, however, generated far more serious effects in terms of economic hardship and other disruptions in the workplace, both federal and private-sector. In addition, because of its unique jurisdictional relationship with the federal government, the shutdowns had a significant impact on the District of Columbia. In the wake of the shutdowns, adverse consequences to federal employees insofar as paying bills and rent, providing adequate food, and meeting other financial obligations were widely reported. Many others experienced significant hardships, including Native Americans, veterans, and the elderly. The shutdowns caused severe disruptions in federal programs and services. Health, welfare, law-enforcement, and public safety issues head the list. Travel, recreation, and private-sector employment were also hard hit. Massive backlogs in visa and passport applications, closure of federal monuments and museums, and major disruptions affecting federal contractors and contract employees were all caused by the shutdowns. Shutdown Effects on Federal Employees In the federal sector, the shutdowns caused significant morale and productivity problems for federal employees, as well as economic consequences. For almost a year, the federal workforce, as well as the nation at large, has had to deal with federal shutdown concerns, including the threat of an impending federal shutdown, shutdown preparations, the occurrence of two unprecedented partial shutdowns, post-shutdown consequences and assessments, and the threat of a third shutdown, since the first federal shutdown advisory was issued by OMB Director Alice Rivlin on July 26, 1995. CRS-7 On September 19, 1995, Ms. Rivlin testified before a joint hearing of Congress about the implications of an impending federal government shutdown. 14 On that occasion, she described a series of possible serious consequences to federal employees and the public at large should a shutdown occur. Insofar as federal employees were concerned, Ms. Rivlin predicted serious disruptive effects to them and their families, including losses in productivity, tasks left undone during the shutdown, and work piled up after the shutdown ends. All of these predicted effects took place as a result of the 1995-1996 federal shutdowns. Because of the unprecedented length of the shutdowns and their occurrence at the height of the end-of-year holiday season, many furloughed federal employees experienced the twin stress of heightened expenditures and reduced paychecks. Federal employee assistance funds were soon overwhelmed. The only remedies available were some federal credit unions that offered low-interest or no-interest loans, no-penalty CD withdrawals, and assurances by OMB that agencies would be encouraged to speed back-payment for furlough days once retroactive pay was guaranteed by Congress. Federal employee morale reportedly suffered considerably as a result of being designated "non-essential" and placed on furlough. In testimony before House Civil Service Subcommittee hearings on "What's Essential in a Government Shutdown," held on December 6, 1995, Treasury's Assistant Secretary for Management, George Munoz, spoke to the misconceptions created by the use of the term "non-essential": One of the concerns that we identified in planning for the shutdown was the unfortunate misuse of the terms "essential" and "non-essential." This terminology was not used in any of our shutdown plans.... These are inappropriate terms that mistakenly convey a sense of relative importance among federal employees. They perpetuate the false impression that some federal workers performjobs that are trivial or unnecessary.15 New terminology has been discussed for furloughed federal employees, including "excepted"f'non-excepted" and "emergency"f'non-emergency" as a substitute for the "essential"f'non-essential" designation, and has even been employed by various agencies. Since no uniform standard has been adopted, however, the situation has become even more confused, and all three sets of designations are now found in use among the agencies. 14 U.S. Congress. Senate Budget Committee. House Budget Committee. Joint Hearing. Effects of Potential Government Shutdown: Testimony of Alice M. Rivlin, Director, Office of Management and Budget. September 19, 1995. 15 U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Reform and Oversight. Subcommittee on Civil Service. Government Shutdown: What's Essential? Hearings. December 6 and 14, 1995. 104th Congo 1st Sess. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1997, p. 48. [Hereafter cited as Government Shutdown: What's Essential?] CRS-8 Another serious concern faced by federal employees was that P.L. 104-99, the funding resolution that ended the second partial federal shutdown, permitted agencies operating on reduced funding to implement uncompensated furloughs, if necessary, for up to one day per pay period through March 15. Reduced agency funding and significant federal program cutbacks mandated by P.L. 104-99 appear to foreshadow additional federal job cuts and adverse impact on private sector employment as well. Predictions of additional thousands of federal job losses, many in the Washington area, above and beyond those mandated by the Administration's Federal Workforce Restructuring Act (P.L. 103-226), have dramatically altered the once stable image of federal employment and increased morale problems among federal employees. Coinciding with the cutbacks in federal contracting nationwide and the financial hardship experienced by federal contract employees (see below),16 the employment outlook in both federal and private sectors has deteriorated. Federal and private sector employees alike have expressed concern about the adverse long-term impact of federal shutdowns on their jobs. A poll taken by the Greater Washington Consumer Survey found: o 4 of every 10 federal employees fear losing their jobs because of budget reductions; o 4 of every 5 federal employees believe their agency will be hit by cutbacks; o one-third of private sector employees believe their firms would be hurt by federal budget reductions; and o one-fifth of private sector employees believe their own jobs may be in jeopardy as a result of federal budget reductions. 17 Two veteran observers of federal budget-cutting and federal shutdowns, G. Jerry Shaw, General Counsel, Senior Executives Association (SEA), and Stanley E. Collander, Editor of the Federal Budget Report Newsletter, Price Waterhouse & Co., believe the long-term outlook for federal employment has changed markedly. Mr. Shaw commented, "This is the first time I've seen in my 25 years in Washington where both the administration and Congress '" are dedicated to making major cutbacks in federal employment and benefits one way or another." 18 Shutdown Effects on Service to the Public The range and scope of federal services to the American people and the negative impact of the recent federal government shutdowns was alluded to 16 Barr, Stephen. "Workers Worry Over the Fate of Once-Secure Jobs." Washington Post. December 24, 1995, p. AI. 17 Behr, Peter. "Federal Workers Edgy at Specter of Layoffs." Washington Post, August 27, 1995, p. AI. 18 Ibid. CRS-9 briefly by the Deputy Director for Management, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), Mr. John A. Koskinen: "If you didn't have any reason to do any business with the federal government, you probably didn't notice much. But if you were one of the 7 million people who would have gone to the parks or the 2 million that would have gone to the museums, you've missed that opportunity."19 The figures cited by Mr. Koskinen comprise merely the tip of the iceberg insofar as the scope of federal services impeded by the federal shutdowns. Services curtailed ranged from Head Start program grants for pre-school children to placement of headstones in national cemeteries. Examples of federal services adversely affected by the shutdowns include those related to health, welfare, law enforcement/public safety, financial services, parks-museums-monuments, visas-passports, services to American Indians, and services to veterans, among many others, as listed below. Health o New patients not accepted into clinical research at NIH Clinical Center; o Centers for Disease Control ceased disease surveillance (information about spread of diseases such as AIDS and flu unavailable); o Hot line calls to NIH concerning diseases not answered 20 ; and o Toxic waste clean-up work at 609 sites stopped--2,400 "Superfund" workers sent home. 21 Welfare o 10,000 new Medicare applications, 212,000 Social Security card requests, 360,000 individual office visits, and 800,000 toll-free calls for information and assistance turned away each day;22 o 13 million recipients ofAid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), 273,000 foster care children, over 100,000 children receiving adoption assistance services, and over 100,000 Head Start children experienced delays;23 o 10,000 home purchase loans and refinancing applications totalling $800 million worth of mortgage loans for moderate and low-income working families nationwide were delayed;24 and 19 Morgan, Dan and Stephen Barr. "When Shutdown Hits Home Ports." Washington Post, January 8, 1996, p. AI. [Hereafter cited as "Shutdown Hits Home Ports."] 20 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 23. 21 Barr, Stephen and Frank Swoboda. "Jobless Aid, Toxic Waste Cleanup Halt." Washington Post, January 3, 1996, p. AI. 22 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 226. 23 Ibid., p. 31. 24 Ibid., p. 228. CRS-I0 o 11 states and the District of Columbia temporarily suspended unemployment assistance for lack of federal funds. 25 Law Enforcement/Public Safety o Suspension of investigative activities by the IRS; o Processing of non-remittance tax returns delayed by IRS; o Delays in processing alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and explosives applications by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms;26 o Department of Justice suspended work on more than 3,500 bankruptcy cases?,27 o Office of Personnel Management canceled recruitment and testing of federal law-enforcement officials, including hiring of 400 border patrol agents;28 and o Delinquent child-support cases ("Deadbeat Dads" program) suspended. 29 Parks/Museums/Monuments o Closure of 368 National Park Service sites--Ioss of 7 million visitors;30 o Grand Canyon National Park closed for first time in 76-year history;31 o Local communities near national parks lost an estimated $14.2 million per day in tourism revenues;32 and o Closure of national museums and monuments--Ioss of 2 million visitors. 33 Visas/Passports o 20,000-30,000 applications by foreigners for visas to come to this country went unprocessed each day; o 200,000 U.S. applications for passports went unprocessed; 25 Lippman, Thomas W. "Inconvenience Edges Toward Emergency. Washington Post, January 3, 1996, p. All. 26 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? pp. 10-11. 27 Barr, Stephen and David Montgomery. "At Uncle Sam's No One Answer's." Washington Post, November 16, 1995, p. AI. [Hereafter cited as "At Uncle Sam's No One Answer's."] 28 Ibid. 29 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 228. 30 Shutdown Hits Home Ports, p. AI. 31 Levine, Susan. " Only Washington Would Try to Close the Grand Canyon: National Parks Are Turning Away Thousands." Washington Post, November 17, 1995, p. AI. 32 Shutdown Takes Toll on Superfund, National Parks. Politics, USA, January 2, 1996 p. 1. 33 Shutdown Hits Home Ports, p.A1. CRS-ll o u.s. tourist industries and airlines sustained millions of dollars in losses because of visa and passport curtailment. 34 American Indians and other Native Americans American Indians and other Native Americans were hit hard by the federal shutdowns. Virtually all of the 13,500 Department of Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) employees were furloughed. In December 1995, Deborah Maddox, BIA acting deputy commissioner was quoted as saying We are getting close to an emergency situation. This week, we would be generating our general assistance payments for 53,000 individuals and families. These grants are for very basic needs and are for people who are not eligible for other services. 35 Compounding the problem is the fact that an estimated 25,000 American Indians are not receiving royalty checks averaging $100 each from oil and gas royalties. 36 American Veterans American veterans sustained major curtailment in services as a result ofthe federal shutdown, ranging from health and welfare to finance and travel. They include cancellation of vocational rehabilitation appointments; non-processing of payments for compensation, pension, and education claims; delayed payment ofGI Bill education checks and insurance death claims; and canceled counselling services to avoid foreclosures. Also, beneficiary travel to VA medical facilities was decreased; veterans benefits offices were closed to "walk-in" veteran-clients; Board of Veterans Appeals case processing was delayed; calls to the Inspector General's Hotline went unanswered; nearly all Inspector General criminal investigative work was halted; and on-time payment of vendor invoices were not made. 37 Federal Contractors The impact of federal contracting on the local and national economy is best shown by the fact that in FY1994 (latest figures) the federal government purchased $196.4 billion worth of goods nationwide and nearly $18 billion in the Washington region. 38 Federal government contracts comprised 16% ofFY1994 34 Inconvenience Edges Toward Emergency, p. All. 35 American Indians Feel Major Impact From Shutdown. Politics USA, December 29, 1995, p. 1. 36 Ibid. 37 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? pp. 115-117. Behr, Peter. "Contractors Face Mounting Costs from Government Shutdowns." Washington Post, January 23, 1996, p. C1. 38 CRS-12 federal receipts of $1.3 trillion and 13% of federal outlays of $1.5 trillion. Of the $18 billion in Washington area contracts, $3.7 billion or over 20% were let by federal departments and agencies closed during the shutdowns because of lack of appropriations, according to the Federal Procurement Data Center. 39 The billions of dollars received from federal contracting are a boon to the local and national economy and the billions in contract losses from the last two federal shutdowns are a serious blow to both. The range of federal contractors affected was unusually diverse, including companies, universities, hospitals, and think tanks, among many others. The nexus between federal contractors and just one agency--the National Institute of Standards (NIST)--illustrates the point. The scientific contributions ofNIST are especially noteworthy, since that agency provides over 20,000 measurement samples and hundreds of thousands of calibration tests each year to over 3000 companies, large and small. 40 As a consequence, the impact of the NIST shutdown was immediate and serious, especially in the areas of health and safety. o NIST had to delay verification of radiation dose standards through measurement quality assurance programs, which are used annually on over 600,000 cancer patients and 26 million women who receive diagnostic mammograms. 41 o NIST was unable to issue a new standard for lights and lamps that was supposed to go into effect on January 1, 1996. The standard affects the U.S. lighting industry--a multi-billion dollar a year business, which includes Sylvania, General Electric, Phillips, etc. The shutdown therefore resulted in delayed product delivery and lost sales. 42 Over 500,000 small companies nationwide faced delays in federal payments and "several companies with millions of dollars of exports couldn't get off the docks because there were no federal inspectors to clear their cargoes," according to OMB. 43 Of the estimated 10,000 federal contractors in the Washington area,44 federal shutdowns have resulted in "frozen contracts, disrupted projects, furloughs, and a heightened anxiety about the future."45 As a consequence, federal contract employees were hurt when hundreds of local companies, whose contracts with the federal government were suspended, sent their employees 39 Ibid. 40 Government Shutdown, What's Essential? p. 270. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Shutdown Hit Home Ports, p. AlO. 44 Behr, Peter. "Latest Federal Shutdown Hits Contractors Hard." Washington Post, December 22, 1995, p. Dl. 45 Ibid. CRS-13 home without pay. Typical of such action, DYN Corporation of Reston, Virginia, a technical services contractor, was forced to furloughed 2,200 employees after the IRS suspended its contract. 46 Hearings held by the Subcommittee on Civil Service, House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight on December 6 and 14, 1995, identified many of these private-sector hardships as well as many other serious adverse consequences generated by the partial shutdowns of the federal government. In the private sector, the scope of economic injury and workforce disruption, sustained by a wide spectrum of companies, was described by corporate executives themselves. For example, the shutdown-caused closure of the Minerals Management Service (MMS), Department of Interior, was a case in point, especially insofar as the critical area of domestic energy production is concerned. The CEO of Hercules Offshore Corporation, Houston, Texas told the Subcommittee: The closure of MMS is having a devastating effect on Hercules and presumably on many other offshore contractors as well. The situation will only escalate in a compounding manner as MMS remains shut down....All of this means that carefully orchestrated marketing and operations efforts by Hercules management are in turmoil because of the irresponsible shutdown of a government agency because of a political squabble. 47 The agency perspective in this instance is particularly significant, as the Minerals Management Service confirmed the dire effects of federal shutdown action on its own operations. Because of the inability of MMS to issue approvals for other than emergency flaring (48 hours), several oil and gas companies had to shut in production while waiting on repairs. At one point MMS estimated that 10,000 barrels of oil a day in production were shut in. In addition, upon its return, the MMS Gulf Office was deluged with a mountain of mail--much of it from industry constituents wanting approvals of action. Some 32 buckets/boxes of mail were opened the first day in addition to about 400 express mail packages. 48 The head of Union Pacific Railroad, Richard Stites, elaborated further on certain negative, chain-reaction, economic effects on interrelated private-sector companies, caused by the shutdowns: The government furlough handicaps UPR by eliminating the window of opportunity. The furlough also causes marginal projects to become uneconomic by artificially creating a tremendous backlog for the goods and services needed to perform work timely. The backlog causes demand based 46 At Uncle Sam's No One Answers, p. AI. 47 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 618. 48 Ibid., p. 625. CRS-14 inflation in the prices of the goods and services needed and it severely alters the timeliness of their delivery. All offshore programs require a great deal of coordination between the support services, supply boats and personnel, etc. The furlough causes severe disruption in the demand for these goods and services. The supply companies lose money and may go out of business which causes inflation in the cost of the remaining goods and services. 49 The funding agreement ending the last shutdown has done little to allay the concerns of federal contractors, since federal agencies primarily affected by the shutdowns have seen their budgets reduced in the short run and under siege in the long run. The Environmental Protection Agency, for instance, which allocated almost $300 million to companies in the Washington area in FY1994, has sharply cut its contract spending for FY1996 because of budget uncertainty. 50 From 1984 to 1994, federal contracting in the Washington area increased dramatically. According to recent estimates, it rose almost 130%, or 10 times the national average. 51 While federal contracting will obviously continue to be a significant slice of the area's economic pie, its heyday appears to be over. Shutdown Effects on the District of Columbia A partial shutdown of the federal government of whatever scope and duration has an unusual impact on the District of Columbia, because of the unique status of that jurisdiction in the federal system. That impact can range from stress on the city's transportation infrastructure when hundreds of thousands of federal? employees residing in the District, Maryland, and Virginia are furloughed, sent home, and forced to commute at off-peak hours, to a serious shortfall in District of Columbia government services when city agencies are closed or curtailed because of a federal appropriations impasse and a partial federal shutdown. Since Congress must approve and the President must sign (absent a successful veto override) the annual D.C. Appropriations Bill, the District of Columbia, unlike any other American city, faces partial shutdown of its government due to a lapse in its appropriations when Congress and the White House fail to reach agreement on District of Columbia fiscal year funding. As ofApril 24, 1996, almost seven months into FY1996, the District of Columbia Appropriations Bill for FY1996 (H.R.2546) had not been enacted. On April 25, 1996, P.L. 104-134, an omnibus budget resolution to fund the government for the rest of FY1996, which incorporated appropriations for the District of Columbia, was approved and signed by the President. 49 Ibid., p. 622 50 Behr, Peter. "Spending Deal Is Little Help to Contractors. Washington Post, January 30, 1996, p. AI. 51 Ibid. CRS-15 A large number of Washington metropolitan area federal employees and D.C. government employees were affected by federal shutdown action. Of the estimated 800,000 federal employees furloughed in the first shutdown, an estimated 150,000 from the Washington metropolitan area were furloughed, 52 or almost half of a regional federal workforce of approximately 350,000. 53 An estimated one-third of the city's workforce of 34,000 were also furloughed. 54 The District government's partial shutdown occurred at a time when the city was already experiencing the hardship of curtailed services and reduced payroll because of a severe budget crisis. Articulating these dual concerns, the District's Delegate to Congress, Eleanor Holmes Norton, said, "Forcing a shutdown of the District while the city is experiencing a financial crisis would be extremely costly and wasteful at a time when many D.C. services are already under the most severe strain."55 Attempting to forestall a recurrence of this situation, Delegate Norton introduced H.R. 2661: To amend the District of Columbia Self-Government and Governmental Reorganization Act to permit the District of Columbia to expend its own funds during any portion of a fiscal year for which Congress has not enacted the budget of the District of Columbia for the fiscal year, and to provide for the appropriation of a monthly prorated portion of the annual federal payment to the District of Columbia for such fiscal year during such portion of the year. In a statement following her introduction of H.R. 2661, Delegate Norton said: In the midst of a serious financial crisis, the District has been particularly damaged by the shutdown and would continue to be destabilized by a series of short-term continuing resolutions. I am particularly concerned that hard-hit District residents, who have endured this serious fiscal crisis, will be put through additional hardship because of a struggle within the federal government. 56 Opposition to the bill arose in the House Appropriations Committee, and H.R. 2661 was not approved. The effects of the second shutdown on the District 52 At Uncle Sam's No One Answers, p. AI. 53 U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Human Resources Systems Service. Office of Workforce Information. Statistical Analysis and Services Division. Federal Civilian Workforce Statistics: Employment and Trends as of November 1995. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Nov. 1995, p. 14. 54 At Uncle Sam's No One Answers, p. AI. 55 Woodlee, Yolanda and Lonnae O'Neal Parker. "D.C. Decides What Services Will Continue During Shutdown." Washington Post, Nov. 14, 1995, p. B1. 56 "Norton Introduces Continuing Resolution to Reopen District Government and a Bill to Permanently Exempt D.C. from Shutdowns." News Release, Office of Congresswoman Eleanor Holmes Norton. Nov. 17, 1995, p. 1. CRS-16 were mitigated somewhat by the enactment ofP.L. 104-90 (H.J.Res. 153), which allowed the District government to operate using locally-generated funds. Shutdown costs to the District were considerable. Incomplete cost data show $7 million in estimated uncollected revenue and lost productivity.57 Tourism and related losses to the city and region were estimated at $50 million in cancellations and lost business.58 FEDERAL SHUTDOWN: CAUSE AND PROCESS The shutdowns of the federal government occurred because there was o Failure to pass regular appropriations bills by the October 1, 1995 deadline; o Lack of an agreement on stop-gap funding for federal government operations through a continuing appropriation act/resolution; and o No agreement to lift the federal debt ceiling. Appropriations Lapse: The Legal and Policy Issues The basic authority for closing down the government because of a lapse in appropriations stems from an April 25, 1980 opinion of Attorney General Benjamin R. Civiletti prepared for President Jimmy Carter which states: It is my opinion that, during periods of "lapsed appropriations," no funds may be expended except as necessary to bring about the orderly termination of an agency's functions, and that the obligation or expenditure of funds for any purpose not otherwise authorized by law would be a violation of the Antideficiency Act (31 USC 665).59 Administration implementation of the federal shutdown essentially follows the same rules applied in the wake of the Civiletti ruling, except that the definition of what constitutes an "emergency" in a shutdown situation has been more narrowly drawn. On August 16, 1995, at the request of OMB Director Alice Rivlin, Assistant Attorney General Walter Dellinger, Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, issued an opinion regarding the "permissible scope of government 57 "Congress OKs Local Spending; District Avoids Shutdown." Quarterly, January 6, 1996, p. 58. Congressional 58 Faiola, Anthony. "Wooing the Tormented Tourists: Washington Locked Them Out and Snowed Them Under. Can They Be Lured Back?" Washington Post, Jan. 23, p. A25. 59 U.S. Congress. House. Subcommittee on Civil Service. Committee on Post Office and Civil Service. Cost of Shutting Down Federal Government on November 23, 1981. [Committee Print No. 97-6] 97th Congo 2nd Sess. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., March 25, 1982, p. 23. (Hereafter cited as Cost of Shutting Down Federal Government). CRS-17 operations during a lapse in appropriations."60 The Dellinger opinion updates the 1981 Civiletti opinion. It again enumerates the basic prohibitions set forth in the Antideficiency Act (31 USC 665) against government spending during lapsed appropriations, entering into contracts or other obligations, and providing government services and employees beyond those essential "to emergency situations, where the failure to perform those functions would result in an imminent threat to the safety of human life or the protection of property."61 The Dellinger opinion points out that, since the 1981 Civiletti ruling, the Antideficiency Act has been amended in one key area. In 1990, language was added that modified the "emergency" definition for employing federal personnel in a shutdown action. 62 The 1990 amendment states in relevant part: "as used in this section, the term 'emergencies involving the safety of human life or the protection of property' does not include ongoing, regular functions of government the suspension of which would not imminently threaten the safety of human life or the protection of property."63 The 1990 amendment to the Act was intended to preclude an overly broad definition and interpretation of the term "emergency" to ensure that threats to the "safety of human life or the protection of property" are compelling and immediate and not slight, distant, or perfunctory. The example cited in the Dellinger memorandum to illustrate the point is: "The brief delay of routine maintenance on government vehicles ought not to constitute an 'emergency,' for example, and yet it is quite possible to conclude that the failure to maintain vehicles properly may 'compromise, to some degree' the safety of the human life of the occupants or the protection of the vehicles, which are government property.,,64 Lapses in appropriations to fund the government are not uncommon (see Table 2 for a history of such lapses). From FY1962 to FY1981, the two decades immediately preceding the Civiletti decision, the General Accounting Office (GAO) found that interruptions in agency funding took place thirty-two times. 65 Such lapses appeared to be the rule rather than the exception, according to GAO, which noted that from 1961 to 1980, "85% of appropriations 60 U.S. Department of Justice. Office of Legal Counsel. Memorandum for Alice Rivlin, Director, Office ofManagement and Budget. Government Operations in the Event of a Lapse in Appropriations. Washington, Aug. 16, 1995, 9 p. (Hereafter cited as Government Operations/Lapse in Appropriations.) 61 Ibid., p. 3. 62 Ibid., p. 2. 63 See, 31 USC 1342. 64 Government Operations/Lapse in Appropriations, p. 9. 65 U.S. General Accounting Office. Funding Gaps Jeopardize Federal Government Operations. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., March 3, 1981, p. 1. (Hereafter cited as Funding Gaps Jeopardize Federal Government Operations). CRS-18 bills for federal agencies have passed after the start of the fiscal year."66 Prior to the landmark 1980 opinion, federal agency managers, while cognizant of the anomaly of continuing to operate during a lapse in appropriations, and while concerned about the legal implications thereof, did precisely that. They did so under the belief that "Congress does not actually intend that the federal government shut down while the agencies wait for the enactment of appropriations or the passage of a continuing resolution."67 GAO found that Congress had "implicitly lent credence to this view" by retroactively passing contingency resolutions to fund the government to the beginning of the fiscal year, and did not apply the enforcement feature of the Antideficiency Act against agencies operating during a lapse in appropriations. 68 The discretionary attitude of agency managers came to an abrupt end with the issuance of the Attorney General opinion of April 1980, which stated in relevant part, "... the Department of Justice will take actions to enforce the criminal provisions of the Act in appropriate cases in the future when violations of the Antideficiency Act are alleged."69 In the wake of the Civiletti ruling, there have been several brief federal government shutdowns, most of them occurring over weekend time periods. Once an appropriations bill for those agencies is enacted and signed by the President, those agencies are funded and authorized to incur obligations and make payments. As such, each agency is immune from any imminent shutdown action, and, should this action take place after a federal shutdown has begun, furloughed employees are immediately authorized to return to work. Since several appropriations bills, including those pertaining to the Departments of Defense, Treasury, and Transportation, as well as the legislative branch, had been enacted since the partial federal shutdown of November 14, 1995, the shutdown that began on December 16 was significantly mitigated. The number of federal employees subject to furlough was greatly reduced. According to the Office of Management and Budget, of the estimated 800,000 federal employees furloughed on November 14, less than half that number (260,000) were furloughed on December 16, 1995. Table 1 in the appendix shows furloughed and excepted from furlough federal employees as of January 4, 1996. The Dellinger memorandum points out that significant government spending is not only authorized but mandatory during a shutdown period. Not all government functions are funded with annual appropriations. Some operate under multi-year appropriations and others operate under indefinite appropriations provisions that do not 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid., p. 2. 69 U.S. Department of Justice. Office of the Attorney General. Letter Legal Opinion of Attorney General Benjamin R. Civiletti to the President. Washington, April 25, 1980, p.6. CRS-19 require passage of annual appropriations legislation. Social Security is a prominent example of a program that operates under an indefinite appropriation. In such cases, benefit checks continue to be honored by the treasury, because there is no lapse in the relevant appropriations. 70 The prelude to the ongoing funding impasse was the threatened or actual veto by President Clinton of at least six of the appropriations bills pending in Congress. At the outset, a major issue of disagreement between the Republicanpassed budget proposal to balance the federal budget in seven years and the Administration's ten-year counter-proposal, with each side presenting dramatically different blueprints, in terms of spending, federal cut-back proposals, and long-term funding priorities. When the first continuing resolution was vetoed, President Clinton told Congress that he would sign a clean bill that dealt only with interim funding of the government. Since then, although agreement appears to have been reached on the timetable for reaching a balanced budget, the other hurdles cited remain. Insofar as Congress and the legislative branch are concerned, most presidents have routinely signed the legislative branch appropriations act, and they have not had to face shutdown action because of a lapse in appropriations. This year, however, President Clinton at first vetoed it,71 thereby relegating Congress and the legislative branch agencies to a shutdown status similar to the executive branch. The President subsequently signed the legislative branch appropriations act on November 19, 1995. The Constitution (Article II, Section 1) forbids the salary of the President or of Article III judges (Article III, Section 1) to be reduced while they are in office, a provision that effectively guarantees their compensation regardless of any shutdown action. 72 There is a permanent appropriation for salaries of Members of Congress (see 2 USC 31, note) but not for legislative staff. In general, House and Senate staff, although affected by a shutdown, have in the past reported to work. 70 Government Operations/Lapse in Appropriations, pp. 3-4. 71 H.R. 1854 was vetoed October 3, 1995. See: Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1996--Veto Message from the President of the United States. (H. Doc. No. 104-122) Congressional Record, v. 141, October 6, 1995. p. H 9741-9742. H.R. 2492, a Legislative Branch Appropriations Act for Fiscal 1996 identical to H.R. 1854, passed the House October 31 and passed the Senate November 2. The bill was signed into law on November 19, 1995 (P.L. 104-53). 72 The President's salary is funded under the Treasury, Postal Service, and General Government Appropriations Act, H.R. 2020. On November 15, both the House and the Senate agreed to the conference report (H.Rept. 104-291) and the bill was signed into law on November 19, 1995 (P.L. 104-52). The judiciary will be funded through the Commerce, Justice, State, and Judiciary Appropriations Act of Fiscal 1996, H.R. 2076. President Clinton vetoed the bill on December 19, 1995, and a vote to override failed on January 3, 1996. CRS-20 Bills were introduced in Congress that would greatly mitigate the effects of a federal shutdown. Representatives George W. Gekas (D-Pa.), James P. Moran (D-Va.), and Albert Russell Wynn (D-Md.) introduced bills that would have permitted the federal government to avoid shutdown during a funding lapse by authorizing a permanent continuing funding resolution to take effect during such periods. The effect of any such authorization would be to ensure uninterrupted government operations funded at the level of the preceding fiscal year and uninterrupted federal employee pay.73 Similar recommendations have been endorsed by the General Accounting Office over the years. 74 Proposals to Avoid Shutdowns: Automatic Continuing Resolutions Public dissatisfaction over the 1995-1996 federal government shutdowns appears to have spurred a more positive negotiating environment in 1997 when Congress and the White House reached a budget agreement leading to a balanced federal budget by the year 2002. Republican congressional leaders have proposed legislation to preclude future federal government shutdowns in the event of an impasse between Congress and the White House over enactment of appropriations bills after the start of the fiscal year. To that end, on April 10, 1997, Senator John McCain (R-Ariz.) introduced S.547, The Government Shutdown Prevention Act, co-sponsored by six other Senators. 75 In the House, similar legislation was offered as an amendment to H.R. 1469, the 1997 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, by Rep. George W. Gekas (R_Pa.).76 Both the House and Senate versions of this legislation propose essentially the same goal, the creation of an automatic continuing funding resolution for fiscal year 1998 in the event all appropriations bills are not enacted by October 1,1998, the beginning of the fiscal year. The sole difference between the respective proposals is the level of funding proposed in the continuing resolution: 75%,98%, and 100% ofFY1997 spending levels. Senator McCain's bill would fund the resolution at 98%; Representative Gekas' amendment would fund it at 75%, and the final version of the amendment incorporated into H.R. 1469, funded it at 100%. Opponents of the shutdown provision maintain that it would violate terms of the recent balanced budget agreement reached by the White House and the Republican leadership, and that it would impede future budgetary negotiations and weaken incentives for reaching agreement on fiscal priorities if automatic funding were assured, no matter what the impasse. Additional concerns were that a funding freeze is a de facto funding cut because of inflation, and that proponents of the measure would use it to curtail programs they wished to cut. 73 See 104th Congress H.R. 2006, H.R. 2007 (7/11/95-Gekas); H.R. 2069 (7/19/95Moran); H.R. 2184 (8/3/95-Moran); and H.R. 2273 (9/5/95-Wynn). 74 Funding Gaps Jeopardize Federal Government Operations. pp.37-47. 75 McCain, John. Remarks in the Senate. Congressional Record, Daily Edition, v. 143, Apr. 10, 1997. p. S3018. 76 Congressional Record, Daily Edition, v. 143, May 14, 1997, p. H2601. CRS-21 Supporters of the shutdown amendment counter that the negative impact of the 1995-1996 federal shutdowns on both the public and private sectors was so great that future shutdowns should not be permitted. Proponents also argue that key entitlement programs, such as social security, would be protected, and because the provision applies only to FY1998, any long-term affect on budgetary negotiations and deflationary impact on agency funding would be minimal. It should be noted that the shutdown provision is similar to an option to forestall possible federal shutdown action which had been proposed by the General Accounting Office (GAO) as far back as 1981. Among other suggestions proffered on this subject, the 1981 GAO proposal would, "Provide a permanent continuing resolution to provide authority to continue all operations at some specified level, such as the average expenditures for the preceding fiscal year."77 H.R. 1469 was passed by the House on May 15,1997, and by the Senate on June 5, 1997. Because it contained the government shutdown provision, there was strong opposition to it by both the Democratic leadership and by President Clinton, who vetoed it on June 9, 1997. On June 12, 1997, Republican leaders in the House and Senate agreed on a compromise plan to remove the shutdown provision from H.R. 1469, and to vote on it as a separate bill. Stripped of the shutdown and other amendments, President Clinton signed H.R. 1469 into law the same day. On June 17, 1997, both Representatives Thomas M. Davis (R-Va.) and George W. Gekas (R-Pa) introduced bills, H.R. 1912 and H.R. 1916, to prevent government shutdowns. Both measures would provide for continuing appropriations (at 100% ofthe rate of operations provided for in FY1997) in the absence of regular appropriations for FY1998. The bills were referred to the House Committee on Appropriations. Neither bill has been ordered to be reported. Debt Ceiling Impasse It was feared that federal agencies and employees would also experience the negative fiscal effects of the failure by Congress and the White House to agree on lifting the current federal debt ceiling. As was noted earlier, President Clinton, on November 13, 1995, vetoed debt ceiling legislation. The President had said that unless "a clean debt ceiling bill" had been offered by the Congress, he would be forced to take veto action. Treasury Secretary Robert E. Rubin announced on November 15 that he was taking action to "save the U.S. government from the first default in history."78 Secretary Rubin has authorized withdrawal of the entire $21.5 77 Funding Gaps Jeopardize Federal Government Operations. p. 38. 78 Clay Chandler, Rubin acts to prevent default. The Washington Post, November 16, 1995. p. AI, A30. CRS-22 billion held in the federal employees' thrift savings plan known as the G-fund and $39.8 billion of the $350 billion reportedly held in the Civil Service Retirement Fund. 79 Although federal employee unions have expressed alarm over this allocation of federal retirement investments, Secretary Rubin has given assurances that not only will the funds be fully restored, but that he is legally bound to do SO.80 On March 29, P.L. 104-121 (H.R. 3136; 110 Stat. 847) was enacted, raising the debt ceiling to $5.5 trillion. Shutdown Process The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is responsible for issuing instructions to agencies on implementing a federal shutdown, including the furloughing of "non-essential" federal employees. Throughout the shutdown period, agencies are apprised of the latest developments in resolving the budgetary impasse. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM), on the other hand, provides guidance and technical assistance to the agencies regarding personnel management issues, especially pay and benefits administration, during a federal furlough. On July 26, 1995, OMB Director Alice Rivlin directed agencies to defer action on furloughs or other cutback actions pending completion of a government-wide plan. 81 Concurrently, White House Chief of Staff Leon E. Panetta requested that agencies submit contingency plans for shutting down the government for possibly as long as two months. 82 On August 22, 1995, Ms. Rivlin issued a new directive to federal agencies, which effectively rescinded her earlier memorandum, and instructed them to review their contingency shutdown plans, conform them to the Dellinger ruling, and submit them to OMB no later than September 5, 1995. 83 On September 19, 1995, Ms. Rivlin testified before a joint hearing of the Senate Budget Committee and the House Budget Committee that contingency plans had been received from virtually all agencies except the Department of Defense. 84 79 For a discussion of the debt limit issue, see The Debt Limit, a CRS Issue Brief No. 93054, by Philip D. Winters. Updated regularly. 80 Bluestein, Paul. With a Few Key Maneuvers, Treasury Avoids Default. $25 Billion Accounting Shift on a Hyattsville Computer Keeps U.S. Below Debt Limit. Washington Post, Nov. 17, 1995, p. A20. 81 U.S. Executive Office of the President. Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Memorandum for Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies: Planning in Light of Appropriations Actions. Washington, July 26, 1995. 82 Devroy, Ann and Stephen Barr. "Panetta Asks Agencies for Contingency Plans on Federal Shutdown." Washington Post, July 29, 1995, p. A7. 83 U.S. Executive Office of the President. Office of Management and Budget. Agency Plans for Operations during Funding Hiatus. Washington, Aug. 22, 1995. 84 Effects of Potential Government Shutdown, p. 8. CRS-23 On December 6, 1995, a hearing was held by the House Government Reform and Oversight's Subcommittee on Civil Service on the implementation of the first federal government shutdown and problems stemming therefrom. The chairman of the committee, Representative William F. Clinger, Jr. (R-Pa.) and the chairman of the subcommittee, Representative John L. Mica (D-Fla.) both raised questions about shutdown implementation policy and the adequacy of agency shutdown contingency plans submitted to OMB prior to beginning shutdown operations. Representative Clinger noted disparities in the composition and scope of agency contingency plans that ranged from 2 to 174 pages in length and were inconsistent in retaining and furloughing employees who performed similar functions. 85 Questions raised included why large agencies such as the Department of Veterans Affairs and the Social Security Administration (SSA), which dispense massive social welfare services, greatly reduced those services below authorized levels. SSA, for instance, went to skeletal staffing, which led to immense backlogs and the need to summon many employees back from furlough. 86 The differential treatment of certain public safety functions was also questioned. The Mine Safety and Health Administration had more than 1,400 safety inspectors on duty, whereas the Occupational Safety and Health Administration retained only 250, and no child labor inspectors were retained at all. 87 Representative Mica questioned the release of all but 136 ofthe Department of Housing and Urban Development's 12,000 staff, even though funds appeared available to retain many more and stated, "Despite the advanced planning, the execution of the shutdown was disorganized and illogical at best and chaotic in other instances. 88 Challenging that view was Deputy OMB Director, John A. Koskinen, who played a leading policy role in the implementation of the government shutdowns. Mr. Koskinen, in testimony before the December 6 House hearing, strongly defended the role of the Office of Management and Budget and that of the federal agencies in shutting down large sectors of the government in an orderly fashion and in operating those sectors which remained open once the shutdowns began. Mr. Koskinen described the situation, as follows: I would challenge the question of whether it was chaos....it appeared to us that, in fact, and the agencies' response was, that the shutdown ran smoothly....Our judgment is that the agencies made the right judgments, 85 Government Shutdown:What's Essential? pp. 9-10. 86 The callback of employees subsequently became moot when the shutdown ended before they were to report for work. 87 Ibid. 88 U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Reform and Oversight. What's Essential in a Government Shutdown? Media Advisory. Washington, December 5, 1995, pp. 1-2. CRS-24 and they informed their employees in a proper time. Clearly, this time around, everyone who was a non-emergency employee the last time will have fair notice of that. As I say, it is not my goal in life to say "The trains ran on time," but the shutdown, we think ran efficiently and effectively. We are prepared to do it again if necessary. Mr. Koskinen also took note of the role of Congress in the events leading up to the partial federal shutdowns and testified: We think [another federal shutdown] would be a major unfortunate and hopefully avoidable event, and we would hope that the Congress, if it cannot complete the work on the appropriations bills by the middle of December, would pass a continuing resolution to allow the government to continue to function. 89 ESSENTIAL SERVICES AND PERSONNEL A memorandum issued by OMB in 1980 defines "essential" government services and "essential" employees as those o Providing for the national security, including the conduct of foreign relations essential to the national security or the safety of life and property; o Providing for benefit payments and the performance of contract obligations under no-year or multi-year or other funds remaining available for those purposes; o Conducting essential activities to the extent that they protect life and property, including: -- Medical care of inpatients and emergency outpatient care; -- Activities essential to ensure continued public health and safety, including safe use of food, drugs, and hazardous materials; -- The continuance of air traffic control and other transportation safety functions and the protection of transport property; -- Border and coastal protection and surveillance; -- Protection of federal lands, buildings, waterways, equipment and other property owned by the United States; -- Care of prisoners and other persons in the custody of the United States; -- Law enforcement and criminal investigations; -- Emergency and disaster assistance; -- Activities that ensure production of power and maintenance of the power distribution system; -- Activities essential to the preservation of the essential elements of the money and banking system of the United States, including borrowing and tax collection activities of the Treasury; and 89 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 257. CRS-25 -- Activities necessary to maintain protection of research property.90 The Dellinger opinion basically reaffirms the definition of "essential" government services and employees set forth in the 1980 OMB directive and serves as a guideline to Administration shutdown plans. Pursuant to it and White House directions to agencies through OMB, agencies are required to determine which jobs fit these definitions, enumerate them in their individual shutdown plans, and instruct their employees accordingly. Since the definition of "emergency" has been more narrowly drawn, pursuant to the 1990 amendment to the Antideficiency Act, the likelihood is that in the future fewer federal Those rated "essential," although employees may be rated "essential." guaranteed to be paid retroactively, will not receive compensation until the appropriations bill for their agency is enacted and signed. FEDERAL FURLOUGHS The immediate and critical effect of an impending government-wide shutdown is the need to place all non-essential federal employees on furlough. Furloughs are the "placing of an employee in a temporary non-duty, non-pay status because of a lack of work or funds, or other nondisciplinary reasons."91 There are two different kinds of furloughs: adverse action furloughs and reduction-in-force (RIF) furloughs. Furloughs occurring during a federal shutdown period are essentially adverse action furloughs, although they are commonly referred to as "emergency" furloughs as well. They are administered under the same authority (5 CFR 752) as the adverse action furlough, except that the 30-day notice on furloughs does not apply in shutdown or "emergency" situations. Under adverse action/shutdown/emergency furloughs, federal employees are placed in a temporary, non-duty, non-pay status for 22 working days, or 30 calendar days, or fewer. 92 90 U.S. Executive Office of the President. Office of Management and Budget. Memorandum from the Director of OMB to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies: Agency Operations in the Absence of Appropriations. Washington, Sept. 30, 1980, pp. 1-2. 91 See 5 USC 7511. 92 Reduction-in-Force (RIF) furloughs, on the other hand, are administered under the authority of 5 CFR 351. RIF furloughs last for more than 22 working days or 30 calendar days, but not longer than a year. RIF furloughs require a 60-day notice (120 days for Department of Defense employees), except that when a RIF is caused by unforseen circumstances, a notice period of less than 60 days, but not less than 30 days may be authorized. To mitigate their effect, RIF furloughs may be implemented on consecutive days or discontinuously for one or two days per week or month. Agencies can achieve budget savings from other agency accounts, such as travel, training, overtime, office equipment purchases, etc., and implement hiring or promotion freezes, or do both to reduce the need for RIF furloughing. CRS-26 While in furlough status, federal employees may seek other jobs in the private sector (except those that would violate conflict-of-interest or Hatch Act statutes) and elsewhere in the federal government as well, provided they receive agency approval. They remain eligible for unemployment insurance, although the length of any furlough and differences in eligibility rules among states and localities may preclude any significant benefits. Repayment of any such benefits must be made by a federal employee if the employee is later retroactively paid in full for furloughed time. Federal employees may not volunteer to work for their agency in an unpaid status. 93 Employees subject to adverse action furloughs (includes shutdown/emergency furloughs) have clearly defined legal rights, as follows: o 30 days' advance written notice by agency (may be waived in shutdown/emergency furlough actions); o 7 calendar days for employee to answer orally and in writing to the proposed notice; o Right of representation by attorney; o A timely written decision by the agency; and o An appeal right to the Merit Systems Protection Board (See 5 CFR 1201, Subpart B.) Shutdown furloughs are not considered a break in service and are generally creditable, for retaining benefits, seniority, and for o Career tenure, the first 30 calendar days of each non-pay period is creditable service; o Completion of probation, an aggregate of 22 workdays in a non-pay status is creditable service; o Time-in-grade requirements, non-pay status is creditable service; o Retirement purposes, an aggregate non-pay status of 6 months in any calendar year is creditable service; o Health benefits, enrollment continues for no more than 365 days, continuously, in a non-pay status; o Life insurance, enrollment continues for 12 consecutive months in a non-pay status, without cost to the employees or to the agency; and 93 See 31 USC 1342. CRS-27 o Annual and sick leave, an aggregate of 6 months non-pay status in a year is creditable service. 94 Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP) benefits continue for a year in a non-pay status, and the government continues to pay its share of the health premium costs. However, federal employees are still liable for their share of their health plan premium. They may continue to pay their share while on furlough, or they may elect to have their premium costs accumulate and have them deducted in a lump-sum from their pay once they return to work. 95 Federal unions playa key role in planned (though not shut-down) furlough situations, because agencies are required to negotiate about their terms and impact on employees. If the union and the agency fail to agree on furlough implementation, the union may take the issue to the Federal Service Impasses Panel, under the Federal Labor Relations Authority. Although there were an estimated 800,000 federal employees rated as "nonessential" and furloughed during the most recent shutdown, they were a minority of the federal workforce. Historically, that has been true. In 1982, for instance, staff estimates prepared by the then House Post Office and Civil Service Committee showed 241,508 executive branch employees dismissed as "non-essential" in the federal shutdown that took place on November 23, 1981, or 12% of total executive branch employment, which was 2,081,110 at that time. 96 The term "shutdown of the federal government" is a significant misnomer, since a majority of current government expenditures occur under multi-year, permanent or indefinite appropriations that do not lapse on the expiration of the current fiscal year, and a large majority of the federal workforce have heretofore reported for duty. They include most DOD civilian employees (849,099) and all U.S. Postal Service employees (837,540), which together comprise 58% of federal employment--2,929,913--as of March 1995. 97 RECENT SHUTDOWN EXPERIENCES There have been several partial shutdowns of the federal government over the past two decades. All were caused by funding lapses, and all resulted in furloughing of some federal employees. Prior to 1995, most of them were quite 94 U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Office of the Director. Memorandum to Directors of Personnel: Personnel Implications of Sequestration. Washington, Aug. 15, 1990, p. 7. 95 U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Interagency Advisory Group. Memorandum to Directors of Personnel. OPM's Updated Guidance on Furloughs. Washington, Aug. 1, 1995 (unpublished), p. 10. 96 Cost of Shutting Down Federal Government, p. 14. 97 U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Office of Workforce Information. Federal Civilian Workforce Statistics. Employment and Trends as ofMarch 1995., Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., June, 1995. 76 p. CRS-28 brief. One, which took place on November 23, 1981, lasted one day; another, on October 17, 1986, lasted half a day. Prior to 1995, the most recent took place over the Columbus Day Holiday weekend in October 1990, and its effects were mitigated by the holiday. Federal facilities not otherwise closed over the weekend period, notably national parks and museums, were shut down, but agreement was reached between the President and Congress on the day after the holiday and a longer furlough was averted. 98 In 1995, however, partial federal shutdowns successively set new records for duration. The first, which took place from November 13 to November 19, lasted six days. The second, which began on December 16, 1995, less than one month later, continued until January 6, 1996, and lasted 21 days. Appendix Table 2 provides a summary of appropriations funding gaps, fiscal years 1977-1996. In the wake of federal government partial shutdowns, questions have continually arisen about whether federal employees furloughed because of government shutdowns would receive retroactive pay for furlough days once they are returned to on-duty status. There is no assurance of such reimbursement. However, in both recent shutdowns, as well as in all prior shutdowns, federal employees placed on furlough were paid retroactively when Congress passed and the President signed subsequent legislation authorizing such payment. Federal government contract employees, on the other hand, are not covered under any federal employee retroactive pay provisions. COSTS OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SHUTDOWNS The estimated costs of shutting down the federal government during a lapse in appropriations are incomplete and sketchy at best. That is especially true in the brief shutdown periods that occurred prior to 1995. In those federal shutdown experiences, the General Accounting Office (GAO) attempted to evaluate such government-wide costs, but incomplete and lack of response by various agencies hampered this undertaking. Certain limited costs have been identified over the years, however. GAO found costs of about $1 million resulting from having to issue split or late paychecks in October 1979 and approximately $1.1 million from having to prepare agency shutdown plans in 1980. 99 In 1991, GAO found that the estimated partial costs for the federal government shutdown over the Columbus Day Holiday week-end in 1990 was $1.7 million. GAO also prepared hypothetical cost estimates keyed to a threeday workweek shutdown and projected potential costs at approximately $400 98 U.S. General Accounting Office. Government Shutdowns: Data on Effects of 1990 Columbus Day Weekend Funding Lapse. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Oct. 1990, 36 p. (Hereafter cited as Government Shutdowns.) For a discussion of funding gaps since 1981, see eRS Report 95-77: Continuing Resolutions and Funding Gaps: Fiscal years 1981-1995, by Edward Davis and Robert Keith, Dec. 30, 1994. 99 Funding Gaps Jeopardize Federal Government Operations, p. 111. CRS-29 million. The difficulties of compiling such cost data were summarized by GAO as follows: The data provided by the agencies were prepared in a very short time frame (generally in less than 2 days). Thus, they can not be considered a complete story of the effects that delays in the enactment of funding legislation would have on agencies' operations and delivery of program services to the public. When actual data were not available, we asked the agencies to estimate. Thus, the data, particularly concerning costs and savings, should often be viewed as preliminary estimates by the agencies. 100 In addition, certain intangible costs such as lost productivity and adverse affects on federal employee morale were widespread throughout the agencies, according to the GAO.lOl Cost assessment data for the 1995-1996 partial federal government shutdowns is also incomplete. In the December 16, 1995 to January 6, 1996 shutdown, however, one major cost--daily payroll--has been estimated at approximately $44 million per day, assuming 284,000 furloughed federal employees. 102 In addition, partial costs of the November 13-19 shutdown were estimated by Mr. John Koskinen, Deputy Director for Management, OMB, before the Subcommittee on Civil Service, House Government Reform and Oversight Committee at federal shutdown hearings held on December 6 and 14, 1995. Preliminary estimates range from $700 to $750 million, with approximately $400 to $450 million being payroll costs for furloughed employees. 103 On January 11, 1996, unofficial cost estimates obtained from OMB show an aggregate cost for federal employees furloughed in both shutdowns (payroll cost only) at $1.1 billion. 104 On February 6, 1996, OMB released revised shutdown cost estimates. "The overall cost of the ...shutdowns is estimated to be over $1.4 billion and created numerous backlogs in government services that will, in many cases, take months to overcome and will slow the delivery of future services."105 Shortly thereafter, in his radio broadcast to the Nation on Saturday, January 20, 1996, President Clinton cited the combined cost of both shutdowns at $1.5 billion. lOG Difficulties in computing the costs of a federal government shutdown have been a recurring problem over the years. In 1986, for instance, OMB Public 100 "Government Shutdowns," pp. 2-3. 101 Ibid., pp. 10-11, 18-20, 24. 102 Figure supplied to CRS by the Office of Budget Review, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), January 2, 1996. 103 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p 226. 104 Figure supplied to CRS by the Office of Budget Review, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), January 11, 1995. 105 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 268. lOG "Clinton Blames GOP for Costly Federal Shutdowns." Reuters. Washington Post, Jan. 21, 1996, p. A18. CRS-30 Affairs Director Edwin Dale stated, "There has never been an accurate figure for the costs of these things [shutdowns] and there never will be."107 Although congressional hearings were held in the wake of the 1986 federal government shutdown, and payroll costs for the 556,000 federal workers sent home were set at $28 million, Mr. Dale questioned whether this was a legitimate cost. "This estimate is misleading, because they are trying to put a value on the price of work lost. It's not a cash cost," Dale said. lOS Ten years later, on December 6, 1995 at a congressional hearing on the November 1995 federal shutdown, the Deputy Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services, Dr. Walter Broadnax, using similar language, testified that when you factor in "employee morale" and "non-personnel costs," the overall cost of a shutdown is "extremely difficult to determine."109 Other cost assessment difficulties were described by Mr. Koskinen, at the December 6, 1995 House hearing: Significant additional costs that cannot be determined at this time include interest payments to third parties required under the Prompt Payment Act and the Cash Management Improvement Act when the Federal government does not pay its bills on time and additional personnel costs necessary to deal with the backlog of work,uo Mr. Koskinen also made reference to the intangible costs of federal shutdowns to the public at large: As significant as the monetary costs are the denial of basic and important services to the American public. Millions ofAmericans were inconvenienced or will be delayed in the receipt of payments and benefits to which they are entitled. lll 107 Associated Press. "Shutdown Not a Cash Cost," Washington Post, November 30, 1986, p. A25. lOS Ibid. 109 Government Shutdown: What's Essential? p. 23. 110 Ibid., p. 226. 111 Ibid., p. 220. CRS-31 APPENDIX Table 1. Furloughed and Excepted-From-Furlough Federal Employees as of January 4, 1996 Table 2. Appropriations Funding Gaps: Fiscal Years 1977-1996 CRS-32 Table 1. Furloughed and Excepted-From-Furlough Federal Employees as of January 4, 1996 Employees on furlough Employees excepted from furlough Agriculture (Forest Service Only) 31,000 8,850 Commerce 22,501 15,314 Education 4,510 550 HHS 25,700 34,360 HUD 9,839 1,888 Interior 48,000 22,600 Justice 12,613 85,956 Labor 14,227 3,763 State 8,086 18,540 Veterans Affairs 32,962 203,203 Environmental Protection Agency 18,159 720 NASA 19,980 1,290 Small Business Administration 2,522 2,650 Social Security Administration 10,203 55,992 25 346 Armed Forces Retirement Home 234 719 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 195 56 1,985 1,552 Cemeterial Expenses, Army 80 50 Commission on Civil Rights 95 19 Consumer Product Safety Commission 447 40 Corporation for National/Community Service 427 66 2,504 287 420 25 2,131 140 200 5 Agency American Battle Monuments Commission AID Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Export-Import Bank Federal Communications Commission Federal Maritime Commission CRS-33 Agency Federal Mediation and Conciliation Employees on furlough Employees excepted from furlough 287 2 -- 979 1,909 482 421 9 -- 905 National Labor Relations Board 2,012 5 National Science Foundation 1,233 24 NEA 142 6 NEH 166 6 Office of US Trade Representative 116 50 OPIC -- 175 OSTP 9 27 851 382 1,003 529 RTC (all other) -- 3,921 RTC Inspector General --- 223 2,846 Selective Service System 180 1 Smithsonian Institution 4,765 779 208 15 2,274 5,261 284,621 475,608 Federal Trade Commission FEMA International Trade Commission National Credit Union Administration Peace Corps Railroad Retirement Board Securities and Exchange Commission US Holocaust Memorial Council US Information Agency Agencies/programs without enacted appropriations Source: u.s. Office of Management and Budget. Management. Washington, D.C., January 4, 1996. Office of the Deputy Director for CRS-34 Table 2. Appropriations Funding Gaps: Fiscal Years 1977-1996 Fiscal year Date gap commenced 1 Full day(s) of gaps Date gap terminated2 1977 Thursday 09-30-76 10 - Friday through second Sunday Monday 10-11-76 1978 Friday 09-30-77 12 - Saturday through second Wednesday 8 - Tuesday through second Tuesday 8 - Thursday through second Thursday Thursday 10-13-77 Monday 10-31-77 Wednesday 11-30-77 Wednesday. 11-09-77 Friday 12-09-77 1979 Saturday 09-30-78 17 - Sunday through third Tuesday Wednesday 10-18-78 1980 Sunday 09-30-79 11 - Monday through second Thursday Friday 10-12-79 1981 [none] 1982 Friday 11-20-81 2 - Saturday, Sunday Monday 11-23-81 1983 Thursday 9-30-82 Friday 12-17-82 1 - Friday 3 - Saturday, Sunday, Monday Saturday 10-2-82 Tuesday 12-21-82 1984 Thursday 11-10-83 3 - Friday, Saturday, Sunday Monday 11-14-83 1985 Sunday 9-30-84 Wednesday 10-3-84 2 - Monday, Tuesday 1 - Thursday Wednesday 10-3-84 Friday 10-5-84 1986 [none] CRS-35 Fiscal year Date gap commenced 1 Full day(s) of gaps Date gap terminated2 1987 Thursday 10-16-86 1 - Friday Saturday 10-18-86 1988 Friday 12-18-87 1 - Saturday Sunday 12-20-87 1989 [none] 1990 [none] 1991 Friday 10-5-90 3 - Saturday, Sunday, Monday Tuesday 10-9-90 1992 [none] 1993 [none] 1994 [none] 1995 [none] 1996 Tuesday 11-13-95 Saturday 12-15-95 6 - Tuesday through Sunday 21 - Three weeks Sunday 11-19-95 Saturday 1-6-96 Source: For years prior to 1996, data are from Continuing Resolutions and Funding Gaps: Selected Data for Fiscal Years 1977-1995. eRS Report 95-995 GOV by Robert Keith and Edward Davis. September 25, 1995. 1. Gap commenced at midnight of the date indicated. 2. Gap terminated during the date indicated because of the enactment of a full-year continuing resolution or another short-term continuing resolution.